LABORATORY

MANUAL

UNIT-I
(GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY)

Compiled and Edited

Dr. Rajesh Mandil

Dr. Shweta Anand
Dr. Rachna Varma

2020

Department of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Veterinary Pharmacology &

Toxicology, SVPUA&T, Modipurm, Meerut-250110Meerut-250110

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The manual has been prepared for teaching practical’s to undergraduate students on General
Pharmacology (Unit-I) as per Veterinary
Council of India syllabi and MSVE 2016. The Unit-
I consists of information on handling and washing of
laboratory wares, operation of commonly used
laboratory instruments, concept of good laboratory
practices (GLP), pharmacy appliances, principles
of compounding and dispensing, metrology, systems of weights and measures, pharmacy
calculations, pharmaceutical processes and dosage forms, prescription writing and
incompatibilities, drug standards and regulations, custody of poisons, compounding and
dispensing of powders, ointments, mixtures, liniments, lotions, liquors, tinctures, emulsions,
and electuaries etc. An attempt has been made, through this manual, to acquaint with
pharmacy and experimental approach to the course contents. This manual will serve not only
as a conventional laboratory exercise book, but also the basic information about the topic
will supplement to the course curriculum.
The authors duly acknowledge the literature cited from the books. Fundamental of
Experimental pharmacology by M. N. Gosh., The Pharmacological Basis of therapeutics,
Macmiffan and Remington Pharmacy, Lippincott Wilmans & Wilkinsons’.

The financial assistance provided by ICAR is also duly acknowledged.

Authors

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 FORWORD
I am very happy to go through the practical manual of the General
Pharmacology (Unit I) course for the students of IIIrd Year BVSc & AH degree
programme has been prepared by the Dr. Rajesh Mandil, Dr. Shweta Anand and Dr.
Rachna Varma as per the Veterinary Council of India’s. This manual is based on the
syllabi of “Minimum Standards of Veterinary Education Regulations (MSVE) 2016”.
This manual will be helpful for providing hands on practical approach amongst
students. The manual has unit I included practical’s related pharmacy.
I convey my heartfelt greetings to all the faculty members of the Department
of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology for preparing this manual.

(Rajbir Singh)
Dean, COVAS

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 INDEX OF PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Sr. Title of Practical Exercise Page Date Signature of

No. No. Instructor

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 Exercise 1
Objective: Concept of good laboratory practices (GLP)
Good laboratory practices (GLP) are widely accepted methods to carry out activities or
operations in a laboratory. GLP applies to non-clinical studies conducted for the assessment
of the safety or efficacy of chemicals/ pharmaceuticals products to man, animals and the
environment. The main aim of GLP is to assure that studies produce data that are reliable,
repeatable, auditable, and globally accepted. GLP is part of the quality assurance that ensures
that organizations consistently produce and control goods to a high quality standard.
Principles of GLP aim to ensure and promote safety, consistency, high quality, and reliability
of chemicals in the process of non-clinical and laboratory testing. GLP is not limited to
chemicals and also applies to medical devices, food additives, food packaging, colour
additives and other non-pharmaceutical products or ingredients. It is also a quality
system concerned with the organizational process and conditions under which non-clinical
health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded,
archived and reported. Good laboratory practice is also an important for safeguarding the
health and safety of laboratory personnel. GLP was first introduced in New
Zealand and Denmark in 1972, and later in the US in 1978 in response to the Industrial
BioTest Labs scandal. It was followed a few years later by the Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) Principles of GLP in 1992; the OECD has since
helped promulgate GLP to many countries. 
The authorities and laboratory organizations say that these practices help ensure
safety. GLP, a data quality system, is not the same as standards for laboratory safety -
appropriate gloves, glasses and clothing to handle lab materials safely. They also have a
positive influence on the quality of the result. Good laboratory practices are not guidelines;
they have the force of law.  GLP principles are mainly includes:
1. Organization and Personnel
 Management-Responsibilities
 Sponsor-Responsibilities
 Study Director-Responsibilities

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  Principal Investigator-Responsibilities
 Study Personnel-Responsibilities
2. Quality assurance program
 Quality Assurance Personnel
3. Facilities
 Test System Facilities
 Facilities for Test and Reference Items
4. Equipment, reagents and materials
5. Test systems
 Physical/Chemical
 Biological
6. Test and reference items
7. Standard operating procedures
8. Performance of study
 Study Plan
 Conduct of Study
9. Reporting of results
10.Archival - Storage of Records and Reports

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 Exercise 2
Objective: Introduction to Pharmacy and pharmacy appliance?

Pharmacy is a branch of science that deals with art of preparing, compounding and
dispensing of drugs in suitable and convenient dosage forms, generally, for immediate use of
the human being and animals patients. The various processes, viz. collection, preservation,
preparation, standardization and storage of drugs come under the preview of pharmacy.
The above definition includes various definitions, the important ones are compounding and
dispensing. The term compounding refers to the art of mixing, combining or otherwise
treating the prepared drugs so that they may be dispensed according to prescription. The term
dispensing refers to placing of compounded drugs in suitable containers such as bottles,
boxes, papers etc., wrapping and labeling of the dispensed drugs.
Types of Pharmacy:
Extemporaneous pharmacy: compounding and dispensing of a drug as per the prescription
of a qualified practitioner is referred to as extemporaneous pharmacy.
Official pharmacy: compounding and dispensing of a drug as per the formula given in
pharmacopoeia is referred to as official pharmacy.
Facilities in a Pharmacy Laboratory:
(a) Floor should be clean.
(b) Water availability should be adequate.
(c) There should be sufficient light and space.
(d) Proper ventilation should be maintained.
(e) The racks and almirah should be within reach.

Pharmacy fittings:
(a) Following are the equipments required for the Veterinary pharmacy
experiments:
(b) Hand scale
(c) Pillar scale
(d) Ointment slab
(e) Spatula
(f) Mortar and Pestle
(g) Scissors
(h) Gallipots
(i) Bottles- wide mouthed, narrow mouthed, glass stopper
(j) Dispensing vials
(k) Pill boxes

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 (l) Gelatin capsules
(m)Powder Knife
(n) Mouth gags
(o) Ointment jars
(p) Spirit lamps
(q) Measuring cylinders
(r) Chemical balance
(s) Water bath
(t) Beakers
(u) Pill tiles
(v) Stomach tube
(w) Mouth gag

General Instructions for Pharmacy Practical

i. Experiment should be done by an individual independently and any sort of help
should be taken from the instructor or member of the laboratory staff.
ii. Stock bottles and used equipments in the working area should not be accumulated to
reduce risk of errors and contaminations.
iii. Apron should be clean.
iv. The dispensing table and apparatus should be cleaned before and after use.
v. The prescription should be strictly followed and care should be taken about the drug
incompatibility.
vi. The required chemicals should be placed on table after going through prescription.
vii. The calculations should be worked out and checked.
viii. The required amount of drugs should be weighed/measured according to the
prescription.
ix. The practice of handling drugs with hand, mixing with fingers or pressing the cork
with teeth should be avoided.
x. The furnished preparation should be checked.
xi. The preparation in a container should be packed and labeled withthe name and
address of the owner.
xii. Before leaving the laboratory the articles on the table should be properly placed.

Labeling of Drugs
Labeling is important step for dispensing of medicines. No bottles or packets containing
drugs should be left unlabeled.
Points to be followed before labeling:
a) Non poisonous drugs should be written in bold letters with black ink on
white background.
b) Poisonous drugs should be written in bold letters with red ink on white
background with an extra label Poison in red colour.
c) Information should be written in English and in local language.

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 d) Ambiguous abbreviation which may have different meaning should not be
written.

Weighing of drug:
1. Test the balance for its accuracy.
2. Drug should not be placed directly on the pan.
3. Put a piece of paper, counterpoise it and transfer the drug to be weighed to the
paper.
4. Corrosive drug should be weighed on glass pans.
5. Weight should be placed in the pan in front of your left and the drug on the
other pan.
6. The balance should be at rest while putting or removing drugs and weights.
7. Wipe the balance clean after weighing.
8. Very minute quantities of drugs must be weighed only on a chemical balance.
There are two types of balances used in pharmacy lab:
9. Single beam equal arms balance: It consists of rigid beam divided into two
equal arms.
10. Single pan balance: Usually electronic balances are used to weigh small
quantities of drug.

Measuring:
1. For measuring of liquids, usually measuring vessels are employed.
2. Reading should be taken at the lowest level of the meniscus.
3. While pouring out liquids from the containers, keep the label side upper most
so that any liquid that may run down the bottle may not stain the label.
4. Catch hold of the drops of liquid hanging from the lips of the bottle by the
bottom of the stopper, before fixing the stopper.
5. Do not substitute one drug for the other, though the substituted drug may be
equally effective.
6. Write the word “poison” if so prescribed.

Some important terms use in pharmacy

Vehicles (excipient): The vehicle facilitates the administration of drugs. It dilutes the active
ingredients, acts as a solvent for soluble drugs, suspends insoluble drugs and masks the
odour and taste of nauseous drugs. It is rarely used for its own pharmacological action. The
use of vehicle for compounding different types of medicaments and dosage forms varies with
various types of vehicles.
Water: Distilled water or good potable water, boiled and cooled, should be used for drugs to
be administered orally. Sterilized distilled water is used for parenteral injections.
Medicinal water: These are used as preservatives, flavouring and sweetening agent e.g.
aqua chloroformi, aqua cinnamoni, aqua camphorae etc.

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Suspending agents: These are used for immiscible drugs e.g. gum acacia, gum tragacanth
casein, egg yolk etc.
Absorbent excipient: Calcium phosphate, kaolin, liquorice, soap, lactose etc.
Diluents for pills and powers: Calcium lactate, lactose etc.
Vehicle for pills: Gum acacia, gum tragacanth, wool fat.
Vehicle for bolus: Common mass i.e. equal parts of linseed meal and treacle.
Vehicle for electuaries: Treacle, honey and syrup.
Vehicle for irritant drugs: Linseed oil, mucilage of acacia, gruel.
Vehicle for liniments: Soap solution, bland oils, alcohol and water.
Vehicle for ointments: Paraffin (hard, soft or liquid), lanolin, suet and lard
Vehicle for suppositories: Oil of theobroma and glycerin.

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 Exercise 3
Objective: Principles of compounding and dispensing.

Compounding: Before compounding a drug combination, read the prescription thoroughly.

If there is any doubt regarding the names of a drug or its dose, immediately consult the
prescriber or refer to a standard text book. The prescription is registered in a register. Prepare
a label first by writing necessary information before actual dispensing is started. This will
help to remember the quantity of drugs to be used. Always remove the old labels from the
bottles before pouring-in the medicine.
Dispensing: The compounded drug may be in any dosage from and should be dispensed
accordingly. The various dosage forms are dispensed in the following was:
Powders: Powders are dispensed in folded papers. As far as possible clean and unused
papers should be used. The hygroscopic drugs are dispensed in waxed or paraffined papers.
After flapping all the powders, they are arranged in pairs, flap to flap or arrange them with
all the flaps in one direction except the last one which is turned in the opposite direction.
Encircle the folded powders with thread or elastic bands and dispense in envelops, cardboard
boxes or wide mouthed bottles. Encircle the folded powders with thread or plastic bands and
dispense in envelops, cardboard boxes or wide mouthed bottles.
Mixtures: Mixtures are dispensed in dispensing phials. Paper marks can be pasted to denote
the dose of the mixture. All the mixtures should be thoroughly shaken. The volatile and
poisonous drugs should be added in the last. Put a label “Shake well before use” when the
mixture does not form a complete solution.
Electuaries: These are medicinal pastes smeared on tongue and lips. These are dispensed in
gallipots (small earthen glazed pots) or waxed papers.
Pills: Pills are dispensed in pill boxes. The minimum size of the pill should be one gram. The
undersize pills are made one gram by mixing calcium lactate. The French chalk is used to
prevent the pills to stick together.
Balls: Each ball is wrapped in tissue paper. The size of the ball is made up to two ounces by
the addition of common mass.

