Anthropocene: - Oh-, - THR P

Anthropocene
The Anthropocene (/ænˈθrɒp.əˌsiːn, -ˈθrɒp.oʊ-, ˈænθrəpəˌsiːn/ ann-THROP-ə-seen, -THROP-oh-, ANN-thrə-

pə-seen)[1] is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on
Earth's geology and ecosystems, including, but not limited to, anthropogenic climate change.[2][3][4][5][6]
As of March 2021, neither the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) nor the International Union of
Geological Sciences (IUGS) has officially approved the term as a recognised subdivision of geologic
time,[4][7][8] although the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) of the Subcommission on Quaternary
Stratigraphy (SQS) of the ICS voted in April 2016 to proceed towards a formal golden spike (GSSP) proposal
to define the Anthropocene epoch in the geologic time scale and presented the recommendation to the
International Geological Congress in August 2016.[9] In May 2019, the AWG voted in favour of submitting a
formal proposal to the ICS by 2021,[10] locating potential stratigraphic markers to the mid-twentieth century of
the common era.[11][10][12] This time period coincides with the start of the Great Acceleration, a post-WWII
time period during which socioeconomic and Earth system trends increase at a dramatic rate,[13] and the
Atomic Age.
Various start dates for the Anthropocene have been proposed, ranging from the beginning of the Agricultural
Revolution 12,000–15,000 years ago, to as recently as the 1960s. The ratification process is still ongoing, and
thus a date remains to be decided definitively, but the peak in radionuclides fallout consequential to atomic
bomb testing during the 1950s has been more favoured than others, locating a possible beginning of the
Anthropocene to the detonation of the first atomic bomb in 1945, or the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in
1963.[10]
Contents
General
Etymology
Nature of human effects
Homogenocene
Biodiversity
Biogeography and nocturnality
Climate
Geomorphology
Stratigraphy
Sedimentological record
Fossil record
Trace elements
Temporal limit
"Early anthropocene" model
Antiquity
European colonization of the Americas
Industrial Revolution
Great Acceleration
Anthropocene markers
In culture
Humanities
Popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links
General
An early concept for the Anthropocene was the Noosphere by Vladimir Vernadsky, who in 1938 wrote of
"scientific thought as a geological force".[14] Scientists in the Soviet Union appear to have used the term
"anthropocene" as early as the 1960s to refer to the Quaternary, the most recent geological period.[15]
Ecologist Eugene F. Stoermer subsequently used "anthropocene" with a different sense in the 1980s[16] and
the term was widely popularised in 2000 by atmospheric chemist Paul J. Crutzen,[17] who regards the
influence of human behavior on Earth's atmosphere in recent centuries as so significant as to constitute a new
geological epoch.
In 2008, the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London considered a proposal to make the
Anthropocene a formal unit of geological epoch divisions.[4][18] A majority of the commission decided the
proposal had merit and should be examined further. Independent working groups of scientists from various
geological societies have begun to determine whether the Anthropocene will be formally accepted into the
Geological Time Scale.[19]
The term "anthropocene" is informally used in

scientific contexts.[21] The Geological Society of The pressures we exert on the planet have become so
America entitled its 2011 annual meeting: Archean great that scientists are considering whether the Earth has
entered an entirely new geological epoch: the
to Anthropocene: The past is the key to the
Anthropocene, or the age of humans. It means that we are
future.[22] The new epoch has no agreed start-date, the first people to live in an age defined by human choice,
but one proposal, based on atmospheric evidence, in which the dominant risk to our survival is ourselves.
is to fix the start with the Industrial Revolution
c. 1780, with the invention of the steam —Achim Steiner, UNDP Administrator[20]
engine. [18][23] Other scientists link the new term to
earlier events, such as the rise of agriculture and the
Neolithic Revolution (around 12,000 years BP).
Evidence of relative human impact – such as the growing human influence on land use, ecosystems,
biodiversity, and species extinction – is substantial; scientists think that human impact has significantly
changed (or halted) the growth of biodiversity.[24][25][26][27][28] Those arguing for earlier dates posit that the
proposed Anthropocene may have begun as early as 14,000–15,000 years BP, based on geologic evidence;
this has led other scientists to suggest that "the onset of the Anthropocene should be extended back many
thousand years";[29]:1 this would make the Anthropocene essentially synonymous with the current term,
Holocene.
In January 2015, 26 of the 38 members of the International Anthropocene Working Group published a paper
suggesting the Trinity test on 16 July 1945 as the starting point of the proposed new epoch.[30] However, a
significant minority supports one of several alternative dates.[30] A March 2015 report suggested either 1610
or 1964 as the beginning of the Anthropocene.[31] Other scholars point to the diachronous character of the
physical strata of the Anthropocene, arguing that onset and impact are
spread out over time, not reducible to a single instant or date of
start.[32]
A January 2016 report on the climatic, biological, and geochemical

