PHYSIOLOGY 2

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
BY MS MURIITHI

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 Thyroid Gland
Butterfly shaped gland; sits
inferior to thyroid cartilage
Very vascular and rich in blood
supply
Secretes three hormones
Receives feedback from
pituitary gland via TSH

3
 Thyroid Gland
Cells of thyroid form follicles with colloidal fluid in
the extracellular space

Follicular cells release hormonal precursor into

colloid, where iodine is added

Hormone leaves colloid and enters capillaries

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
Iodide is essential for the normal function of the thyroid gland. When
iodide enters the body through eating or drinking, it is rapidly absorbed
into the blood stream from the G.I.T within about an hour.

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
In the blood iodide is competed for by the thyroid and the kidneys .

Approximately 2/3 of the circulating iodide in the blood stream is

excreted in urine and the remaining 1/3 is selectively removed from
blood by thyroid.

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
The removal is accomplished by means of the iodide pump/trap.
Thyroid stimulating hormone enhances iodide transport.
The thyroid iodide pump is an active energy- requiring mechanism.
Iodide is removed from circulation in the form of sodium and
potassium iodide.

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
It passes through follicular cells and into the colloid. Active transport
mechanism is stimulated by TSH
The thyroid cell is about -50mv relative to the interstitial area and the
colloid. (i.e. it has a resting membrane potential -50mv)
Iodide is pumped against this electrical gradient into the colloid.

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
Component of colloid is a protein molecule thyroglobulin, containing an
active amino acid tyrosine. Thyroglobulin is synthesized in the thyroid
cells and secreted into colloid by exocytosis of granules that also contain
peroxidase.
Iodide in rapidly oxidized and bound to tyrosine molecules attached to
thyroglobulin . the capillaries.

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Thyroid Gland cont’d
When secreted colloid is ingested by the thyroid cells, the peptide
bonds are hydrolyzed and free T4 T3 is discharged into the capillaries.

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Thyroid hormones synthesis
Iodide ions change to an active form under the influence of the enzyme
perioxidase. Iodide then attaches itself to the tyrosine to form the
molecule monoidotyrosine(MIT).
monoidotyrosine is iodized further to form diiodotyrosine (DIT)
Two separate combinations of these molecules form the two main
thyroid hormones

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Thyroid hormones synthesis..ct
When two DIT molecules fuse in a coupling reaction Thyroxine(t4) is
formed:
{Diiodotyrosine + Diiodotyrosine= Thyroxine(T4) }
Fusion of monoiodotyrosine and diidotyrosine form
triiodothyronine(T3)
{Diidotyrosine + monoidotyrosine = Triiodothyronine(T3)}

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Thyroid hormones synthesis..ct
These thyroid hormones are stored in follicular colloid as a part of the
thyroglobulin molecule.
Functions of the thyroid cells
Collect and transport iodine
Synthesize thyroglobulin and secrete it into the colloid
Remove the thyroid hormones from thyroglobulin and secrete them
into the circulation

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 Release of thyroid hormones.

Hypothalamus, pituitary and thyroid gland are involved. The major

regulator of thyroid hormone secretion is thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH)
TSH release is mediated by thyroid –releasing factor (TRH) from the
hypothalamus. TRH stimulates the synthesis and release of TSH. The
relationship of TRH, TSH and thyroid hormones exists a feedback
system.

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Release of thyroid hormones
When T3 and T4 levels become too low in the circulating bloodstream,
TRH triggers the release of TSH to increase the secretion of T3 and T4.
As the blood levels of T3 and T4 begin to raise, the anterior pituitary
decreases secretion of TSH, thereby decreasing the rate of thyroid
hormone production.

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Feedback mechanism for
thyroid hormones

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JMURIITHI COH DEPT KMTC
 Thyroid ct
The hormones are transported bound to plasma proteins - thyroxin
binding globulin.
When the hormones are needed, an enzymatic reaction splits the
thyroglobulin molecule and frees the hormones for entry into the blood
stream. The overall effect of both hormones is similar and their
functions appear to be identical.