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Liniment and lotions: Liniments and lotions are dispensed in blue distinctive bottles. Light
sensitive drugs should be kept in amber colored bottles. Liniment bottles should be labeled
as for external use only.
Ointments: Ointments are dispensed in gallipots.
Labeling: There should be no bottle or packet containing drugs without label. The labels
should be in bold, but plain letters. Black letters on white background for non poisonous
drugs and red letters on white background for poisons should be used. ‘Poisons’ or highly
potent drugs should have an extra label containing the word poison in red letters written in
English and in Vernacular language. Poisons should be kept in a separate almirah (wooden
or iron). The keys of the almirah should always be kept with the practitioner.

Q. No. 1

Q.No.2

Q.No.3

Q.No.4

Signature of Instructor Signature of Student

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 Exercise -4

Objective: Metrology, systems of weights and measures, pharmacy calculations.

Metrology is the study of weights and measures. In prescription writing, the metric system
(SI system) is preferred over other systems, but some times other systems of weights and
measures are also used. Therefore, it is necessary to have knowledge about all the systems of
weights and measures. The students of pharmacy and medical professions must learn various
systems of weights and measures and their relationship.
Weight is measure of gravitational force acting on a body, and is directly proportional to its
mass. The mass being constant, the weight of a body varies slightly with the latitude,
altitude, temperature and pressure.
MEASURE is the determination of volume or extent of a body. Temperature and pressure
have a pronounced effect on volume of liquids and gases. All standards of weights and
measures are regulated by government agencies of a particular country, e.g. Indian Bureau of
Standards (ISI). Mechanical devices to record weights are called balances.

Systems of Weights and Measures:

Various standards of weights and measures were adopted in ancient and medieval period
extended unto 16th century. These included Imperial (Troy) – Avoirdupois, Apothecary, and
Household etc. In the modern period, since 16 th century, the efforts have been deviated
towards scientific accuracy, simplicity and international uniformity. In a meeting in Paris on
Oct. 14, 1960, the General Conference on weights and measures adopted a definition for the
standard length; the meter is now defined as the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
the orange-red light of the krypton-86 isotope. The meter and kilogram are the fundamental
units which are based metric standards of length, mass and volume. A kilogram should be
identical with the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at its maximum density (at approx.
40C ). The liter is a secondary or derived unit of capacity or volume. The Metric (SI) system
of weights and measures, which is self-explanatory decimal system, is most widely accepted
and employed throughout the scientific world. The most of publications on drugs give
quantities and doses in metric system.

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Advantages of Metric System: The advantage of metric or decimal system is in its
simplicity, adoptability to every need. The principle merits are:
i) Every weight and measure has a simple relation to the initial unit, the meter.
ii) Every unit is multiplied/divided by same number (10, 10) of a lower unit to make one of
a higher unit, e.g. 3.45 g = 3 gram, 4 decigram and 5 centigram.
iii) Commensurability of units of weight, length and volume; e.g. 10 ml of water weights 10
g, 25 ml of water weights 25 g, 100 ml of water weighs 100g, 1 L of water weighs 1 kg.
iv) It is almost uniform adoption makes it an international system.

Metric or SI System
Weights (Mass): The basic unit of weight is gram (g). The prefixes indicating
multiplications are of Greek derivations (deka, 101 hecto, 102; kilo, 103; meg, 106; giga, 109;
tetra, 1012) and those of sub-divisions are of Latin derivations (deci, 10-1; centi, 10-2, milli, 10-
3
; micro, 10-6; nano, 10-9; pico, 10-12; femto, 10-15). The quantities between 1 gram and less
than 1 kilogram are expressed in gram (g) and between 1 milligram and less than 1 gram in
milligram (mg). Microgram (μg) and others sub-divisions of gram are mostly used in
quantitative analysis, biological studies etc.
Measures (volume): The basic unit of volume is litre (1 or L). The expressions of
multiplications and subdivisions of the basic unit, liter, are similar to those described for
weights. The quantities between 1 millilitre and less than 1 litre are expressed in milliliter
(ml). Microlitre (μ1) and others sub-divisions of litre are mostly used in quantitative
analysis, biological studies etc.

Imperial (Troy) System

1. Apothecaries System: It has been used for dispensing of drugs in the ancient time.
Weights: The basic unit is grain (gr)
20 gr = 1 scruple (З)
8 scruple (З) = 1 dram
1 dram = 1 ounce
12 ounce = 1 pound (lb)

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 Measures: The basic unit is minim (m)
60 m = 1 fluid dram
8 fluid dram = 1 fluid ounce
16 fluid ounce = 1 pint (O)
2 pint = 1 quart (qt)
4 quart = 1 gallon (C)

2. Avoirdupois System: This system has been used for all commercial transactions in the
ancient time.
Weights: The basic unit is grain (gr)
437.5 gr = 1 ounce
16 ounce = 1 pound (lb)
14 pound = 1 stone (st)
2 stone = 1 quarter (gr)
4 quarter = 1 hundred weight (C wt)
20 Cwt = 1 ton
Measures: The basic unit is minim (m)
60 m = 1 fluid dram
8 fluid dram = 1 fluid ounce
16 fluid ounce = 1 pint (O)
2 pint = 1 quart (qt)
4 quart = 1 gallon (C)
Imperial and SI Conversion Equivalents
Imperial SI
(approx.)
Weights
1 grain 60 mg
15 grain 1g
1 dram 4g
1 ounce 30 g
1 pound 450 g

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 2.2 pound 1 kg

Measures
1 minim 0.05 ml
15 minim 1 ml
1 fluid dram 4 ml
1 fluid ounce 30 ml
1 pint 500 ml
1 quart 1000 ml or
1 gallon 4.5 l

Household Equivalents

1 drop 0,05 ml
1 teaspoonful 5 ml
1 dessertspoonful 8 ml
1 tablespoonful 15 ml
1 wineglassful 60 ml
1 teacupful 125 ml
1 tumbler (glass) full 250 ml
Conversion of units/ Conversion Equivalents:
Imperial system to Metric System:

Measures of Mass

Imperial System Metric System Approx. value

1 grain 65 milligram

1 drachms 3.8879 grams 4 grams

1 ounce (apothecary) 31.1035 grams 30 grams

1 ounce (avoirdupois) 28.3495 grams 28 grams

1 pound (avoirdupois) 453.59 grams 450 grams

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 1 milligram 1/60 grain

1 gram (metric) 15.432 grains

1 kilograms 2.2046 pounds

Measures of volume:
Imperial System Metric System Approx. value
1fluid dram 3.5515 ml 3.5 ml
1 fluid ounce 28.4123 ml 28 ml
1 pint 568.2454 ml 568 ml
1 cc 16.8941 minims 17 minims
1 litre 35.196 ounces 35 ounce

Metric System to Imperial System

Metric system Imperial system Approx. value

1 milligram 0.015432 grains 3.5 cc

1 fluid ounce 28.4123 cc 28 cc

1 pint 568.2454 cc 568 cc

1 cc 16.8941 minims 17 minims

1 litre 35.196 fluid ounce 35 ounce

Conversion Factors for obtaining Approximate Equivalents in Doses

From To Multiply by
Grains/pound Milligram/pound 64.8
Grains/pound Mg/kilogram 143
Milligram/pound Mg/kilogram 2.2
Mg/kg Mg/pound 0.454

Exercise:
Q.1. If a mixture weighing 40 g is divided into 100 doses then how many grains will be
there in each dose?

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Q.2. How many ½ g tablets can be prepared from a powder weighing 300 grains?

Q.3. What will be the total dose of the drug in a cow weighing 200 lbs. in mg if the dose
of the drug is 1/10 grains per lb. body weight?

Signature of Instructor Signature of student

Exercise-5
Objective: Pharmaceutical Calculations

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The concentration of drugs in a preparation can be expressed in many ways such as percent
and ratio or proportion strength. The other important consideration in pharmaceutical
calculation is the density/specific gravity. A thorough understanding of these is prerequisite
for calculations of the doses of drugs.
Addition and Subtraction
a) Addition or subtraction of like quantities should be done always.
b) Conversion to common unit should be done in case of unlike quantities.
c) Decimal points should be taken into consideration carefully.

Example: Add 3 kg, 46g and 257 mg

3 kg = 3 x 1000 g = 3000g
46 g = 46g
257 mg = 0.257g
_______________
3046. 257g

Percent (%): Percent means ‘by the hundred’ or ‘in a hundred’. That means the percentage
expresses parts of solute per hundred parts of solvent or diluents. It can be expressed in three
ways:
1. Percent weight in weight (w/w) – expresses number of g of a substance (solute) in
100 g of a solution (solvent).
2. Percent weight in volume (w/v) – expresses number of ml of a substance (solute in
100 ml of a solution (solvent).
Percent volume in volume (v/v) – expresses number of ml of a substance (solute) in 100 ml
of a solution (solvent).
From the above, it is evident that the percentage is usually expressed as g or ml of a solute in
100 g or 100 ml of a solvent.
Formula: % strength ÷ 100 = Total solute ÷ total solution
(If three components are known then fourth one can be calculated)
Parts per Thousands–parts of solute dissolved in sufficient solvent to make 1000ml.
Parts per Million (ppm) – one part of solute in one million parts of solution.
This is another way of expressing strength particularly concentration of very dilute
preparation. It is important that two parts must have the same units except in the metric
system where 1g = 1 ml of water.
Solution of various strengths –

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 Strength Percentag Quantity / ml
e

1 in 1 100 % 1gm / ml

1 in 10 10 % 10gm / 100ml = 100mg /ml

1 in 100 1% 1 gm / 100ml = 10mg / ml

1in 1000 0.1 % 0.1gm / 100ml = 1mg / ml

1in 10000 1.01 % .01gm / 100ml = 0.1mg / ml

5 % means 5gm / 100 ml = 50 mg / ml

1 % means 1 gm / 100 ml = 1mg / ml

Ratio or proportion strength: The ratio is the relationship of one quantity to another and
written as a fraction or with a colon between the two numbers, e.g. 2/3 or 2:3 or 2 is to 3.
There can be any unit of ratio but the numbers do not change. The percent solution can also
be expressed in the form of ratio strength especially of a very weak solution. Generally in
ratio strength first figure is 1. For example 0.02% can be expressed as 1: 5000. Like percent,
it can also be expressed as w/w, w/v or v/v.
Formula: Amount in g ÷ Volume = 1 ÷ total parts of solution.
Proportion is an equation of two ratios set equal to each other e.g. 2: 3 :: 8:12. Here figure 2
and 12 are known as extremes, and 3 and 8 are called means. The product of extremes equals
to that of means, and if three terms are known, the fourth can be calculated. Allegation, an
alternate method is a rapid method of calculation. This method is used to find proportions in
which substances of different concentrations can be mixed to yield mixture/solutions of
desired strength. The loss in volume of concentration/strength of one substance is balanced
by the volume/amount of the other substance. For example, to prepare a 35% solution (c)
from a 45% stock solution (a) and 32% stock solution (b), the loss of 10 from (a) is balanced
by gain in volume of 3 in (b). That means if 3 parts of solution (a), mixed with 10 parts of
solution (b) then it will yield a solution (c) having 35% strength.