signatures of human activity in sediments and ice cores suggested the
era since the mid-20th century should be recognised as a geological
epoch distinct from the Holocene.[33]
The Anthropocene Working Group met in Oslo in April 2016 to The Trinity test in July 1945 has
consolidate evidence supporting the argument for the Anthropocene been proposed as the start of the
Anthropocene.
as a true geologic epoch.[34] Evidence was evaluated and the group
voted to recommend "Anthropocene" as the new geological age in
August 2016.[9] Should the International Commission on Stratigraphy
approve the recommendation, the proposal to adopt the term will have to be ratified by the IUGS before its
formal adoption as part of the geologic time scale.[8]
In April 2019, the Anthropocene Working Group announced that they would vote on a formal proposal to the
International Commission on Stratigraphy, to continue the process started at the 2016 meeting.[12] In May
2019, 29 members of the 34 person AWG panel voted in favour of an official proposal to be made by 2021.
The AWG also voted with 29 votes in favour of a starting date in the mid 20th century. Ten candidate sites for
a Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point have been identified, one of which will be chosen to be
included in the final proposal.[10][11] Possible markers include microplastics, heavy metals, or the radioactive
nuclei left by tests from thermonuclear weapons.[35]
Etymology
The name Anthropocene is a combination of anthropo- from anthropos (Ancient Greek: ἄνθρωπος) meaning
"human" and -cene from kainos (Ancient Greek: καινός) meaning "new" or "recent."[36][37]
As early as 1873, the Italian geologist Antonio Stoppani acknowledged the increasing power and effect of
humanity on the Earth's systems and referred to an 'anthropozoic era'.[38]
`Although the biologist Eugene F. Stoermer is often credited with coining the term "anthropocene", it was in
informal use in the mid-1970s. Paul J. Crutzen is credited with independently re-inventing and popularising it.
Stoermer wrote, "I began using the term 'anthropocene' in the 1980s, but never formalised it until Paul
contacted me."[39] Crutzen has explained, "I was at a conference where someone said something about the
Holocene. I suddenly thought this was wrong. The world has changed too much. So I said: 'No, we are in the
Anthropocene.' I just made up the word on the spur of the moment. Everyone was shocked. But it seems to
have stuck."[40]:21[41] In 2008, Zalasiewicz suggested in GSA Today that an anthropocene epoch is now
appropriate.[18]
Nature of human effects
Homogenocene
Homogenocene (from old Greek: homo-, same; geno-, kind; kainos-, new;) is a more specific term used to
define our current geological epoch, in which biodiversity is diminishing and biogeography and ecosystems
around the globe seem more and more similar to one another mainly due to invasive species that have been
introduced around the globe either on purpose (crops, livestock) or inadvertently. This is due to the newfound
globalism that humans participate in, as species traveling across the world to another region was not as easily
possible in any point of time in history as it is today.[42]
The term Homogenocene was first used by Michael Samways in his editorial article in the Journal of Insect
Conservation from 1999 titled "Translocating fauna to foreign lands: Here comes the Homogenocene."[43]
The term was used again by John L. Curnutt in the year 2000 in Ecology, in a short list titled "A Guide to the
Homogenocene",[44] which reviewed Alien species in North America and Hawaii: impacts on natural
ecosystems by George Cox. Charles C. Mann, in his acclaimed book 1493: Uncovering the New World
Columbus Created, gives a bird's-eye view of the mechanisms and ongoing implications of the
homogenocene.[45]
Biodiversity
The human impact on