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Balance of thyroid hormones.

TSH stimulates an increase in the size and number of the follicular

cells, thereby increasing their ability to absorb iodide.
It also increases the breakdown of thyroglobulin releasing thyroxine
and triodothyronine hormones from the thyroid gland.
Through these mechanisms, adequate levels of hormones are
maintained in the blood stream at all times.

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Effects of Thyroid hormones
Most widespread effects of thyroid hormones in the body are secondary
to stimulation of oxygen consumption (calorigenic action).

They increases the disassociation of oxygen from haemoglobin by

increasing red cell 2,3 – diphospho glycerate (DPG)

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JMURIITHI COH DEPT KMTC
 Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine
(T4) summary functions
cont’d…
1. Induces changes in gene expression
2. Increases basal rate of metabolism
Dictates how cells use glucose and oxygen

3. Heat production and oxidation of cells

4. In liver cells, cause the liver to breakdown glycogen into
glucose
5. Implicated in diverse disease processes from depression
to obesity

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Parathyroid Glands
4 glands found on posterior thyroid gland

secretes hormone Parathyroid

hormone (parathormone)

Involved in calcium metabolism

Opposes calcitonin

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Parathyroid cells

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Parathyroid ct
The parathyroid glands are four tiny glands, located in the neck, that
control the body's calcium levels.
Each gland is about the size of a grain of rice (weighs approximately 30
milligrams and is 3-4 millimeters in diameter).
The parathyroids produce a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH)
which raises the blood calcium level by:

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Parathyroid functions …. ct
Breaking down the bone (where most of the body's calcium is stored)
and causing calcium release
Increasing the body's ability to absorb calcium from food
Increasing the kidney's ability to hold on to calcium that would
otherwise be lost in the urine.

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Parathyroid function…. ct
Normal parathyroid glands work to keep blood calcium levels in a very
tightly controlled range. (about 8.5-10.2 mg/dL) or(2.2 to 2.7 mmol/L).
When the blood calcium level is too low, PTH is released to bring the
calcium level back up to normal.

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Parathyroid function… ct
When the calcium level is normal or gets a little too high, normal
parathyroids will stop releasing PTH.
Proper calcium balance is crucial to the normal functioning of the heart,
nervous system, kidneys, and bones.

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 Adrenal Cortex-
mineralocorticoids
Under influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH),
(release of corticoids -steroid hormones)
Requires cholesterol as a precursor
Mineralocorticoids- primarily aldosterone
1. Increases reabsorption of sodium and thus causes retention of
water
2. Increases active secretion of potassium
3. Under influence of angiotensin II and ACTH

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 MINERALOCORTCOIDS
Major hormone is Aldosterone – secreted by zona
glomerulosa.
Secretion of aldosterone is controlled by R.A.A system
(Renin –Angiotensin- Aldosterone system)
The important function of aldosterone is sodium
retention.This leads to effects- on intracellular and
extracellular fluid volume- maintains fluid balance.

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 Aldosterone ct…
Sodium retention results in simultaneous loss of potassium by excretion
in urine by distal renal tubules. Functions include:-

Excretion of K+ from renal tubules

The reabsorption of na+ and chloride by the renal tubules.
Influence the output of water by the kidneys.

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Aldosterone ct…
High levels of circulating aldosterone cause
Na+ retention
Increase in plasma volume
Higher blood pressure

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Aldosterone ct…
While decreases levels have opposite effects any excess or
deficit in normal circulating aldosterone lead to basic
electrolyte disturbances with effects on body function.

Other tissues acted on by aldosterone include salivary and

sweat glands- conserve sodium in extreme heat.