45% 3(-)

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 35

32% 10(+)

Dilution: If the amount of active ingredient remains constant, any change in the quantity
(volume) of a solution or mixture of solids is inversely proportional to the percentage or ratio
strength i.e. the percentage or ratio strength decreases as the volume increases or vice versa.
Dosage calculation: Doses are often prescribed as mg or ml/kg body weight and therefore
individual doses are calculated as power the metric system of weights and measures.
Density/Specific gravity: Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, usually
expressed as g/cc or ml. It can be calculated by dividing mass by volume. Density = Mass ÷
Volume or Mass = Density x Volume or Volume = Mass ÷ Density.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a compound to equal volume water at the same
temperature and expressed in absolute number i.e. without any unit. Specific gravity =
weight of compound ÷ weight of equal volume of water. So if 1 ml of an oil weighs 0.9 g
and 1 ml of water weighs 1.0g, the sp.gr. of the oil would be = 0.9 ÷ 1.0 = 0.9.
Eg: 15 ml of H2SO4
1.86 is specific gravity of H2SO4
Weight = 1.86 x15= 27.90 gm

Exercise

1. Prepare 5 mg / ml from 50mg / ml of a drug solution.

2. Prepare 0.2 mg/ml from 200 mg/ml of a drug solution.
3. Prepare 50 ml of 4% dextrose solution.
4. Prepare 500 ml of 50% alcohol from 95% alcohol solution.
5. A 20 ml of stock solution of 0.75%is available. Calculate the total amount to which
it should be diluted so that final strength of the solution is 0.15%?
6. If 500 ml of a 15% solution v/V is diluted to 1500 ml what will be the % strength?
7. How much water should be added to 150 ml of 1:500 W/V stock solution of a
chemical to make 1:2000 W/V solution.

Signature of Instructor Signature of student

21
 Exercise 6

Objective: To Study about Pharmaceutical Process

Most of the drugs are not administered in their natural state as they are either too bulky or toxic to
be administered directly, therefore undergo certain processes which make them fit for
administration.
Different pharmaceutical processes are given below:
Evaporation-This is the process of removing a solvent from the solution by vaporization in
order to concentrate the desired substance. It is used to make extract from decoctions,
infusions, tinctures or other solutions.
Distillation- It is the process of converting liquid to its vapor state and subsequent
condensation of the vapour to liquid. It is of two types-
Fractional distillation- Separation of two volatile liquid with different boiling points.
Destructive distillation- Process of heating organic substance without exposure to air. The
volatile product of decomposition can condense. E.g., creosote is obtained from beechwood tar.
Decantation- It is the process of separating a liquid from the solid by gently pouring off the
supernatant to get the desired product.
Filtration- It is the process of separating the liquid from the solid by using a porous substance
like filter paper or sintered glass filter.
Straining or collation- It’s a type of filtration in which coarser particles are removed from the
liquid through fine muslin cloth.
Comminution- Reducing substance to fine powder through:
Slicing: Process of cutting drugs e.g., slicing of Belladona roots, Rhubarb etc
Contusion or Bruising- Process of reducing a drug by successive blows with the help of
mortar and pestle.
Rasping/Grating- Reducing substance to small particles with the help of rasp.
Grinding- Process of converting small particles of drug to fine particles by continuous circular
motion with a pestle.
Disintegration- It is grinding by high speed percussion in a disintegrator.
Levigation- It is grinding of a substance to a very fine powder with a small quantity of liquid in
which powder is insoluble e.g., mercuric oxide and zinc oxide ointments are generally prepared
by this method.

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Maceration-It is the process of extraction of a drug by allowing it to stand in contact with a
solvent. The insoluble residue is called macerate. It is used in preparation of tinctures, extracts
and concentrated infusions.
Digestion-It is the process in which substance undergo prolong maceration with application of
heat. It is used in preparing tinctures.
Percolation-It is the process of getting the soluble ingredient by the descent of the solvent
through the substance; it extracts the drug more completely and in shorter time than maceration.
The instrument used for this process is known as Percolator.
Desiccation- It is the process of removing moisture from the substance at a moderate
temperature. It reduces the bulk and assist in preservation. Drying is done in dry and airy place
or in special ovens.
Trituration- It is the process of rubbing a substance in a mortar with a pestle in rotatory motions
to reduce the substance in fine particles.
Separation- It is done to separate the useful ingredients from inert or undesirable particle. It can
be done by following ways:
If desired material is volatile then separation by heat
If material is nonvolatile than in that case make use of solvent in which the desirable ingredient
are soluble and undesirable are insoluble. e.g., Different types of oil.
Sublimation-It isa chemical process in which a solid turns into a gas without going through a
liquid stage. E.g., Camphor
Carbonization-conversion of an organic substance into carbon or a carbon-containing residue
through pyrolysis or destructive distillation.
Ignition- It is the process of heating organic substances in the excess of air until the carbon
atom has burnt as carbon dioxide and remaining residue of organic matter is called ash and the
process is called ashing. It is used to determine impurities of organic salts of alkali metals such
as tartarate, citrate, benzoate and many drugs.
Clarification- It is the process of removing a suspended solid material from a liquid without
filtration or centrifugation. This is accompanied by either heating the liquid or changing the pH.
Tyndalisation- It is the method of sterilization involving intermittent heating of preparation at a
temperature of 100оC. The material to be sterilized is put in sealed container or bottle and heated
on a water bath.

23
Decolourization- It is the process of removing the colouring matter by treating the solutions of
drug with animal charcoal.
Dialysis- It is the process of separating crystalloids from colloids by means of biological
membranes. The biological membranes allow the passage of water and crystalloids.
Calcinations or Incineration- It is the process of strongly heating a carbonate drawing out the
carbon dioxide and leaving behind the oxide of metal and converting to ashes.
Crystallization- It is the process of making crystals of drugs.
Granulation-It is the process of converting the drug to assume the form of grains. E.g., Calcium
gluconate
Sieving or Sifting- It is the process of passage of drugs through a sieve/screen made up of
uniform aperture so that when motion is applied for some time to the screen the particles smaller
than the aperture can pass through the screen.
Infusion- It is the maceration of drugs. It may be hot infusion or cold infusion.
Fusion- It is the process of converting a solid to liquid by means of heat.
Solution- It is a homogenous mixture of two or more substance usually a solid or gas in liquid.
The product should be clear.
a) Simple solution- It contains a solute in a solvent without any chemical change or without
any saturation.
b) Chemical solution- A chemical solution is one where the chemical action takes place.
c) Unsaturated solution- In such solution the solvent contains less of the solute than it can
dissolve.
d) Saturated solution- When the solvent contains the solute to its full capacity of
dissolution.
e) Super saturated solution- When by some means or efforts is made to make a solid to
dissolve more of a solute that it could dissolve by the process and heating.
Centrifugation- It is a process of separation of different substances from the solution on the basis
of their density gradient in a centrifuge.
Despumation-It is the process of skimming off of impurities on the surface of a liquid by boiling.
Standardization or assaying- It is the process of determining the strength of drugs to maintain
uniform potency.

24
 Sterilization – It is the process by which aseptic condition is maintained usually by dry and moist
heat.

Exercise
1. Media preparation
2. Preparation of standard solution of different strength

25
 Exercise 7
Objective: Pharmaceutical dosage forms
Dosage form or pharmaceutical, preparation of a drug is a product designed and prepared by
the pharmacist or pharmaceutical manufactures for administration to the patient. It is the duty
of the prescriber to decide upon the precise dosage form in which the drug is to be
administered. Various dosage forms of drugs may be grouped into three major categories viz.
solid, semi-solid and liquid.
Pharmaceutics: The general area of study concerned with the formulation, manufacture,
stability and effectiveness of pharmaceutical dosage from is termed as pharmaceutics.
Bio-pharmaceutics: The area of study embracing relationship between physical, chemical
and biological species, as they apply to drugs, dosage forms and to drug action has been
given the descriptive term bio-pharmaceutics.
Drug substances are seldom administered alone, but rather as part of a formulation in
combination with one or more non-medicinal agents that serve varied and specialized
pharmaceutical functions. Though selective use of these non-medicinal agents referred to as
pharmaceutical ingredients, dosage forms of various types result. The pharmaceutical
ingredients stabilize, suspend, thicken, dilute, emulsify preserve, color, flavor and fashion
medicinal agents into efficacious and repealing dosage forms.
Drug dosage forms provide:
1. The mechanism for safe and convenient administration of accurate dose,
2. Protect the drug substances from destructive influences of humidity, oxidation,
light, gastric acidity, etc.,
3. To conceal offensive odor, bitter taste,
4. To provide desired liquid vehicles for insoluble or unstable drugs,
5. To provide time controlled and optimal drug action.
6. To provide suitable form for placement of drug directly in blood stream or lungs
through injections.
Depending on the route of administration or their nature
1. Oral Dosage Form-
2. Solid- Tablets, Capsules, Powders, Pills etc.
3. Liquid- Mixtures, Emulsions, Tinctures
4. External Dosage Form –

26
 5. Liquids – Drops, Lotions, Liniments, Paints, Tinctures.
6. Solids – Suppositories, Cream, Ointments, Plasters, Gels.
7. Gas/Vapors – Aerosols, Spray.
8. Parenteral Dosage Forms –
9. Liquid – Sera
10. Solids – Pellets

Physical Character based classification

1. Solid
2. Semisolid
3. Liquid
Pharmaceutical ingredients: Various pharmaceutical ingredients and excipients are
required in preparations of suitable dosage forms. Such substances are used in the form of
solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, emulsifiers, colorants, flavourants, diluents, fillers, anti-
adherents, lubricants, disintegrating agents, etc. Incorporation of drug substances in a
suitable pharmaceutical ingredient results in to a solid, liquid or aerosol, for convenient
administration to the patient.
Solid Dosage Forms:
Boluses are cylindrical or biconical masses and contain one or more medicinal ingredients
uniformly distributed throughout the mass. To mask the taste of nauseous drugs boluses may
be coated with gelatin or other suitable materials. The vehicle used for preparing the boluses
includes mucilage of acacia, soft soap or common mass (equal parts of linseed meal and
treacle).
Bougies are rod shaped solid dosage form for administration into the teat canal, udder,
nostrils, urethra or the ears.
Capsules are solid dosage forms in which one or more medicinal substances are
encapsulated within a small shell or container made generally of hard or soft gelatin.
Capsules are intended to be swallowed, as whole. Soft gelatin capsules (flexible capsules)
are generally oblong, spherical or elliptical shape and are chiefly employed for the
administration of liquids/fluid medicaments whereas hard gelatin capsules (hard capsules)
are cylindrical in shape with hemi-spherical ends and are used for the administration of solid
medicaments. Specialized capsules containing drugs to be released in a controlled release
manner are called as spansules or delayed action capsules. These capsules contain a number