biodiversity forms one of the
primary attributes of the
Anthropocene. [47] Humankind
has entered what is sometimes
called the Earth's sixth major
extinction.[48][49][50][51][52] Most
experts agree that human
activities have accelerated the
rate of species extinction.[26][53]
The exact rate remains
controversial – perhaps 100 to
Forest Landscape Integrity Index showing anthropogenic modification of
1000 times the normal
remaining forest.[46]
background rate of
extinction. [54][55] A 2010 study
found that
marine phytoplankton – the vast range of tiny algae species accounting for roughly half of Earth's
total photosynthetic biomass – has declined substantially in the world's oceans over the past
century. From 1950 alone, algal biomass decreased by around 40%, probably in response to
ocean warming[56]
– and that the decline had gathered pace in recent years.[56] Some authors have postulated that without human
impacts the biodiversity of the planet would continue to grow at an exponential rate.[24]
Increases in global rates of extinction have been elevated above background rates since at least 1500, and
appear to have accelerated in the 19th century and further since.[3] A New York Times op-ed on 13 July 2012
by ecologist Roger Bradbury predicted the end of biodiversity for the oceans, labelling coral reefs doomed:
"Coral reefs will be the first, but certainly not the last, major ecosystem to succumb to the Anthropocene."[57]
This op-ed quickly generated much discussion among conservationists; The Nature Conservancy rebutted
Bradbury on its website, defending its position of protecting coral reefs despite continued human impacts
causing reef declines.[58]
In a pair of studies published in 2015, extrapolation from observed extinction of Hawaiian snails of the family
Amastridae, led to the conclusion that "the biodiversity crisis is real", and that 7% of all species on Earth may
have disappeared already.[59][60] Human predation was noted as being unique in the history of life on Earth as
being a globally distributed 'superpredator', with predation of the adults of other apex predators and with
widespread impact on food webs worldwide.[61] A study published in May 2017 in Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences noted that a "biological annihilation" akin to a sixth mass extinction event is
underway as a result of anthropogenic causes. The study suggested that as much as 50% of animal individuals
that once lived on Earth are already extinct.[62][63] A different study published in PNAS in May 2018 says that
since the dawn of human civilization, 83% of wild mammals have disappeared. Today, livestock makes up
60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).[64][65]
According to the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES, 25% of
plant and animal species are threatened with extinction.[66][67][68] According to the World Wildlife Fund's
2020 Living Planet Report, 68% of wildlife populations have declined between 1970 and 2016 as a result of
overconsumption, population growth and intensive farming, and the report asserts that "the findings are clear.
Our relationship with nature is broken."[69][70] However, a 2020 study disputed the findings of the Living
Planet Report, finding that the 68% decline number was being influenced down by a very small amount
extreme outliers and when these were not included, the decline was less steep, or even stable if other outliers
were not included.[71] A 2021 paper published in Frontiers in Conservation Science, which cites both of the
aforementioned studies, says "population sizes of vertebrate species that have been monitored across years
have declined by an average of 68% over the last five decades, with certain population clusters in extreme
decline, thus presaging the imminent extinction of their species."[72]
Biogeography and nocturnality
Permanent changes in the distribution of organisms from human influence will become identifiable in the
geologic record. Researchers have documented the movement of many species into regions formerly too cold
for them, often at rates faster than initially expected.[73] This has occurred in part as a result of changing
climate, but also in response to farming and fishing, and to the accidental introduction of non-native species to
new areas through global travel.[3] The ecosystem of the entire Black Sea may have changed during the last
2000 years as a result of nutrient and silica input from eroding deforested lands along the Danube
River.[74][75]
Researchers have found that the growth of the human population and expansion of human activity has resulted
in many species of animals that are normally active during the day, such as elephants, tigers and boars,
becoming nocturnal to avoid contact with humans.[76][75]
Climate
One geological symptom resulting from human activity is increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
content. During the glacial–interglacial cycles of the past million years, natural processes have varied CO2 by
approximately 100 ppm (from 180 ppm to 280 ppm)[77] As of 2013, anthropogenic net emissions of CO2 have
increased atmospheric concentration by a comparable amount: From 280 ppm (Holocene or pre-industrial
"equilibrium") to approximately 400 ppm,[78] with 2015–2016 monthly monitoring data of CO2 displaying a
rising trend above 400 ppm.[77] This signal in the Earth's climate system is especially significant because it is
occurring much faster,[79] and to a greater extent, than previous, similar changes. Most of this increase is due
to the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, although smaller fractions result from cement
production and from land-use changes (such as deforestation).
Geomorphology
Changes in drainage patterns traceable to human activity will persist over geologic time in large parts of the
continents where the geologic regime is erosional. This involves, for example, the paths of roads and highways
defined by their grading and drainage control. Direct changes to the form of the Earth's surface by human
activities (quarrying and landscaping, for example) also record human impacts.
It has been suggested that the deposition of calthemite formations exemplify a natural process which has not
previously occurred prior to the human modification of the Earth's surface, and which therefore represents a
unique process of the Anthropocene.[80] Calthemite is a secondary deposit, derived from concrete, lime,
mortar or other calcareous material outside the cave environment.[81] Calthemites grow on or under man-made
structures (including mines and tunnels) and mimic the shapes and forms of cave speleothems, such as
stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone etc.
Stratigraphy
Sedimentological record
Human activities like deforestation and road construction are believed to have elevated average total sediment
fluxes across the Earth's surface.[3] However, construction of dams on many rivers around the world means the
rates of sediment deposition in any given place do not always appear to increase in the Anthropocene. For
instance, many river deltas around the world are actually currently starved of sediment by such dams, and are
subsiding and failing to keep up with sea level rise, rather than growing.[3][82]
Fossil record
Increases in erosion due to farming and other operations will be reflected by changes in sediment composition
and increases in deposition rates elsewhere. In land areas with a depositional regime, engineered structures will
tend to be buried and preserved, along with litter and debris. Litter and debris thrown from boats or carried by
rivers and creeks will accumulate in the marine environment, particularly in coastal areas. Such man-made
artifacts preserved in stratigraphy are known as "technofossils".[3][83]
Changes in biodiversity will also be reflected in the fossil record, as will species introductions. An example
cited is the domestic chicken, originally the red junglefowl Gallus gallus, native to south-east Asia but has
since become the world's most common bird through human breeding and consumption, with over 60 billion
consumed annually and whose bones would become fossilised in landfill sites.[84] Hence, landfills are
important resources to find "technofossils".[85]
Trace elements
In terms of trace elements, there are distinct signatures left by modern societies. For example, in the Upper
Fremont Glacier in Wyoming, there is a layer of chlorine present in ice cores from 1960's atomic weapon
testing programs, as well as a layer of mercury associated with coal plants in the 1980s. From 1945 to 1951,
nuclear fallout is found locally around atomic device test sites, whereas from 1952 to 1980, tests of
14 239
thermonuclear devices have left a clear, global signal of excess C, Pu, and other artificial radionuclides.
The highest global concentration of radionuclides was in 1965, one of the dates which has been proposed as a
possible benchmark for the start of the formally defined Anthropocene.[86]
Human burning of fossil fuels has also left distinctly elevated
concentrations of black carbon, inorganic ash, and spherical
carbonaceous particles in recent sediments across the world.
Concentrations of these components increases markedly and almost
simultaneously around the world beginning around 1950.[3]
Temporal limit
"Early anthropocene" model
William Ruddiman has argued that the Anthropocene began