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Adrenal Cortex-glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol and cortisone
Cortisol is the most important glucocorticoid and essential for life
1. Regulates or supports cardiovascular function, immunologic,
metabolic, and homeostatic functions
2. Stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver cells
3. Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and fat tissue

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 Cortisol-glucocorticoid
Action of cortisol on carbohydrates
NB: Are antagonistic to insulin
Increases the amount of glucose released by enhancing the
ability of the liver for gluconeogenesis. This is by :
Stimulating adipose tissue to release free fatty acids, the
gluconeogenic substrate needed by the liver
.

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Cortisol-glucose
Decreases the use of glucose by the tissues by uptake and
metabolism of glucose in muscle, adipose, and lymphatic
tissues.

Through the above two actions i.e. increases

gluconeogenesis and inhibition of glucose used by tissues –
serum glucose concentrations are increased

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Cortisol- Fats……ct
Has the ability to mobilize fat stones, i.e. fatty acids from
tissues stores into plasma. This causes metabolic alterations
in times of stress and deprivation from the use of glucose to
the use of fatty acids for energy

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 cortisol on -Proteins
On protein, cortisol acts in two ways;
It decreases protein stores in all tissues of the body except liver. This is
by preventing the synthesis of protein and by breaking down proteins
(stored in the cells) into amino acids.
Protein synthesis in the liver is stimulated. amino acids are released into
the liver from cell protein catabolism thereby increasing the amount of
amino acids available to the liver for protein synthesis.

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 Cortisol and Stress

Responds to stressful conditional such as:

Severe trauma
Emotional upset
Chronic or debilitating disease
Infection
Extreme temperatures
Administration of glucocorticoids especially cortisol decreased the
inflammatory responses

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Cortisol and allergies
NB: Allergic responses/processes are stopped with the
administration of cortisol – alters inflammation process in
allergies.
Decrease the circulating levels of Eosinophils and
lymphocytes, but under their influence Rbc’s platelet and
neutrophils is increased

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JMURIITHI COH DEPT KMTC
 Glucocorticoids -functions
summary
Gluco-corticoids -functions
1. Stimulates breakdown of adipose
2. Mobilizes amino acids for use in manufacture of glucose
3. Causes breakdown of glycogen into glucose
4. Mediates inflammation process and reduces pain

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Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla produces and secretes both
epinephrine(Adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrendine) from the
chromaffin cells of the medulla.(The catecholamines )
Release of large amounts of catechlolamines occurs offer sympathetic
nervous system stimulation.Adrenal medulla act as part of the
Autonomic Nervous system.
Epinephrine -80% Norepinephrine -20%

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Adrenal Medulla ct....
Epinephrine -80% Norepinephrine -20%
Assists with maintenance of cardiac output
Secretes epinephrine and nor epinephrine
Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system
Epinephrine functions...
• Causes an increase in glucose release
• Increases stroke volume
• Increases heart rate

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Adrenal Medulla ct.....
• Increases basal metabolic rate
• Dialates broncial passages
• Pupillary dialation
Norepinephrine
• Greatest effect is to cause vasoconstriction of blood
vessels- Increases blood pressure
• Release of large amounts of catechlolamines
occurs offer sympathetic nervous system
stimulation.

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Adrenal Medulla ct..
The action of catecholamines is opposite that of insulin and similar to
that of glucagon in metabolic processes.

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 Functions of epinephrine and
norepinephrine -summary
Dilation of the coronary arteries, thus increasing the supply to the heart
muscle.
Dilation of the bronchi allowing a greater amount of air to enter the
lungs during inspiration.
Dilation of blood vessels to the skeletal muscles increasing the supply of
oxygen and Nutritional materials to the muscles.
.

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Functions of epinephrine and
norepinephrine –summary ct…
Enables muscle activity to be sustained.
Constriction of the blood vessel to the skin thus raising the blood
pressure.
Contraction of the spleen, thus increasing the volume of circulating
blood.

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Functions of epinephrine and
norepinephrine –summary ct..
The rate of change of glycogen to glucose for rapid muscle contraction.
Dilatation of the radiating muscle fibers of the iris.
Slowing down of peristalsis in the digestive tract and limiting the flow of
saliva.