27
of chemically coated tiny particles or beads, which disintegrate at different times and provide
uniform medication over an extended period of time.
Granules are agglomerate of smaller particles of 4-12 μ size prepared by moistening the
desired powder and pressing through a screen. The particles thus formed are air dried in
trays. Granules are more stable chemically or physically than their corresponding powders.
Lozenges are disc shaped solid dosage form intended to be slowly dissolved in oral cavity
for localized effects.
Pallets (Inserts, Implants) are small sterile spheres formed by compression of certain
insoluble crystalline steroid hormones for subcutaneous implantation under the skin. They
form a depot from which the drugs are slowly, but continuously released. Hormonal
substances are commonly administered as implants.
Pessaries are bluntly conical in shape and are used for introducing medicaments into the
uterus and vagina.
Pills are small, round dosage form containing a medicinal substance and intended to be
administered orally. Powdered drugs are mixed with some sticky substance such as glucose
honey and then molded into spherical/ovoid shape. They may be coated similar to tablets.
Pills have now been replaced by compressed tablets and capsules.
Powders as a dosage form is a mixture of two or more finely divided drug substances in dry
form and intended for internal use; some powders are also used externally. Powders are
prepared by reducing the size of the solid drug substances mostly by triturating.
Manufactures use pulverization to reduce the powder to fineness. Powders are dispensed in a
small piece of paper, which is then folded into phials for immediate use of the patient.
Suppositories are cylindrical cone shaped masses with glycol-gelatin or theobroma oil base
and meant for introducing the drugs into the body cavities especially into rectum and
prepeutial orifice. They remain solid at room temperature, but liquefy at body temperature.
Tablets are solid dosage form containing granulated or powdered drugs that are compressed
or molded into round or discoid shapes generally scored so that they may be easily divided to
afford smaller doses. They usually vary in shape, size, weight, hardness, thickness,
disintegration properties, and other aspects. Majority of tablets in general are orally
administered and are prepared with colorants and coating of various types. Tablets may be
administered by sublingual, buccal or vaginal routes. These are prepared by compression or

28
by molding. Binders, adhesives, diluents or fillers (dried starch), disintegrators, lubricants or
miscellaneous adjuvants like flavourants are added. Various types of tablets are: compressed
tablets, sugar coated tablets, film coated tablets, enteric coated tablets, buccal or sublingual
tablets, chewable tablets, effervescent tablets or tablet triturates, hypodermic tablets
(implants), controlled or sustained release tablets. Enteric-coated tablets resist dissolution or
disruption in stomach and allow for tablet transit through stomach to intestine for dissolution
or disruption. Reduction in drug blood fluctuation, dosing frequency, adverse side effects
and health care cost and enhanced patient compliance and convenience are the advantages of
rate controlled drug delivery system.
Semi-Solid Dosage Forms
Electuaries are soft paste like masses containing medicinal agents in a palatable base such as
honey, syrup or molasses and are intended to be smeared on tongue, palate and lips.
Ointments are semi-solid preparations containing one or more medicinal agents mixed with
an ointment base. The ointment bases are fatty or oily in nature and include paraffin, lanolin,
lard, and suet, animal waxes etc. They are applied to the skin with or without friction.
Pastes are semi-solid preparations containing one or more medicaments mixed with liquid
paraffin, glycerin, gelatin, mucilage or soap.
Poultices (Cataplasms) are soft pasty preparations intended for topical application for the
purpose of supplying moisture and heat, thereby producing a local hyperemic effect, which
helps in reducing inflammation and relieving pain. They are usually applied hot underneath a
flannel bandage.
Plasters consist of medicinal substances mixed with adhesive agents and spread on cloths or
canvass for application to the skin, where at the body temperature they melt slightly and
become adhesive. Their purpose is either to protect the skin or to gain a counterirritant effect
and also as a means of support.
Liquid dosage forms:
These dosage forms can be prepared by dissolving or suspending active drug ingredients n
appropriate liquid medium, may be aqueous, non-aqueous or one of the two phases of oil and
water. Such dosage forms can be applied locally, orally or into body cavities.
Aromatic Waters (Medicated Waters) are solutions of volatile substances, usually volatile
oil in water. These solutions possess the flavour and odor of the oils and are used as

29
flavouring agents for liquid dosage forms. Heat, light and longer storage deteriorate qualities
of aromatic waters.
Decoctions are aqueous solutions of the soluble principles of vegetable drugs prepared by
macerating the vegetable drugs in boiling water for a short period. The preparation is then
filtered and the clear solution is obtained.
Elixirs are sweetened and flavored hydro-alcoholic solutions of medicinal substances and
intended for oral administration.
Emulsions are aqueous preparations in which oils, resins or insoluble powders or liquid
substances are suspended by means of adhesive substances known as emulgent or emulsifier.
Extracts are the preparations containing the active principles of crude drugs. They are
prepared by extracting with suitable solvents such as water, alcohol or ether.
Infusions are aqueous solutions of the soluble principles of vegetable drugs prepared by
macerating the vegetable drugs in cold or hot water for a short period without heating. The
infusion is then filtered and the clear solution is obtained.
Injections are sterile aqueous or oily solutions or suspensions of drugs for parenteral
administration. Injections are dispensed in single or multiple-dose, sealed containers to
exclude bacteria/infections.
Liquors (Solutions) are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solutions of non-volatile drugs in
water. Concentration of drug substances in solution is generally expressed as per cent
strength (w/v or v/v).
Liniments are liquid or semi-liquid preparations of drugs in oil, alcohol or soap solutions
and are intended for external application with friction or inunctions.
Lotions (Washes) are aqueous solutions of drugs intended for application to the skin or
mucous surfaces. Sometimes alcohol or glycerin is also added. The addition of alcohol
hastens drying and accelerates the cooling effects while the addition of glycerin keeps the
application moist for a considerable time. Lotions are applied to the skin without inunctions
or rubbing.
Mixtures are liquid preparations consisting of drugs dissolved, suspended or diffused in
water or some other aqueous vehicle such as an infusion or aromatic water and are intended
for oral administration.

30
Mucilages are watery solutions of gummy materials such as gum acacia or tragacanth. They
are employed for emulsification of oils and for suspending insoluble substances in mixtures.
Spirits are alcoholic solutions of volatile substances.
Syrups are nearly saturated/concentrated aqueous solutions of sugar or sugar substitutes with
an added flavoring agents and medicinal substances. Syrups are usually 85% solution of
sucrose in purified water.
Tinctures are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solutions of non-volatile drugs obtained from
vegetable or animal sources.

31
 Exercise 8
Objective: To study about prescription writing.
A prescription is a written order to pharmacist or compounder by a qualified medical
practitioner/veterinarian/dentist or any other properly licensed medical practitioner to
compound and dispense the prescribed medicine to the client/patient/owner of the patient.
The veterinarians are legally authorized to prescribe medications for animal patients only.
Prescription is a legally recognized document and the prescriber is fully held responsible for
its accuracy. In the event of any casualty or eventuality due to wrongly prescribed drug, the
prescriber can be legally prosecuted. Therefore, the practicing physician must exercise an
utmost care while writing a prescription. The prescription denotes a specific medication and
dosage to be administered to a particular patient at a specified time. Prescription orders may
be two types:
Extemporaneous Prescription – where the selection of drugs doses and dosage forms of the
preparation depend on physician and the pharmacist prepares it in the dispensary itself.
Pre-compounded Prescription – where the dosage forms selected is supplied by the
pharmaceutical companies.
Parts of a prescription: The format of a prescription consists of the following essential
parts:
A. General
1. Name and address of the hospital or dispensary and practitioner.
2. Registration number of the patient and date.
3. Identity of the patient: breed, age and sex.
4. Name and address of the owner of the patient.
5. Diagnosis and prognosis.
6. At the bottom of the prescription the word “For animal treatment only” must be
printed.
B. Main: The main body of the prescription consists of following five parts:
1. Superscription: It is designated as Rx Originally it was considered as the Roman symbol
for God Jupiter and intended to invoke His blessings in making the prescription successful in
the cure of disease. But now it is considered as an abbreviation of the Latin word “recipe”

32
meaning “take thou” or ‘you take’. So it is a symbolic order to the dispenser to dispense the
indicated drugs.
2. Inscription: It consists of names and amount (quantities) of drugs to be dispensed. The
name of drugs should be written in English and the amount should be written in Metric or SI
system of weights and measures. In pre-compounded prescription the drug is prescribed by
proprietary name. Different ingredients are not written. But in case of extemporaneous
prescription, the inscription is based on the following four pillars:
a). The basis: It includes the main (principal) active agent of the prescription.
b). The adjuvant: It includes a drug that has a complementary effect and assists
the main active agent (aids or increase the action of principal agent).
c). The corrective: It includes a drug that counters/corrects/modifies undesirable
tendencies/effects of the first two agents.
d). The vehicle or excipient: It includes a substance, which is usually
pharmacologically inert e.g. glucose, lactose, honey treacle etc. It is usually used as
solvent, and also to increase bulk and mask unpleasant and unpalatable taste of the
first three drugs.
These four guiding principles are based on the hypothesis, which suggest that
a medicine should cure, quickly, safely and pleasantly.
Example: Gastric sedative powder
Bismuth carbonate 1.0 g
Sodium bicarbonate 0.6 g
Magnesium trisilicate 2.0 g
Dextrose 4.0 g
Bismuth carbonate is relatively slow but long acting antacid. On the other hand sodium
bicarbonate is a rapidly, but short acting and assist the bismuth carbonate. Both these
antacids release carbon dioxide after reacting with hydrochloric acid, which causes
distension of stomach, and reflexly induces further secretion of gastric acid (acid rebound
phenomenon). This secondary acid production is neutralized (countered) by magnesium
trisilicate (free from acid rebound). It has another property of adsorbing gas and toxins in
addition to antacid action. Dextrose increases the bulk and has a sweet taste and soothing
action.

33
3. Subscription: It includes directions and instructions to the pharmacist regarding
compounding and dispensing. Latin abbreviations are usually used for this purpose, although
the use of English is not precluded.
Example: Mft. Pulv. 1 mitte 12 (mix and make one powder, send 12)
4. Signa (SIG.): It is an abbreviation of the Latin word “Signatur” that means “let it be
marked or labeled or write on the label”. This includes directions to the pharmacist to affix
the instructions on the label of the container regarding the name or the identity of patient,
name of the preparation, dose, frequency of administration, route of administration, ‘For
animal treatment only’ or any other pertinent information to the owner such as “Store in a
cool place’, ‘Shake well before use’, ‘For external use only’ etc. The instructions to the
pharmacist are mostly written in Latin abbreviations, but on the label it is always written in
English or in vernacular language.
Example: Pulv. 1 per os b.d.s. X 6 days a.c. (one powder to be taken two times
daily before meals for 6 days.
5. Signature: The signature along with the qualification and the Registration No. must
appear on the prescription to make it a legal document. Table below is a representative
facsimile of the prescription adopted in clinics of the College of Veterinary and Animal
Sciences, SVBPUA&T, Meerut-250110.

34
 Teaching veterinary Service Complex,
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,
SVBPUA&T, Meerut-250110.
__________________________________________________________________

Case No:……….. Species: ……………… Age:………. Sex: ……………..

Owner’s name & Address:………………………………………………………
Diagnosis: ……………………………………………………………………….


Signature:
Name:
Regn.No.