approximately 8,000 years ago with the development of farming and
sedentary cultures.[87] At this point, humans were dispersed across all
of the continents (except Antarctica), and the Neolithic Revolution
was ongoing. During this period, humans developed agriculture and Technofossils
animal husbandry to supplement or replace hunter-gatherer
subsistence.[88] Such innovations were followed by a wave of
extinctions, beginning with large mammals and land birds. This wave was driven by both the direct activity of
humans (e.g. hunting) and the indirect consequences of land-use change for agriculture. Landscape-scale
burning by prehistoric hunter-gathers may have been an additional early source of anthropogenic atmospheric
carbon.[89]
Ruddiman also claims that the greenhouse gas emissions in-part responsible for the Anthropocene began
8,000 years ago when ancient farmers cleared forests to grow crops.[90][91][92] Ruddiman's work has, in turn,
been challenged with data from an earlier interglaciation ("Stage 11", approximately 400,000 years ago) which
suggests that 16,000 more years must elapse before the current Holocene interglaciation comes to an end, and
thus the early anthropogenic hypothesis is invalid.[93] Furthermore, the argument that "something" is needed to
explain the differences in the Holocene is challenged by more recent research showing that all interglacials
differ.[94]
Although 8,000 years ago the planet sustained a few million people, it was still fundamentally pristine.[95] This
claim is the basis for an assertion that an early date for the proposed Anthropocene term does account for a
substantial human footprint on Earth.[96]
Antiquity
One plausible starting point of the Anthropocene could be at c. 2,000 years ago, which roughly coincides with
the start of the final phase of Holocene, the Sub Atlantic.[97]
At this time, the Roman Empire encompassed large portions of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. In
China the classical dynasties were flowering. The Middle kingdoms of India had already the largest economy
of the ancient and medieval world. The Napata/Meroitic kingdom extended over the current Sudan and
Ethiopia. The Olmecs controlled central Mexico and Guatemala, and the pre-Incan Chavín people managed
areas of northern Peru.[98] Although often apart from each other and intermixed with buffering ecosystems, the
areas directly impacted by these civilisations and others were large. Additionally, some activities, such as
mining, implied much more widespread perturbation of natural conditions.[99][100] Over the last 11,500 years
or so humans have spread around Earth, increased in number, and profoundly altered the material world. They
have taken advantage of global environmental conditions not of their own making. The end of the last glacial
period – when as much as 30% of Earth's surface was ice-bound – led to a warmer world with more water
(H2O). Although humans existed in the previous Pleistocene epoch, it is only in the recent Holocene period
that they have flourished. Today there are more humans alive than at any previous point in Earth's history.[5]
European colonization of the Americas
Maslin and Lewis argue that the start of the Anthropocene should be dated to the Orbis Spike, a trough in
carbon dioxide levels associated with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. Reaching a minimum around
1610, global carbon dioxide levels were depressed below 285 parts per million, largely as a result of
sequestration due to forest regrowth in the Americas. This was likely caused by indigenous peoples
abandoning farmland following a sharp population decline due to initial contact with European diseases –
around 50 million people or 90% of the indigenous population may have succumbed. For Maslin and Lewis,
the Orbis Spike represents a GSSP, a kind of marker used to define the start of a new geological period. They
also go on to say that associating the Anthropocene to European arrival in the Americas makes sense given
that the continent's colonization was instrumental in the development of global trade networks and the
capitalist economy, which played a significant role in initiating the Industrial Revolution and the Great
Acceleration.[101][102]
A number of other anthropologists, geographers, and postcolonial, settler colonial, and Indigenous theorists
have linked the Anthropocene to the rise of European colonialism.[103][104][105][102][106][107][108] Because of
these arguments, it has been suggested that the epoch should instead be called "The Kleptocene" in order to
call "attention to colonialism’s ongoing theft of land, lives (both human and nonhuman), and materials" that are
"in large part responsible for contemporary ecological crisis."[109]
Industrial Revolution
Crutzen proposed the Industrial Revolution as the start of Anthropocene.[38] Lovelock proposes that the
Anthropocene began with the first application of the Newcomen atmospheric engine in 1712.[110] The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change takes the pre-industrial era (chosen as the year 1750) as the
baseline related to changes in long-lived, well mixed greenhouse gases.[111] Although it is apparent that the
Industrial Revolution ushered in an unprecedented global human impact on the planet,[112] much of Earth's
landscape already had been profoundly modified by human activities.[113] The human impact on Earth has
grown progressively, with few substantial slowdowns.
Great Acceleration
In May 2019 the twenty-nine members of the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) proposed a start date for
the Epoch in the mid-twentieth century, as that period saw "a rapidly rising human population accelerated the
pace of industrial production, the use of agricultural chemicals and other human activities. At the same time,
the first atomic-bomb blasts littered the globe with radioactive debris that became embedded in sediments and
glacial ice, becoming part of the geologic record." The official start-dates, according to the panel, would