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Others factors and conditions that may
stimulate catecholamines release-:

Serotorin
Brady Kinin
Exercise
Hyporolemia
Glucagon
Hypoglycemia
Extreme Stress (Flight or fight)

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Gonads -sex glands hormones
Female gonadotrophins-
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)and Luteinising hormone (LH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Has its effect on the ovaries, stimulates the development and ripening
of the ovarian follicle.
Ovarian follicle under the influence of the F.S.H secretes its own
hormone oestrogen

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The Luteising Hormone -female

After ovulation the luteinizing hormone is secreted from the

anterior lobe. it stimulates the development of cells in the
ruptured folicle.
The cells form a structure known as the corpus luteum
which in turn secretes the second ovarian hormone known
as progesterone.

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Male gonadotrophins

Follicle stimulating hormone

The interstitial cell stimulating hormone or lutiensing
hormone (LH)
The F.S.H in male
Has an effect on the epithelial tissue of the seminiferous
tubules in the males’ testes
It influences the seminiferous tubules to produce
spermatozoa (spermatogenesis).

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The luteinizing hormone in
male
The interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) or lutiensing
hormone (LH)
The luteinizing hormone stimulates the ( leydig)
interstitial cells in the males testes to secrete testosterone
(development of sexual characteristics)
it stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the male
androgen testosterone.

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testosterone

When the secretion of testosterone is too high, its sensed by the

hypothalamus which reduces the gonadotrophin release factor which
leads to reduced production of L.H. and therefore testosterone.
Too little testosterone allows hypothalamus to secrete large amounts of
gonadotropin release factor with corresponding increase pituitary L.H.
and increase in testosterone.

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 Stimulates anterior
pituitary secretion of
ICSH

Low blood High blood

concentration of concentration of
testosterone ICSH

Stimulates interstitial
Inhibits interstitial cell
cells of testes to
secretion of
secrete testosterone
testosterone

High blood
Low blood
concentration of
concentration of
testosterone
ICSH

Inhibits anterior
pituitary secretion of
ICSHJMURIITHI COH DEPT KMTC
FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
Development of male secondary sex characteristics
Distribution of body hair – pubis, linea alba on face, chest
Effect on the voice – cause hypertrophy of laryngeal mucosa and
enlargement of larynx.

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 FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
ct
Effect on the skin and development of Acne
Increase the thickness of skin over entire body
Increase rate of secretion by the sebaceous glands
especially face resulting to Acne
Regulates protein formation and muscle development
It stimulates protein anabolism and its deposition

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FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE…
ct
Basel metabolic rate increases
 Effects on electrolyte and water balance testosterone increases
retention of sodium potassium, calcium and water
Effect on bone growth
Increase the total quantity of bone matrix and causes calcium
retention resulting to increased bone matrix.
N.B. Testosterone is used in old age for treatment of
osteoporosis

Increased the red blood cells could be associated with the high
metabolic rate. Average man has approximate 700,000 more red
cells than the average woman.

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Gonads -summary
Females produce estrogen and progesterone
Estrogen stimulates development of reproductive organs
Progesterone causes a build up of uterine lining every 28 days to prepare for
implantation; depends upon FSH
Testosterone causes development of male reproductive organs

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Hormones
Steroid Hormones:
◦ Lipid soluble
◦ Diffuse through cell membranes
◦ Binds to specific receptors
◦ Then enters the nucleus to bind with the cells DNA which then activates
certain genes
◦ Endocrine organs
◦ Adrenal cortex
◦ Ovaries
◦ Testes

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Hormones
Nonsteroidal Hormones:
◦ Not lipid soluble
◦ Received by receptors external to the cell membrane
◦ Endocrine organs
◦ Thyroid gland
◦ Parathyroid gland
◦ Adrenal medulla
◦ Pituitary gland

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