Q.No. 1

Q.No. 2

Q.No. 3

Q.No. 4

Q.No. 5

Signature of Instructor Signature of student

35
 Latin abbreviations

Both the physician and the pharmacist must have the sound knowledge of the Latin
abbreviations required for writing of the prescriptions. Some of the commonly used Latin
abbreviations are described below:
Latin abbreviation Latin word Equivalent English meaning

aa ana of each
a ante before
a.c. ante cibum before meals
b.i.d. bis in die twise a day
b.d.s. bis die sumendus to be taken two times a day
cap. capula capsule
ft. fiat let be made or to make
haust. haustus drench
M or m misce mix
O octarius pint
o.d. omni die every day
o.m. omni mane every morning
o.n. omni nocte every night
p.c. post cibum after meals
q.s. quantum sufficiat sufficient quantity
q.i.d. quarter in die four times a day
ss semisse half
s.o.s. si opus sit if necessary
stat. statim immediately
t.d.s. ter die sumendus to be taken three times a day
t.i.d. ter in die three times a day
tab. tabella a tabelet

36
 Exercise: 9
Objective: To study about Prescription Incompatibilities
Incompatibility: It means lack of agreement between drugs or improper combination of drugs
which interferes with the elegance, usefulness or safety of a prescription. An incompatible
prescription is one containing two or more substances which when mixed together yield an
unsuitable product. Sometimes incompatible drugs are mixed together intensively for desired
action. This is generally arises due to the ignorance or carelessness of the prescriber.
There are three types of incompatibilities –
1. Physical/ Pharmaceutical incompatibility
2. Chemical incompatibility
3. Pharmacological / Therapeutic incompatibility
1. Physical or pharmaceutical incompatibility: This generally arises due to the lack of
miscibility of the two substances. Some of the ingredients when mixed together may give a
preparation which is immiscible, insoluble and undesirable in appearance or colour. Such
incompatible drugs can be therapeutically used by adding another agent or by using other
pharmaceutical processes.
i. Immiscibility: When two liquid ingredients in a preparation are immiscible.
For example, oil and water- can be combined with the help of an emulsifying
agent.
ii. Insolubility: When one or more of the ingredients in a preparation is not
soluble.
iii. Liquefaction: change from solid to liquid form.
iv. Precipitation: This also arises due to the prescribing of solute in a quantity that
is greater than their solubility.
In order to avoid physical incompatibility, certain knowledge of the solubility of various
components is necessary.
(b) All nitrates are soluble with minor exceptions.
(c) All chlorides, bromides, iodides are soluble except those of heavy metals.
(d) All hydroxides, carbonates and phosphates are insoluble except the sodium potassium and
ammonium.

37
 (e) The organic compounds, which readily form sodium, potassium or ammonium salts are
soluble (e.g. sulfonamides, barbiturates).
(f) Alkaloids are generally soluble in strong mineral acids, insoluble in alkaline solution.
Conversely, alkaloid salts are insoluble in ether and chloroform, while alkaloid bases are
soluble.
(g) Most organic compounds are less soluble, or insoluble in organic solvents. Other examples
of physical incompatibility arise when liquid extracts and some tinctures except the tincture
of iodine and ferric chloride are mixed with water.
2. Chemical incompatibility –This arises due to the chemical interaction of two or more
ingredients of a preparation. The signs of chemical incompatibility are:
(a) Formation of an insoluble substance
(b) Production of gas
(c) Change in colour
The following rules may be applied to avoid this kind of incompatibility:
(a) Silver is incompatible with organic materials, as well as with halogens and sulfates.
(b) Strong oxidizing agents such as potassium permanganate, potassium chlorate will readily
oxidize organic and some inorganic compounds.
(c) Iron salts are incompatible with tannates, phenols, salicylates, acetates and alkaline
solutions.
(d) Tannic acid is incompatible with alkaloids, metallic salts and gelatin.
(e) Strong alkaline solutions will decompose chloral hydrate, yielding chloroform.
This type of incompatibility is of two types –
(i) Desirable/intentional – The chemical incompatibility in which the product formed by
reaction of two agents may have desirable effect for example, white lotion.
(ii) Undesirable/unintentional incompatibility–The chemical incompatibility in which the
product formed by reaction of two agents show undesirable effect due to prescriber’s
negligence. There may be one of the following conditions:
 Precipitation – Alkaloids and other powerful drugs are prescribed alone.
 Gas liberation – Anionic drugs are mixed with cationic drugs.
 Explosion – It may occur due to direct chemical reaction between two agents.

38
  Undesirable appearance – When mercury salts are mixed with gum acacia it gives
cement like appearance.
3. Pharmacological / Therapeutic incompatibility – This kind of incompatibility arises when
physiologically antagonistic drugs are prescribed. This occurs mainly due to the lack of
knowledge of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics e.g. prescribing physostigmine
(Parasympathomimetic agent) and atropine (parasympatholytic agent) together. It may be –
a. Pharmacodynamic incompatibility- The activity of a drug at specific site of action is
altered by another drug which may occur due to opposite pharmacological or therapeutic
action of both drugs in a preparation.
 Drugs may act on the same receptor to produce opposite action that is isoprenaline and
propranolol acting on same β1 adrenergic receptor
 Drugs acting on different receptors or different systems to produce opposite response
that is Ach and isoprenaline acting on muscrinic and β 1 adrenergic receptors to produce
bradycardia and tachycardia respectively.
 Incompatibility due to structural resemblance of drugs that is amprolium given with
vitamin B1.
b. Pharmacokinetic incompatibility – It often results due to alteration in the rate of
absorption, distribution, metabolism or excretion of drugs. This incompatibility can be reflected
from the following interferences:
 Interference in absorption – Tetracycline if given with milk products or antacids or
mineral supplements then its absorption decreases due to formation of poorly soluble
complexes with metals.
 Interference with distribution– Warfarin if given with salicylate then there is
increased risk of haemorrhage as warfarin is displaced by salicylate from its binding
site.
 Interference in metabolism– MAO inhibitors if given with tyramine rich food (cheese)
then there is enhanced absorption of unmetabolised tyramine due to its decreased
metabolism.
Interference in excretion– Penicillin, cephalosporins in normal doses may be more toxic if
given with probenicid as it decreases their renal excretion

39
Exercise:
Objective – Drug standard and regulation.
Pharmacopoeia – word is derived from the words, Pharmacon- which means drug and Poeia-
indicates I make. It may be defined as an official standard book for drugs. It contains
description of the source, appearance, properties, standards of purity, and other requirements
of the pure drugs. The first national pharmacopoeia “codex medicamentarius” of France and
US pharmacopoeia (USP) was published in 1819 and 1820 respectively. The first
legalization concerned with drug regulation was acted in England in 1872. In US such laws
were made by Congress of US. It was the responsibility of US food and drug administration,
department of health, education and welfare to implement these laws.
The amended act, the enforcement of which was entrusted to Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), was primarily concerned with the labeling and safety of drugs.
Various compendia are as under:
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (I.P)
 United States Pharmacopoeia (U.S.P.)
 United States Dispensatory
 Physician’s Desk Reference (P.D.R.)
 Martindale Extra Pharmacopoeia.
 British Pharmacopoeia (B.P.)
 International Pharmacopoeia (P.I.)
 National Formulary (N.F.)
 British Veterinary Codex (B.Vet.C)
 British Pharmaceutical Codex (B.P.C)
 New and Nonofficial Drugs (N.N.D.)
 German Pharmacopoeia, etc.
Each drug has a formal chemical name. Manufacturers usually assign a code name. But for
marketing, a non-proprietary (NPN) or generic name is given by the United States Adopted
Name (USAN) Council which is sponsored by American Medical Association, United state
Pharmacopoeia convention, Inc. and American Pharmaceutical Association and one member
from the FDA. USAN and may differ. The names entered in the pharmacopoeia are official

40
names. Drugs must be prescribed by their official names as entered in the pharmacopoeia or
non-proprietary (generic) name. The drugs may also be prescribed by their proprietary name,
if often referred as the generic name. Veterinarians must be familiar with the lows of their
own state. The non-proprietary names or generic names are selected by the. Controlled
substances Act of USA divided the drugs into five schedules.
Unites States Pharmacopoeia (USP)
(a) It is the most important, legally recognized drug standard for the United States.
(b) It is published and revised periodically by the United States Pharmacopoeal Convention
which is made up of delegates from all the major health and medical science
organizations in the United States.
(c) Any drug fulfilling these standards may be labeled U.S. P
Foreign Pharmacopoeias: Published by different countries, these are comparable to the
U.S.P. e.g. British Pharmacopoeia, German Pharmopoeia, French codex.
National Formulary (N.F.):
(a) Published and revised periodically by the American Pharmaceutical Association
simultaneously with the U.S.P. The National Formulary contains the standards for certain
pure drugs not widely used enough to be in the U.S.P. It also contains standards for
many medicinal mixtures.
(b) Like the U.S.P. the National Formulary is a legally recognized drugs standard in the
United States.
(c) All drugs listed in the U.S.P. or N.F. are classified as “official drugs” by the United
States Government.
The council of pharmaceutical society of Great Britain has a publication comparable
to the NF that is designated as British Pharmaceutical Codex. The same agency, in
conjunction with the National Veterinary Association published the British Veterinary Codex
(B Vet. C.) in 1953.
New and Non-official Drugs (N.N.D.)
a) The annual editions of this publication contain proprietary names of newer drugs, with
therapeutic merit and that have been critically evaluated by the council on drugs of the
American Medical Association.

41
b) Those newer drugs established as having unquestionable merit are dropped from the
N.N.D. and listed in the U.S.P.
Other Drug Standards
a) Accepted Dental Remedies (A.D.R.): Published by the American Dental Association, it
is comparable to the N.N.D.
c) United States Dispensary: A non-official standard containing all the drugs, new or old,
found throughout the world.
AMA Drug evaluations (AMA-DE)
This volume published in its second edition in 1973 is a collection of
monographs of drugs generally introduced within the last 10 years. The discussion of each
drug is based on an evaluation of available laboratory and clinical data by the consultants
and staff of the department of drugs. American Medical Association products not approved
by the Drug Efficacy study of the National Academic of Sciences-National Research Council
are not included.
The AMA-DE is intended to meet the specific needs of the practicing
physician for a source of data, authoritative, unbiased information or recently introduced
drugs.
Indian Pharmacopoeia: First published in 1955. 2nd edition in 1966. 3rd edition in 1985. 4th
edition in 1995.
Controlled substances
Controlled drugs and drug products are categorized into five schedules:
It is necessary for manufactures, wholesalers, pharmacies, hospitals, and
physicians, to keep records of drugs purchased, distributed, and dispensed. Having this
closed system, a controlled drug can be traced from the time it was dispensed and to the
ultimate user.
Controlled substances are classified into various schedules are depicted as C-I, CII,
C-III, C-IV, C-V.
Schedule I (C-I):
(a) The drug or other substances has a high potential for abuse.
(b) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment.

42
 (c) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical
supervision.
(d) They may be used for research or instructional purposes.

For example heroin, LSD, mescaline, dihydromorphine, morphine, methyl sulfonate,

marijuana, etc.
Schedule II(C-II):
(a) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse, there use can produce severe
psychic or physical dependence in human beings or in animals.
(b) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions.
e.g. Opium, hydromorphine, codeine, cocaine, pentobarbital, secobarbital, etc.
Schedule III(C-III):
(a) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances
in Schedules I and II. Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low
physical dependence or high psychological dependence.
(b) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment
For example any preparation containing limited amounts of opium, morphine, nalorphine or
barbiturates, etc.
Schedule IV(C-IV):
(a) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse, relative to the drug or other
substance in Schedule III. Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical
dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in
Schedule III.
(b) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment.
For example, barbital, pentobarbital, chloral hydrate, meprobamate and diazepam.
Schedule V(C-V):
(a) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other
substances in Schedule IV. Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to limited
physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in
Schedule IV.
(b) The drug or other substance has a currently accept3ed medical use in treatment.