coincide with either the radionuclides released into the atmosphere from bomb detonations in 1945, or with the
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963.[114]
Anthropocene markers
A marker that accounts for a substantial global impact of humans on the total environment, comparable in scale
to those associated with significant perturbations of the geological past, is needed in place of minor changes in
atmosphere composition.[115][116]
A useful candidate for this purpose is the pedosphere, which can retain information of its climatic and
geochemical history with features lasting for centuries or millennia.[117] Human activity is now firmly
established as the sixth factor of soil formation.[118] It affects pedogenesis directly by, for example, land
levelling, trenching and embankment building, organic matter enrichment from additions of manure or other
waste, organic matter impoverishment due to continued cultivation and compaction from overgrazing. Human
activity also affects pedogenesis indirectly by drift of eroded materials or pollutants. Anthropogenic soils are
those markedly affected by human activities, such as repeated ploughing, the addition of fertilisers,
contamination, sealing, or enrichment with artefacts (in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources they are
classified as Anthrosols and Technosols). They are recalcitrant repositories of artefacts and properties that
testify to the dominance of the human impact, and hence appear to be reliable markers for the Anthropocene.
Some anthropogenic soils may be viewed as the 'golden spikes' of geologists (Global Boundary Stratotype
Section and Point), which are locations where there are strata successions with clear evidences of a worldwide
event, including the appearance of distinctive fossils.[97] Drilling for fossil fuels has also created holes and
tubes which are expected to be detectable for millions of years.[119] The astrobiologist David Grinspoon has
proposed that the site of the Apollo 11 Lunar landing, with the disturbances and artifacts that are so uniquely
characteristic of our species' technological activity and which will survive over geological time spans could be
considered as the 'golden spike' of the Anthropocene.[120]
An October 2020 study coordinated by University of Colorado at Boulder found that distinct physical,
chemical and biological changes to Earth's rock layers began around the year 1950. The research revealed that
since about 1950, humans have doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen on the planet through industrial
production for agriculture, created a hole in the ozone layer through the industrial scale release of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), released enough greenhouse gasses from fossil fuels to cause planetary level
climate change, created tens of thousands of synthetic mineral-like compounds that do not naturally occur on
Earth, and caused almost one-fifth of river sediment worldwide to no longer reach the ocean due to dams,
reservoirs and diversions. Humans have produced so many millions of tons of plastic each year since the early
1950s that microplastics are "forming a near-ubiquitous and unambiguous marker of Anthropocene".[121][122]
The study highlights a strong correlation between global human population size and growth, global
productivity and global energy use and that the "extraordinary outburst of consumption and productivity
demonstrates how the Earth System has departed from its Holocene state since ~1950 CE, forcing abrupt
physical, chemical and biological changes to the Earth’s stratigraphic record that can be used to justify the
proposal for naming a new epoch—the Anthropocene."[122]
A December 2020 study published in Nature found that the total anthropogenic mass, or human-made
materials, outweighs all the biomass on earth, and highlighted that "this quantification of the human enterprise
gives a mass-based quantitative and symbolic characterization of the human-induced epoch of the
Anthropocene."[123][124]
In culture
Humanities
The concept of the Anthropocene has also been approached via humanities such as philosophy, literature and
art. In the scholarly world, it has been the subject of increasing attention through special journals,[125] and
conferences,[126][127] and disciplinary reports.[128] The Anthropocene, its attendant timescale, and ecological
implications prompt questions about death and the end of civilisation,[129] memory and archives,[130] the
scope and methods of humanistic inquiry,[131] and emotional responses to the "end of nature".[132]
Historians have actively engaged the Anthropocene. In 2000, the same year that Paul Crutzen coined the term,
world historian John McNeill published Something New Under the Sun tracing the rise of human societies'
unprecedented impact on the planet in the twentieth century.[133] In 2001, historian of science Naomi Oreskes
revealed the systematic efforts to undermine trust in climate change science and went on to detail the corporate
interests delaying action on the environmental challenge.[134][135] Both McNeill and Oreskes became
members of the Anthropocene Working Group because of their work correlating human activities and
planetary transformation. In 2009, Dipesh Chakrabarty pointed to the dilemma that the Anthropocene poses
for the practice of history: on the one hand, it spells "the collapse of the age-old humanist distinction between
natural history and human history" yet, on the other, societies and individuals do not experience themselves as
"species."[136] In 2014, Julia Adeney Thomas highlighted problems of scale and value as the reasons for this
irresolvable tension between human stories and scientific ones.[137] Since 2007, historians and scientists have
been actively collaborating on multidisciplinary approaches to the Anthropocene.[138] Together with the
Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society (RCC), the Deutsches Museum (Munich, Germany)
hosted a major special exhibition on the Anthropocene from December 2014 – September 2016, "Welcome to