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For example, those preparations that are exempted from narcotics.
Narcotic Drugs
A veterinarian who prescribes and/or administers narcotic drugs in lawful course
of his professional practice is not required to keep records of those transactions. If a
veterinarian dispenses a narcotic drug to a patient, he is required to keep a record of such
dispensing.
Non-narcotic Drugs
A veterinarian who regularly engages in dispensing any of the non-narcotic drugs
listed in the schedules to his patients as a regular part of his professional practice, and for
which he charges his patients wither separately or together with other professional services,
must keep records of all such drugs received and dispensed. The records must be kept for a
period of two years and are subject to inspection by the Drug Enforcement Administration.
(Dispensed as used above includes administering).
Inventory
A veterinarian who regularly engages in dispensing drugs and is required to keep
records as stated above must take an inventory every two year of all stocks of controlled
drugs on hand. A veterinarian, who plans to dispense drugs regularly, is requested to take
the initial inventory when he first engages in dispensing. A physician must keep his record
for two years and is not required to submit a copy to the DEA.
All inventories and records of controlled substances in Schedule II must be
maintained separately from all other records of the veterinarian. All inventories and records
of controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V must be maintained separately or must
be in such from that they are readily retrievable from the ordinary professional and business
records of the veterinarian.
All records pertaining to controlled substances shall be made available for inspection
and copying by duly authorized officials of the Drug Enforcement Administration.
A veterinarian who has controlled substances stored in his office or clinic must keep
these drugs in a securely locked, substantially constructed cabinet or safe.
All prescription orders for controlled substance shall be dated as of and signed on the
date when issued and must bear the full name and address of the patient, and the name,
address and registration number of the veterinarian. Where an oral order is not permitted,

44
prescription orders must be written in ink or indelible pencil or typewriter and must be
manually signed by the practitioner. The prescription order may be prepared by a nurse or
secretary for the signature of the veterinarian, but the prescribing clinician is responsible in
case the prescription order responsible in case the prescription order does not conform in all
essential respects to the law and regulations.
A written prescription order is required for drugs in Schedule II and must be signed by
the clinician. The refilling of Schedule II prescription orders is prohibited.
A prescription order for drugs in Schedule III, IV and V may be issued either orally or in
writing and may be renewed if so authorized on the prescription. However, the prescription
order may only be renewed up to five times within six months after the date of issue. After
five renewals or after six months, a new prescription order is required either orally or in
writing from the clinician.
In case of an emergency, a physician may telephone a prescription order to a
pharmacist for a drug in Schedule II. In such a case, the drug prescribed must be limited to
the amount needed to treat his patient during the emergency period. The physician must
furnish within 72 hours, as written, signed prescription order to the pharmacy for the drug
prescribed. The pharmacist is required by law to notify DEA if he has not received the
written prescription order within 72 hours.
Drug Standards and Legal Control
All Countries have some special laws to maintain standard of quality, purity and uniformity
of drugs. Following are the milestones in the formation of laws for the legal control on
manufacturing, sale of drugs:
1872: First drug regulation was enacted in England in U.S.A. many bill were introduced but
were not passed.
1906: First pure food and drug act was passed in U.S.A.
1930: Elixir of Sulfonamide was made in diethylene glycol. The safety of diethylene glycol
was not tested which resulted in death of more than 100 people due to renal failure.
1938: Food, drug and cosmetic came act into existence. This was a strong legislation for the
control of manufacturing of dangerous drugs.
1950: Chloramphenicol was marketed and people started taking it without any consideration
of side effects i.e. blood dyscariasis.

45
1951: Durham Humphery amendment for the separation of drugs to be sold directly (OTC)
or on prescription.
1956: Thalidomide tragedy (hypnotic drug) caused phocomelia (seal like limb) in 10,000
babies.
1962: Kufaver-Harris amendment. New drug must be shown both safe and effective before
being marketed.
1972: Food, drug and cosmetic act. It is an amendment pertaining to animal drugs. The
drug should be demonstrated to be safe.
India: In India following drug acts were enacted.
1878- Opium act
1919- Poison act
1930- Dangerous drug act
1940- Drug act
1945- Drug and Cosmetic act
1988- 8th amendment to Drug and Cosmetic act.
Drug Regulations
The central drug and Cosmetic Rule (1945) – These rules under the drug and cosmetic act
1940 has amended from time to time regulate the licensing, import, compounding,
dispensing, storage sales of drugs and cosmetic in India.
They categorize drugs and cosmetic in various schedules as given below –
1. Schedule C–it describes the biological which includes sera toxin antigens and special
products like drug belonging to Digitalis group, Ergot preparation etc.
2. Schedule D– Substances not intended for medicinal use. i.e. Bulk purchase of medicinal
drugs. E.g. Lactose, Condensed milk, powdered milk etc.
3. Schedule E–Includes list of poisonous substances under Ayurvedic and Unani system of
medicines.
4. Schedule F–Vaccine Antitoxins and standard for surgical dressing.
5. Schedule G–Substances dangerous to be taken except under medical supervision.
6. Schedule H – Prescribed drug to be sold by retail on prescription by registered
practitioner only. It includes all the drugs prescribed by a doctor.

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7.Schedule J–Disease or ailment which a drug may not impart to prevent or cure .eg –
Leucoderma, cancer, appendicitis.
8. Schedule K–Drugs meant for medicinal practitioner for supplying his patients.
9. Schedule M–Describe the pharmacy requirement for preparing a drug.
10. Schedule O–Standards for disinfectant fluids.
11. Schedule P–Life periods of drugs.
12. Schedule Q- List of colors permitted to be used in cosmetics.
13. Schedule R–Standards for substance other than food intended to affect the structure or
any functions of human body. E.g. Contraceptives.
14. Schedule S–Standard for cosmetics.
15. Schedule U–Particular to be thrown in manufacturing records.
16. Schedule V–Standards for medicine and proprietary medicines.
17. Schedule W–Name of drug which shall be mentioned under generic name only.
18. Schedule X– Restricted drugs. Eg. Phenobarbitone, Amphetamine.
Poisons Act 1919 –Act no II of 1930
An Act to consolidate and amend the law regulating the importation, possession and sale of
poisons. Power of the State Government to regulate possession for sale and sale of any
poison. Power to prohibit Importation into India of any poison except under license. Power
to issue search warrants Penalty for unlawful importation, etc Presumption as to specify
poisons.
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act 1985
1. An Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to narcotic drugs-
2. To make strict provisions for the control and regulation of operations relating to narcotic
drugs and psychotropic substances.
3. To provide for the forfeiture of property derived from, or used in, illicit traffic in narcotic
drugs and psychotropic substances.
4. To implement the provisions of the International Conventions on Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances.

Signature of Instructor Signature of student

47
 Exercise: 10
Objective- Handling and custody of Poisons
Handling and storage of poison should be done with utmost care.
Following points should be kept in mind while handling of poison:
a) The prescription should be read with utmost care so that a poison or control drug can
be easily distinguished.
b) The label of bottles containing poisonous substances should be carefully examined
and should have an extra label preferably in red colour indicating poison.
c) Risk of accidental poisoning may increase if potentially toxic material is removed
from their original containers to any other container.
d) Containers of similar sizes or colour should not be placed in proximity.
e) The toxic substances should be weighed accurately.
f) Cleanliness should be maintained.
g) Tasting or inhalation of any toxic substances should be avoided.
h) Poisonous substances should be kept in locked almirah.
i) The poisonous substances should be kept in tight containers to avoid leakage during
handling and transport.
j) Poison should be discarded safely along with the container.
k) Dispensing of poison should be done according to the prescription.
l) The entry of any poisonous drug at the time of supply should be recorded in a
prescription register along with signature of the qualified person.

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 Identification of commonly used drugs and their therapeutic uses:
Drugs Physical Pharmacological Therapeutic uses
characteristics actions
1. Boric acid White crystals or Antiseptic 1.Dusting powder for wounds
Powder 2.As ointment for eczema and
wounds
3.As lotion in conjunctivitis,
stomatitis, vaginitis
2. Benzoic acid Odorless, light Antifungal In ring-worm in combination
feathery crystals with salicylic acid.
3. Bentonite Very fine, pale or Astringent, As lotion for treatment of
(Hydrated cream coloured desiccant and superficial wounds, eczema,
aluminum powder antiseptic. burns.
silicate)
4.Calamine Pink coloured Astringent, As lotion for treatment of
(zinc carbonate Powder desiccant and Superficial wounds,
with ferric antiseptic Eczema burns.
oxide as
impurity)
5. Camphor Colourless Counterirritant, 1.As liniment for treatment of
Transparent Expectorant sprained muscles, joints and
Crystals with Tendons.
Characteristic 2. As liniment applied on chest
Pungent odour. for treatment of
Bronchitis, pneumonia.
6.Copper Blue crystals Caustic, 1. Orally, against round
sulphate anthelmintic, worms’s infestation.
Emetic, 2. Orally, to induce emesis.
Antifungal, 3. Orally, to close esophageal
Molluscicide groove.
4. Locally, to destroy walls
of fistulas, sinuses.
5. To kill snails in ponds.
7. Castor oil Pale-yellow Irritant As emulsion for the treatment
Colored, viscid purgative, of constipation.
Liquid with Emollient
Unpleasant odour.
8Glycerine Clear, colourless, Excipient, 1. As vehicle and
(glycerol) odorless liquid. demulcent, sweetening agent in
laxative mixtures, electuries,
suppositories, passeries
etc. for treatment of

49
 cough in pharyngitis,
laryngitis; gastric
irritation etc.
2. Rectal enema

9. Gum acacia Pale-yellow odorless Excipient, 1. As vehicle to emulsify

powder. demulcent, insoluble powders, oils, resins
laxative etc.
10. Iodine Blue-black brittle Counter-irritant,1.As strong ointment for
prisms/plates antiseptic, treatment of sprain of muscles,
antifungal, joints, tendons; rheumatism;
caustic 2. As ointment in ringworm,
mange
3. As weak solution on
wounds, uterine/vaginal
douche in metritis/ vaginitis.
4. As Mendle’s paint in
tonsillitis.
11.Liquid Transparent, Emollient, 1. Vehicle for making pastes.
paraffin colorless, odourless lubricant laxative 2. Laxative for treatment of
and tasteless liquid. constipation.
12. Magnesium Colourless, Laxative, 1. Treatment of constipation
sulphate odourless, purgative, CNS (oral).
crystalline powder. sedative, lymph 2. Anaesthetic, when given i.v.
lavage action. with chloralhydrate.
3. Saturated solution (i.v.) for
painless killing (euthanasia).
4. With glycerin
(Morrison’s paste) for treating
maggot wounds.
13. Potassium Colourless, Expectorant, 1. Orally for treating
iodide odourless, antiseptic bronchitis, laryngitis,
transparent or actinobacillosis,
slightly opaque actinomycosis, goiter.
crystals or granular 2. Facilitates dissolution of
powder. iodine in making solutions.
14. Phenol Pink coloured liquid Antiseptic, 1. 1-5% solution for
(carbolic acid) with characteristic disinfectant. disinfecting dressings, wounds.
odour 2. Strong solution to cauterize
dog/snake bitten wounds.

15. Red iodide Scarlet red coloured Counter- irritant, Strong ointments for treatment
of mercury powder vesicant, of chronic inflammatory
(mercuric blistering agent conditions, like capped elbow,
iodide). capped hock, yoke galls.
16. Salicylic Colorless, odourless Antifungal and Ring worm, eczema, warts and

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acid (Oil of fluffy powder kertolytic. corns.
Wintergreen)
17. Sodium White crystals/ Antacid, Hyperacidity, acidosis, urine
bicartbonate powder alkalizer alkalizer.
(baking soda)
18. Tannic acidYellowish-white Astringent Orally for treatment of
powder with diarrhea, antidote for
characteristic odour poisonous alkaloids.
19. Turpentine Faintly yellow liquid Carminative, 1. Orally for treating tympany,
oil with characteristic antizymotic, bloat and flatulent colic.
odour antifrothing, 2. As liniment for sprained
expectorant, tendons, muscles, joints,
counter-irritant 3. As inhalation for bronchitis.
4. Topi9cal, as fly repellant
and treating maggot wounds.
20. Zinc oxide Soft white, odorless Antiseptic, 1. Applied locally as dusting
powder. astringent, powder, ointment or paste for
desiccant. treating eczema, superficial
wounds and burns.

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 Exercise: 11
Objectives: Compounding and dispensing of powders, ointments, mixtures, liniments,
lotions, liquors, tinctures, emulsions, and electuaries.
Objective: To prepare Triple carb powder
Ingredients:
Sodium bicarbonate powder - 2 gm
Bismuth carbonate powder - 2 gm
Magnesium carbonate - 2 gm.

Exercise:
i) Compound and dispense 1 gm of triple carb, such six.
ii) Write it in prescription form.

Procedure:

Action: Antacid
Uses: Gastritis.

Side effects: i) Excess Co2 is liberated, which distends the stomach & more of acid can
be liberated.
ii) May increase the alkali reserve of blood & lead to metabolic acidosis.

Questions: What are the side effects of this mixture & how will you overcome the side
effects produced by the compound triple carb.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 2
Objective: To prepare Antidiarrhoeal powder
Ingredients:
Bismuth subnitrate 1.8 gm
Mag. carbonate 1.8 gm
Sod. bicarbonate 1.8

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Procedure:

Exercise:
i) Compound & dispense 10.8 gm of antidiarrhoeal powder
ii) Write it in prescription form.

Action & uses: To check diarrhoea

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 3
Objective: To prepare Dusting powder
Ingredients:
Salicylic acid 4.5 gm.
Tannic acid 4.5 gm.
Zinc oxide 10 gm.
Talcum 10 gm.

Exercise i) Compound and dispense 50 gm of Dusting powder

ii) Write it in prescription form.
Procedure:

Action: Astringent, mild antiseptic

Uses: Eczematous patches.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 4
Objective: To prepare Iodine Ointment
Ingredients:
Iodine - 4.0 gm
Potassium iodide - 4.0 gm
Glycerin - 12.0 gm
Vaseline - 80.0 gm.

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Exercise: i) Compound and dispense 50 gm of iodine ointment
ii) Write it in prescription form.
Procedure:

Action: Counter irritant orrubifacient type

Uses: Swelling, sprains, Contusion, flibrous wound surface.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 5
Objective: To prepare Red Iodide of Mercury Ointment
Ingredients:
Red iodide of mercury - 2 gm.
Ointment - 98 gm.

Exercise: i)Compound and dispense 50 gm of ointment of red iodide of mercury.

ii) Write it in prescription form.
Procedure:

Action: Counter irritant of vesicant type

Use: Yoke tumor, capped elbow, capped hock exostosis of bone.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 6
Objective: To prepare Mistura Alba
Ingredients:

54
 Magnesium carbonate - 1.3 gm
Magnesium sulfate - 8.0 gm
Distilled water - 50 ml.
Exercise: i) Compound and dispense 50 ml of mistura alba.
ii) Write it in prescription form.
Procedure:

Action: Antacid & Laxative

Uses: Hyperacidity, Constipation, Indigestion etc.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 7
Objective: To prepare Turpentine Liniment (White oil)
Ingredients:
Soft soap - 9 gm
Camphor - 5 gm
Oil of Turpentine - 65 ml
Distilled water - 100 ml.

Exercise: i) Compound and dispense 100ml of turpentine liniment.

ii) Write it in prescription form.
Procedure:

Action: Stimulant, Rubifacient, Anodyne and counter irritant.

Uses: Myalgia, sprains, rheumatism.
Questions: What is the method employed in preparing this emulsion?

Signature of Instructor

55
 Exercise 8
Objective: To prepare Ammonia Liniment
Ingredients:
Camphor - 12.0 gm
Strong sol. of ammonia- 25.0 ml
(ammonia forte)
Alcohol (90%) - 100 .0 ml.

Exercise: 1) Compound and dispense 50 ml. of ammonia liniment.

2) Write it in prescription form.

Procedure:

Action: Counter irritant, vasodilatation

Uses: Myalgia, sprains.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 9
Objective: To prepare Carminative mixture
Ingredients:
Liq. Formaldehyde - 24 ml
Tr. Ginger - 20ml
Distilled water - 200ml

Exercise: 1) Compound and dispense 50 ml. of carminative mixture.

2) Write it in prescription form .

Procedure:

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Action: To expel gas from stomach
Uses : Tympany& bloat
Signature of Instructor

Exercise –10

Objective: To prepare BIPP (Bismuth sub nitrate Iodoform Paraffin Paste)

Ingredients:
Bismuth sub nitrate -25.0 gm
Iodoform - 50.0gm
Liquid Paraffin- q.s
Exercise: 1) Compound and dispense 100 gm BIPP
2) Write it in prescription form.

Procedure:

Action: Surgical debridement

Uses: i. Antiseptic
ii. Nasal and ear surgery.
Signature of Instructor

Exercise No. 11
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Liquor Iodi (BPC) .
(Synonyms: Lugol’s iodine solution, aqueous solution of iodine)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, pestle and mortar,
Measuring cylinder, dispensing bottle, label,
butter paper etc.
Chemicals: Iodine, Potassium iodide, distilled water.
Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Iodine- 5 gm 1.25 gm
Potassium iodide- 10 gm 2.5 gm
Distilled water ad up to 100 ml 25 ml

57
 Mft.- liquor
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 2.5 gm of potassium iodide on glass pan of dispensing
scale and transfer it into glass mortar containing 2.5 ml of distilled
water and triturated it till dissolved completely with the help of pestle. Then
weigh 1.25 gm of iodine directly on glass pan and transfer it into potassium
iodide solution and mix well and add more distilled water to make the final
volume 25 ml. Transfer this solution into a dispensing bottle and affix the
label on it.
Actions: Antiseptic, counter irritant, antimycotic, antigoitrogenic, and parasitcide.
Uses: ● It is painted on the site of operation for aseptic surgery.
 It is used as a uterine douche for treatment of metritis.
 Sub acute and chronic inflammatory conditions like- sprain of tendon and
ligaments.
 It can be used in case of string-halt by injecting in between the middle and
medial patellar ligaments.
 Fungal infection-Ring worm.
 It may be taken orally in case of goiter.
Precautions: * Iodine should be weighed directly on the glass pan of dispensing scale.
* Preparation should be made in glass pestle and mortar.
* Iodine should not come in contact with skin and clothes.
Home exercise: 1. Why KI is first dissolved in distilled water than iodine?

2. Define counter irritants along with examples.

3. What is the source of iodine?

4. Define antiseptics and disinfectants and give their suitable examples.

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 5. Define prescription.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise-12
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Liquor Iodi mitis (BPC).
(Synonyms: weak tincture of iodine)

Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, pestle and mortar,
measuring cylinder, dispensing bottle, label, butter
paper etc.
Chemical(s): Iodine, Potassium iodide, 90 % Alcohol, Distilled water.
Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Iodine- 2.5 gm 0.625 gm
Potassium iodide- 2.5 gm 0.625 gm
Distilled water - 2.5 ml 0.625 ml
90 % Alcohol ad up to 100 ml 25 ml
Mft.- liquor
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 0.625 gm of potassium iodide on glass pan of dispensing
scale and transfer it into glass mortar containing 0.625 ml of distilled
water, and triturate till dissolved completely with the help of pestle . Now
Weigh 0.625 gm of iodine directly on glass pan and transfer it into potassium
iodide solution and mix well and add 90 % alcohol to make the final volume
25 ml. Transfer this solution into a dispensing bottle and affix the label on it.
Actions: Antiseptic, counter irritant, antimycotic, antigoitrogenic.
Uses: ● It is painted on the site of operation for aseptic surgery.
 It is applied over cuts, bruises and for dressing of wound.

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  May be painted with little advantage over sprained area and immature
abscesses.
 Fungal infection- for Ringworm treatment in thin skinned animals.
 Ethyl alcohol preparation of weak solution of iodine may be used orally
for treatment of goiter.
Precautions: * Iodine should be weighed directly on the glass pan of dispensing scale.
* Preparation should be made in glass pestle and mortar.
* Iodine should not come in contact with skin and clothes.

Home exercise: 1. Write down the mechanism of action of iodine and potassium iodide.

2. Define tincture.

3. What do you mean by “mitis” and “ fortis”?

4. Why do we add potassium iodide to any pharmaceutical formulation of

iodine ?

Signature of Instructor

Exercise -13
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Liquor Iodi fortis (BPC).
(Synonyms: Strong solution of iodine, strong tincture of iodine)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, pestle and mortar,
measuring cylinder, dispensing bottle, label, butter
paper etc.
Chemical(s): Iodine, Potassium iodide, 90 % Alcohol, Distilled water.

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 Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Iodine- 10 gm 2.5 gm
Potassium iodide- 6.0 gm 1.5 gm
Distilled water 10 ml 2.5 ml
90 % Alcohol ad up to 100 ml 25 ml
Mft.- liquor
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 1.5 gm of potassium iodide on glass pan of dispensing
scale and transfer it into glass mortar containing 2.5 ml of distilled
water, and triturate till dissolved completely with the help of pestle . Then
weigh 2.5 gm of iodine directly on glass pan and transfer it into potassium
iodide solution and mix well and finally add 90 % alcohol to make the volume
25 ml. Transfer this solution into a dispensing bottle and affix the label on it.
Actions: Antiseptic, counter irritant, antimycotic and parasiticide.
Uses: ● Fungal infection- for treatment of ringworm in thick skinned animals.
 For antiseptic use, it is diluted 3 times with the alcohol.
 It is used in chronic inflammatory condition of lymph glands, bursal
enlargement and other similar type conditions.
Precautions: * Iodine should be weighed directly on the glass pan of dispensing scale.
* Preparation should be made on glass pestle and mortar.
* Iodine should not come in contact with skin and clothes.
* Use it only externally.
Signature of Instructor
Exercise 14
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Liquor Acriflavin (BPC).
(Synonyms: Acriflavin solution)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, beaker (100 ml),
measuring cylinder, dispensing bottle, glass rod,
label, butter paper etc.
Chemical(s): sodium chloride, acriflavin, and distilled water.

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 Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Acriflavin- 100 mg 25 mg
Normal saline (0.9%) 100ml 25 ml
Mft.- liquor
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 25 mg of acriflvin on dispensing scale and transfer it into a
beaker. Then add few drops of saline solution. Dissolve it completely with the help of glass
rod and make final volume 25 ml by adding more saline solution. Transfer this solution into
a dispensing bottle and affix the label on it.
Action : Non irritant antiseptic.
Uses: ● It is used for washing of wound in concentration of 1:1000.
 For washing of uterus as in case of metritis.
 1.0 % cream or ointment of acriflavin can be applied over bruises.
 Medicated gauze prepared form acriflavin solution used for packing of
cavities.
 It is also used for treatment of mastitis.
Precautions: * Acriflavin solution should always be prepared in normal saline.
Home exercise: 1.What percentage of sodium chloride is used for preparation of normal
saline?