the Anthropocene: The Earth in Our Hands", which was then digitized as a virtual exhibition on the RCC’s
Environment & Society Portal.[139][140] In 2016, historians Christophe Bonneuil and Jean Baptiste-Fressoz
published The Shock of the Anthropocene: The Earth, History and Us in an attempt to provide "the first critical
history of the Anthropocene" through engagement with the history of science, world history, and human
development.[141]
As anthropogenic ecological crises and environmental disasters increase,[142] so too do emotional responses to
these issues. The emotional responses are inherently adaptive and with appropriate support can lead to action
and collective support. Evidence suggests that increase in reflective functioning and capacity for emotional
processing can support the emotional responses through crisis, leading to stronger societal responses and
individual resilience.[143]
Controversy
The 'anthropocene' has been also criticized as an ideological construct.[144] Some environmental scholars
suggest that "Capitalocene" is a more historically appropriate term.[145][146] At the same time, others suggest
that the Anthropocene ignores systematic inequalities, such as imperialism and racism, that have contributed to
the environmental degradation that would mark the Epoch.[147][108] In this vein, some thinkers have proposed
the "Plantationocene" as a more appropriate term to call attention to the role that plantation agriculture has
played in the formation of the Epoch, as it marks "the ways that plantation logics organize modern economies,
environments, bodies, and social relations".[148][149]
Popular culture
The concept gained attention of the public via documentary films such as The Antarctica
Challenge: A Global Warning, The Polar Explorer, L'homme a mangé la Terre, Anthropocene:
The Human Epoch and Anthropocene.
David Grinspoon makes a further distinction in the Anthropocene, namely the "proto-
Anthropocene" and "mature Anthropocene". He also mentions the term "Terra Sapiens", or
Wise Earth.[150]
In 2019, the English musician Nick Mulvey released a music video on YouTube named "In The
Anthropocene".[151] In cooperation with Sharp's Brewery, the song was recorded on 105 vinyl
records made of washed-up plastic from the Cornish coast.[152]
The Anthropocene Reviewed is a podcast and book by author John Green, where he "reviews
different facets of the human-centered planet on a five-star scale".[153]
In 2015, the American death metal band Cattle Decapitation released its seventh studio album
titled The Anthropocene Extinction.[154]
In 2020, the artist Grimes released an album titled Miss Anthropocene.
See also
Anthropocentrism
Anthropogenic biomes
Climate engineering
Control of fire by early humans
Defaunation
Ecocriticism
Geobiology
Great Transition
Holocene extinction
Human overpopulation
Hypoxia (environmental)
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
Meghalayan
Novel ecosystem
Overconsumption
Planetary boundaries
Plastic pollution
Power Down: Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World
References
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p://apnews.excite.com/article/20141014/us-sci-age-of-humans-961f501908.html). Associated
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Further reading
Bonneuil, Christophe; Fressoz, Jean-Baptiste.(2016) The Shock of the Anthropocene. The
Earth, History and Us (https://www.versobooks.com/books/2388-the-shock-of-the-anthropocen
e), Verso Books. Translated by David Fernbach. Originally published as L’événement
Anthropocène: La terre, l’histoire et nous. Le Seuil 2013
Davies, Jeremy (2016). The Birth of the Anthropocene. Oakland, CA, USA: University of
California Press. ISBN 9780520289970.
Dirzo, Rodolfo; Hillary S. Young; Mauro Galetti; Gerardo Ceballos; Nick J. B. Isaac; Ben Collen
(2014). "Defaunation in the Anthropocene" (http://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/
Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf) (PDF). Science. 345 (6195): 401–406.
Bibcode:2014Sci...345..401D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Sci...345..401D).
doi:10.1126/science.1251817 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1251817). PMID 25061202
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25061202). S2CID 206555761 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:206555761).
Dixon, Simon J; Viles, Heather A; Garrett, Bradley L (2018). "Ozymandias in the Anthropocene:
the city as an emerging landform" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Farea.12358). Area. 50: 117–125.
doi:10.1111/area.12358 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Farea.12358). ISSN 1475-4762 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4762).
Ellis, Erle (2018). Anthropocene: A Very Short Introduction. 1. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/actrade/9780198792987.001.0001 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F97801
98792987.001.0001). ISBN 9780198792987.
Ellis, Erle C.; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Lutters, Wayne G. (2013). "Dating the
Anthropocene: Towards an empirical global history of human transformation of the terrestrial
biosphere" (https://doi.org/10.12952%2Fjournal.elementa.000018). Elementa. 1: 000018.
doi:10.12952/journal.elementa.000018 (https://doi.org/10.12952%2Fjournal.elementa.000018).
Emmett, Robert, Thomas Lekan, eds. "Whose Anthropocene? Revisiting Dipesh Chakrabarty’s
‘Four Theses,’ (http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2016/2/whose-anthropocen
e-revisiting-dipesh-chakrabartys-four-theses)" RCC Perspectives: Transformations in
Environment and Society (http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives) 2016, no. 2.
doi.org/10.5282/rcc/7421.
Grinspoon, David (December 2016). "Welcome to Terra Sapiens" (https://aeon.co/essays/enter-
the-sapiezoic-a-new-aeon-of-self-aware-global-change). Aeon.
Hamilton, Clive (2017). Defiant Earth: The Fate of Humans in the Anthropocene. Polity.
ISBN 978-1509519750.