2. Why acriflavin solution should prepare in normal saline?

3. What are liquors?

Signature of Instructor

62
 Exercise 15
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Liquor Potassium permanganate (BPC).
(Synonyms: PP solution, Potassium Permanganate solution)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, beaker (100 ml),
measuring cylinder, dispensing bottle, glass rod,
label, butter paper etc.
Chemical(s): Potassium permanganate powder and distilled water.
Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Potassium per magnate- 1.0 gm 250 mg
Distilled water ad 100ml 25 ml
Mft.- liquor
Sig.- to be used as directed

Method: Weigh exactly 250 mg of Potassium permanganate on dispensing scale and

transfer it into a beaker. Then add few drops of distilled water .Dissolve it
properly with the help of glass rod. The final volume is making to 25 ml by
adding more distilled water. Transfer this solution into a dispensing bottle and
affix the label on it.
Actions: Antiseptic, disinfectant and deodorant.
Uses: ●It is used for irrigation of wound and ulcers in conc. of 1:1000 ml in
distilled water.
 For washing of uterus as in case of metritis and vaginitis in concentration
of 1:4000 to 1: 1000.
 5.0 % solution of pot. Permanganate is used for prevention of excessive
granulation of wound.
 It is used for treatment of ulcer for removal of necrosed non-healing
tissue.
 Antidote of opium poisoning.

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Precautions: *.Potassium permanganate should be weighed directly on the glass pan of
dispensing scale.
* Preparation should not come in contact with skin, clothes and metallic
objects due to its corrosive nature.
* Reading of solution should be taken at upper meniscus.
Home exercise: 1. Define antiseptics, disinfectants and deodorants.

2. What is the chemical nature of potassium permanganate?

3. How does it help in opium poisoning?

4. Why only dilute solution of potassium permanganate is used?

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 16
Objective- To prepare 25 gm of Unguentum Simplex (BPC).
(Synonyms: Simple ointment)
Articles required-Lab and Glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, glass rod, enamel
cup, fire tongs label, metal spatula, gallipot ,butter
paper, label, water bath etc.
Chemical(s): Wool fat, hard paraffin, yellow or soft paraffin.
Prescription formulae for 100 gm for 25 gm
Rx
Hard paraffin- 10.0 gm 2.5 gm
Wool fat- 5.0 gm 1.25 gm
Yellow/soft paraffin- 85 gm 21.25 gm
Mft.- unguentum
Sig.- to be used as directed

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Method: Weigh exactly 2.5 gm hard paraffin, 1.25 gm wool fat and 21.25 gm soft
paraffin on butter paper of dispensing scale and transfer it into a enamel cup. Then heat on
water bath till melting. Transfer the ointment into a gallipot and label on it.
Actions: Emollient- Wool fat and hard paraffin are used as emollient and base.
Hard paraffin also provides stiffness to the ointment.
Soft paraffin has emollient, protective, lubricant action and also
acts as base for other ointment.
Uses:
 It is applied on dry, rough skin for soothing action.
 It is also applied on crack teats.
 Act as base for preparation of other ointment.
Precautions: *. Charring should be avoided while melting of ingredients.
* Ingredients should be mixed properly.
Home exercise: Define emollients and ointments.

Signature of Instructor

Exercise 17
Objective- To prepare 25 gm of Unguentum Zinc Oxide (BPC).
(Synonyms: Zinc oxide ointment, zinc ointment or unguentum zinc)
Articles required-Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, glass rod, enamel
cup, fire tongs label, metal spatula, gallipot ,butter
paper, label, water bath etc.
Chemical(s): Zinc oxide powder, wool fat, hard paraffin, yellow or soft
paraffin.
Prescription formulae for 100 gm for 25 gm
Rx
Zinc oxide finally shifted- 15.0 gm 3.75 gm
simple ointment- 85.0 gm 21.25 gm
Mft.- unguentum
Sig.- to be used as directed

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Method: Weigh exactly 21.25 gm of simple ointment. Place it at the corner of ointment
slab and then weigh 3.75 gm of zinc oxide powder and place it at the centre of
ointment slab. Take a few parts of zinc oxide and a few parts of simple
ointment and mix thoroughly with the help of metal spatula so that it becomes
homogenous. Transfer it into a gallipot and label on it.
Actions: Mild astringent, antiseptic and desiccant.
Simple ointment acts as emollient, protective action and also as base for zinc
oxide.
Uses: ● It is applied on superficial wound likes bruises and cuts.
 It is also applied on cracked teats of animals.
 It is applied for treatment of weeping and moist eczema.
Precautions: * Grittiness of zinc oxide must be removed completely before making
ointment.
Home exercise: Define astringent sand desiccants.

What do you mean by weeping eczema?

Signature of Instructor
Exercise 18
Objective- To prepare 25 gm of Unguentum Paraffin (BPC).
(Synonyms: Paraffin ointment)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, glass rod, enamel
cup, fire tongs label, metal spatula, gallipot ,butter
paper, label, water bath etc.
Chemical(s): White bee wax, hard paraffin, yellow or soft paraffin.
Prescription formulae for 100 gm for 25 gm
Rx
White bee wax- 2.0 gm 0.5 gm
Hard paraffin- 8.0 gm 2.0 gm
Soft paraffin- 90 gm 22.5 gm
Mft.- unguentum
Sig.- to be used as directed

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Method: Weigh of 0.5 gm, 2.0 gm and 22.5 gm white bee wax, hard paraffin and soft
paraffin respectively and transfer these ingredients into an enamel cup. Gently heat these
ingredients on heater or water bath and stir with the help of glass rod. Filter the ingredients
through muslin cloth. Transfer the preparation into a gallipot and label on it.
Actions: Emollient.
Bee wax does not decompose or melt at body temperature. It increases
consistency of ointment and plaster.
Hard paraffin is emollient, base and provides stiffness to ointment
Soft paraffin has emollient, protective, lubricant action and also acts as base
for other ointments.
Uses: ● It is applied on dry and rough skin for soothing action.
 It is also applied on cracked teats.
 Act as base for preparation of other ointments.
Precautions: *. Charring should be avoided while melting of ingredients.
* Ingredients should be mixed properly.

Signature of Instructor
Exercise 19
Objective- To prepare 25 gm of Unguentum Acidi Borici (BPC).
(Synonyms: Boric acid ointment or boric ointment)
Articles required- Lab and Glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, glass rod, enamel-
cup, fire tongs label, metal spatula, gallipot, butter
paper, water bath, label etc.
Chemical(s): Boric acid powder, paraffin ointment.
Prescription formulae for 100 gm for 25 gm
Rx
Boric acid- 1.0 gm 250 mg
Paraffin ointment- 99.0 gm 24.75 gm
Mft.- unguentum
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 24.75 gm of paraffin ointment. Place it at the corner of ointment slab
and then weigh 0.25 gm of boric acid powder and place it at the centre of ointment slab.

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Take a few parts of boric acid and a few parts of paraffin ointment and mix thoroughly with
the help of metal spatula so that it becomes homogenous. Transfer it into a gallipot and label
on it.
Actions: Emollient, antiseptic and antifungal.
Uses: ● It is applied on boils and wounds for healing.
 It is also used for treatment of conjunctivitis.
 Treatment of eczematous condition of skin in dogs.
Precautions: *. Charring should be avoided while melting of ingredients.
* Ingredients should be mixed properly.

Signature of Instructor
Exercise-20
Objective- To prepare 25 gm of Whitfield Ointment (BPC).
(Synonyms: Compound ointment of benzoic acid)
Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, glass rod, enamel
cup, fire tongs, metal spatula, gallipot ,butter paper,
water bath, label etc.
Chemical(s): Benzoic acid powder, salicylic acid, polyethylene glycol
paraffin ointment.
Prescription formulae for 100 gm for 25 gm
Rx
Benzoic acid- 6.0 gm 1.5 gm
Salicylic acid- 3.0 gm 0.75 gm
Vaseline/emulsifying ointment
or polyethylene glycol 91 gm 22.75 gm
Mft.- unguentum
Sig.- to be used as directed
Method: Weigh exactly 1.5gm benzoic acid and place it over the right corner of ointment
slab. Then weigh 0.75 gm of salicylic acid and place it at the left corner of ointment slab.
These two powders are mix properly. Weigh 22.75 gm poly ethylene glycol or vaseline or
emulsifying ointment and place on the right corner of ointment slab then small amount of
base is mix with small amount of benzoic and salicylic acid powder and thoroughly mix with

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the help of metal spatula, so as to obtained a homogenous mass. Transfer it into a gallipot
and label.
Actions: Salicylic acid has antiseptic, parasiticides and keratolytic actions.
Benzoic acid has antiseptic, antifungal and haemostatic actions.
Vaseline/emulsifying ointment act as emollient and protective actions.
Uses: ● It is used for the treatment of eczema, ringworm, seborrhea, urticaria and
psoriasis.
 It is also used in keratolytic preparation for treatment of warts and corn.

Home exercise: Define keratolytics.

Why salicylic acid is added to Whitfield ointment?

Classify antifungal agents based on the uses.

Signature of Instructor

69
 Exercise 21
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Gention Volet Solution (BPC) .

Articles required- Lab and glass ware: Dispensing scale, weigh box, measuring cylinder,
beaker 100ml, dispensing bottle, label ,butter paper
etc.
Chemicals: Gention violet powder and distilled water.
Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Gention violet powder - 0. 5 gm 0.125 gm
Distilled water ad up to -100 ml 25 ml
Mft.- Solution
Sig.- to be used as directed

Method: Weigh exactly 0.125 gm of gention violet powder and transfer it into a beaker
and add few drops of distilled water. Mix well with help of glass rod and
make final volume of 25 ml by adding more distilled water. Transfer this
solution into a dispensing bottle and affix the label.
Action: Non irritant antiseptic with selective action against gram positive organisms.
Uses:
 0.5 % aqueous solution of gention violet is used for treatment of burns,
boils and carbuncles.
 May be used externally for the treatment of skin mycotic infection.

Signature of Instructor

70
 Exercise-22
Objective- To prepare 25 ml of Trypan Blue Solution (BPC) .

Articles required- Lab and glass wares: Dispensing scale, weigh box, measuring cylinder,
beaker 100ml, dispensing bottle, label ,butter
paper etc.
Chemical(s): Trypan blue powder and distilled water.
Prescription formulae for 100 ml for 25 ml
Rx
Trypan blue powder- 1.0 gm 0.25 gm
Distilled water ad up to -100 ml 25 ml
Mft.- Solution
Sig.- to be used as directed

Method: Weigh exactly 0.250 gm of trypan blue powder and transfer it into a beaker
and add few drops of distilled water. Mix well with the help of glass rod and
make the final volume 25 ml by adding more distilled water. Transfer this
solution into a dispensing bottle and affix the label on it.
Action and use: For treatment of babesiosis in dogs by intravenously.

Disadvantage: * Perivascular leakage in the tissue lead to irritation and sloughing.

* Coloration of flesh .So drug clearance time should be given to
the animal at least one week.
Precaution: Solution of trypan blue should be prepared in sterile conditions.
Dose: Dogs -5-10 ml (1%)
Cattle- 50-100 ml (1%)

Signature of Instructor

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