Ialenti, Vincent. 2016. "Generation (Lexicon for An Anthropocene Yet Unseen)" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20160507230837/http://www.culanth.org/fieldsights/846-generation). Cultural
Anthropology: Theorising the Contemporary. Archived from the original (http://www.culanth.org/
fieldsights/846-generation) on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
Kim, Rakhyun E.; Klaus Bosselmann (2013). "International Environmental Law in the
Anthropocene: Towards a Purposive System of Multilateral Environmental Agreements".
Transnational Environmental Law. 2 (2): 285–309. doi:10.1017/S2047102513000149 (https://d
oi.org/10.1017%2FS2047102513000149). S2CID 146464921 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:146464921).
MacCormack, Patricia (2020). The Ahuman Manifesto: Activism for the End of the
Anthropocene. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1350081093.
McArthur, Jo-Anne; Wilson, Keith, eds. (2020). Hidden: Animals in the Anthropocene. Lantern
Publishing & Media. ISBN 978-1590566381.
Purdy, Jedediah. (2015). "Anthropocene Fever". Aeon. pp. 1–9.
Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF
(2017). "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2F
biosci%2Fbix125). BioScience. 67 (12): 1026–1028. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125 (https://doi.org/
10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix125).
Ruddiman, William F. (December 2003). "The anthropogenic greenhouse era began thousands
of years ago". Climatic Change. 61 (3): 261–293. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.651.2119 (https://citeseerx.i
st.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.651.2119).
doi:10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004577.17928.fa (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ACLIM.000000457
7.17928.fa). S2CID 2501894 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2501894).
Ruddiman, William F.; Stephen J. Vavrus & John E. Kutzbach (2005). "A test of the overdue-
glaciation hypothesis" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061003050034/http://www.pik-potsdam.d
e/~claussen/papers/ruddiman%2Bal_qsr_05.pdf) (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (1):
11. Bibcode:2005QSRv...24....1R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005QSRv...24....1R).
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.07.010 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2004.07.010).
Archived from the original (http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~claussen/papers/ruddiman+al_qsr_05.p
df) (PDF) on 3 October 2006.
Ruddiman, William F. (2005). Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of
Climate (https://archive.org/details/plowsplaguespetr00will). Princeton, N.J: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12164-2.
Schmidt, G. A.; D. T. Shindel & S. Harder (2004). "A note on the relationship between ice core
methane concentrations and insolation". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (23): L23206.
Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3123206S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004GeoRL..3123206S).
doi:10.1029/2004GL021083 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2004GL021083).
Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew (2017). "Some Islands Will Rise: Singapore in the
Anthropocene" (https://www.academia.edu/34555750). Resilience: A Journal of the
Environmental Humanities. 4 (2): 166–184. doi:10.5250/resilience.4.2-3.0166 (https://doi.org/1
0.5250%2Fresilience.4.2-3.0166). S2CID 158809548 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:158809548).
Steffen, Will; Crutzen, Paul; McNeill, John (2007). "The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now
Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?". AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment. 36
(8): 614–621. doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:taahno]2.0.co;2 (https://doi.org/10.1579%2F
0044-7447%282007%2936%5B614%3Ataahno%5D2.0.co%3B2). hdl:1885/29029 (https://hdl.
handle.net/1885%2F29029). PMID 18240674 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18240674).
Steffen, Will; et al. (9 August 2018). "Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6099852). PNAS. 115 (33): 8252–8259.
Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.8252S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PNAS..115.8252S).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1810141115 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1810141115).
hdl:2078.1/204292 (https://hdl.handle.net/2078.1%2F204292). PMC 6099852 (https://www.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6099852). PMID 30082409 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30
082409).
Thomas, Julia Adeney, Jan Zalasiewicz, "Strata and Three Stories (http://www.environmentand
society.org/perspectives/2020/3/strata-and-three-stories)." RCC Perspectives: Transformations
in Environment and Society (http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives) 2020, no. 3.
doi.org/10.5282/rcc/9205.
Trischler, Helmuth, ed. "Anthropocene: Exploring the Future of the Age of Humans (http://www.
environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2013/3/anthropocene-exploring-future-age-humans),"
RCC Perspectives (http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives) 2013, no 3.
doi.org/10.5282/rcc/5603.
Visconti, Guido (2014). "Anthropocene: another academic invention?" (https://link.springer.com/
content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs12210-014-0317-x.pdf) (PDF). Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei. 25 (3): 381–
392. doi:10.1007/s12210-014-0317-x (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12210-014-0317-x).
"Human-Driven Planet: Time to Make It Official?" (http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2008/01/hu
man-driven-planet-time-make-it-official). Science Now. January 2008.
Klinkenborg, Verlyn (December 2016). What’s Happening to the Bees and Butterflies? (https://
www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/12/22/whats-happening-to-the-bees-and-butterflies/) New
York Review of Books
Vanishing: The Sixth Mass Extinction (http://www.cnn.com/specials/world/vanishing-earths-ma
ss-extinction), and How to stop the sixth mass extinction (http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/
sutter-vanishing-help/) (December 2016), CNN.
Williams, Mark; Zalasiewicz, Jan; Haff, P. K.; Schwägerl, Christian; Barnosky, Anthony D.; Ellis,
Erle C. (2015). "The Anthropocene Biosphere". The Anthropocene Review. 2 (3): 196–219.
doi:10.1177/2053019615591020 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2053019615591020).
'Ozymandias in the Anthropocene: the city as an emerging landform' (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/area.12358/abstract), Dixon S., et al. (2017) AREA, Royal Geographical
Society ISSN 1475-4762 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1475-4762)
External links
"Have humans created a new geological age?" (https://w External video
ww.newscientist.com/blog/environment/2008/01/have-hu Welcome to the Anthropocene
mans-created-new-geological.html), New Scientist, 24
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
January 2008
fvgG-pxlobk) on YouTube
Videos of a Radcliffe conference on Biodiversity in the
Anthropocene (http://uc.princeton.edu/main/index.php?opt The Economist: The
ion=com_content&task=view&id=599&Itemid=17/), 10 Anthropocene: A Man-Made World
March 2006 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
"Debate over the Early Anthropogenic Hypothesis" (http:// XLCa1njCK0E) on YouTube
www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/12/early-ant
hropocene-hyppothesis/), RealClimate, December 2005 Ten Things to Know About the
Anthropocene (https://www.youtub
"Earth Is Us" (http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/2
8/earth-is-us/), Dot Earth blog, New York Times, 28 e.com/watch?v=1RlVnaxTUv4) on
January 2008 YouTube
Recent work on the Early Anthropocene Hypothesis 100,000,000 Years From Now (h
presented at AGU (https://web.archive.org/web/20090515 ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o
180255/http://ecotope.org/blogs/post/Pushing-back-the-A
BcHf_eeYt4) on YouTube
nthropocene-at-the-AGU.aspx), December 2008
(in French) Thierry Picquet, "New era in the evolution of (2014) Noam Chomsky: The
the world" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120227015936/ Anthropocene Period and its
http://www.planetarisation.net/), Planétarisation Challenges (https://www.youtube.co
Humanity Blamed for 9,000 Years of Global Warming (http m/watch?v=Axdrh9F3Kqo) on
s://web.archive.org/web/20170612161259/http://theresilie YouTube
ntearth.com/?q=content%2Fhumanity-blamed-9000-years
-global-warming)
Nothing new under the sun: Anthropogenic global warming started when people began farming
(http://www.economist.com/node/14252800?story_id=14252800), The Economist review;
includes nice graphic showing the rise in methane (a greenhouse gas), from agricultural slash-
and-burn started 8,000 years ago.
How Did Humans First Alter Global Climate? (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id
=how-did-humans-first-alte), Scientific American, 2005
Methane: A Scientific Journey from Obscurity to Climate Super-Stardom (http://www.giss.nasa.
gov/research/features/200409_methane/) NASA
Anthropocene: Have humans created a new geological age? (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/scie
nce-environment-13335683) BBC News, 11 May 2011
Vince, G. (2011). "An Epoch Debate". Science. 334 (6052): 32–37.
Bibcode:2011Sci...334...32V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...334...32V).
doi:10.1126/science.334.6052.32 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.334.6052.32).
PMID 21980090 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21980090).
Steffen, W; Crutzen, PJ; McNeill, JR (2007). "The Anthropocene: are humans now
overwhelming the great forces of Nature?" (http://www.profwork.org/wsy/earth/Ambio2007.pdf)
(PDF). AMBIO. 36 (8): 614–621. doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:taahno]2.0.co;2 (https://d
oi.org/10.1579%2F0044-7447%282007%2936%5B614%3Ataahno%5D2.0.co%3B2).
hdl:1885/29029 (https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F29029). PMID 18240674 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/18240674).
The Anthropocene epoch: have we entered a new phase of planetary history? (https://www.the
guardian.com/environment/2019/may/30/anthropocene-epoch-have-we-entered-a-new-phase-
of-planetary-history), The Guardian, 2019
Tooze, Adam, "Whose century?", London Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 15 (30 July 2020),
pp. 9–13. Tooze closes (p. 13): "Can [the US] fashion a domestic political bargain to enable the
US to become what it currently is not: a competent and co-operative partner in the management
of the collective risks of the Anthropocene. This is what the Green New Deal promised. After
the shock of COVID-19 it is more urgent than ever."
The forgotten environmental crisis: how 20th century settler writers foreshadowed the
Anthropocene (https://theconversation.com/the-forgotten-environmental-crisis-how-20th-century
-settler-writers-foreshadowed-the-anthropocene-150727). The Conversation. 3 December
2020.
Drawing A Line In The Mud: Scientists Debate When 'Age Of Humans' Began (https://www.npr.
org/2021/03/17/974774461/drawing-a-line-in-the-mud-scientists-debate-when-age-of-humans-
began). NPR. 17 March 2021.
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Anthropocene

The Anthropocene (/ænˈθrɒp.əˌsiːn, -ˈθrɒp.oʊ-, ˈænθrəpəˌsiːn/ ann-THROP-ə-seen, -THROP-oh-, ANN-thrə-

The term "anthropocene" is informally used in

A January 2016 report on the climatic, biological, and geochemical

Nature of human effects

The human impact on

Biogeography and nocturnality

"Early anthropocene" model

William Ruddiman has argued that the Anthropocene began

European colonization of the Americas

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