Syllabus cum Lesson Plan

• Introduction to Electronics

• Semiconductor Diodes and their Applications

• Transistors

• BJTs

• FETs

• OPAMPs

• Feedback Amplifier and Oscillators

• Electronic Instruments
• CRO,

• Generator

• Signal Generator,

• DC Power Supply 1
INTODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

#LECTURE –1

D R S AN J E E V K U M AR M I S H R A

 INTRODUCTION

 SYLLABUS

 LECTURE PLAN

 TEXT BOOKS

 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

2
INTRODUCTION

• Electronics: is the science of how to control electric energy (in

which electrons have fundamental role).
• Engineering is the application of mathematics, empirical
evidence and scientific, and practical knowledge in order to
• invent,
• innovate,
• design,
• build,
• maintain research, and
• improve structures, machines, components, materials, pro
cesses and organizations.

3
IMPORTANCE

Recent Future

Technology
& Electronics Systems
Communication System

Subsystem Satellite, Mobile,

Radar .. any

Circuits / IC

Components

Passive Active

Scope of Course 4
• We are living in an age of “Technology”

• Due to the great success that we have achieved in the field of

electronics, there is a deep impact in the era of recent and future
technologies: Space Communication, Terrestrial Communication,
Satellites, Health care, Automobiles and Military Applications.

• User friendly and easy to use.

• Ex: TV, Mobile, AC, Watch etc. : controlled by a child.

• In short “ Technological developments of several countries of the globe

are directly related to strengths in electronics design, manufacture
products and services”

• Study, design and analyse the circuits.

6
Introduction to Electronics
Analog Electronics
Basic Electronics
Digital Electronics

Components & Devices Circuits Measuring Instruments

Passive Active
Rectifiers, Digital Multimeter
R Transistor Clipper, Oscilloscopes
L OPAMPs Clamper Function Generators
C Amplifiers
Filters
Prerequisites:
Oscillators
• Some basic understanding of general principles of electricity and
magnetism 7
Books
1. Electronic Devices and Circuit Robert L. Boylestad and Louis
Theory Nashelsky, Pearson Education
2. Electronic Instrumentation H.S. Kalsi, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited

8
Grading Policy:

• Assignment / Faculty Assessment:

• Quiz
• Midterm:
• End Exam:

9
Failure will never overtake if determination to succeed is strong enough

Scope of Course (Each one should)

• gain a good understanding of electronics, circuits, devices, systems.

• design, analyse the circuits and test them independently.

• Simulation [Using Software]

• Laboratory [using breadboard, PCBs]

• Let us try to learn such skills by proven scheme “ Learning by Doing”.

• One can agree with me (Old proverb) • I read -- I forget

• I see -- I remember

• I do -- I understand

• Ex: dancing, playing, singing, So, “Just do it”

• While doing we trend to fail, but do not stop

“ Failures are stepping stones to success”

• Try to design and implement new circuits in terms of any aspect “Size,
Weight, Profile, Shape and Low power consumption. 10
• Proposed syllabus is a basically a laboratory course.

• Structure of the course will full-fill the needs of three group of students:
Basic,
Intermediate
Theory
Advanced

Lab Tour Basic Electronics Exercise

Simulations
Requirement:
Motivation
Curiosity
Fun of learning and exploring the magical world of Electronics 11
“To Understand a Science, it is necessary to know its HISTORY”

• Electrons: discovered by J. J. Thomson (1897) when he was studying the

properties of cathode ray.

• Protons: by Rutherford (1909) in his famous gold foil experiment.

• Neutrons: by James Chadwick (a student of Rutherford) won Nobel Prize

(1935) for discovery of neutron.
Particle Symbol Charge Mass

Electron e– -1.60×10-19 C 9.1×10-31 kg

Proton p+ (H+) 1.60×10-19 C 1.672×10-27 kg
Neutron n0 0.00 C 1.674×10-27 kg12
J. J. Thomson (Nobel Prize in qe = −1.60×10−19 [measured by R. Millikan in Oil drop exp.
1906) for discovering the Me = 9.1×10−28 gram.
elementary particle electron. 13
Electron  2000 times lighter than hydrogen
Rutherford and James Chadwick
In his gold foil experiment, Rutherford bombarded
qp = 1.60×10−19
a beam of alpha particles on an ultrathin gold foil
Mp = 1.67×10−27 Kg.
and then detected the scattered alpha particles in
zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen 14
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

#LECTURE - 2

 INTRODUCTION

 P H Y S I C AL O P E R AT I O N O F P - N J U N C T I O N D I O D E

 C H AR A C T E R I S T I C S O F P - N J U N C T I O N D I O D E

 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES

15
 INTRODUCTION

First IC (1958) a phase

shift oscillator,
(Courtesy of Texas
Instruments.)
Intel® Core™ i7 Extreme
Jack S. Kilby, Texas Ins. Edition Processor.

• IC means many components packaged in single wafer or semiconductor.

• IC i7 has 731 million transistors in a package
• Surface area is only slightly > 1.67 sq. inches

16
 INTRODUCTION
• Diode [1939]: Two electrodes
• Technology:
• Solid state type using semiconductors:
• Vacuum tube type
• Semiconductor: whose  lies between conductor (  ) and insulator (  0) .
• Have a negative temperature coefficient
• R decreases with an increase in heat
• Type1:
• Single crystal [Ge, Si ]
• Compound semiconductors [GaAs, GaN)
• Type 2:
• Intrinsic semiconductor [Ge, Si etc (tetravalent)]
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• p type (+ trivalent-B, Ga),
17
• n-type (+ pentavalent-P, As, Sb)
18
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: p-n Junction Diode

19
n-type and p-type Semiconductors

20
 No of electrons = 2n2
n no of orbits

Particl Symbol Charge Mass

e
Electron e– -1.60×10-19 C 9.1×10-31 kg
Proton p+ (H+) 1.60×10-19 C 1.672×10-27 kg
Neutron n0 0.00 C 1.674×10-27 Atomic
kg structure 21
Energy levels: insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor
W (Energy) = Q V
= (1.6 * 10-19 C)(1 V)
= 1.6 * 10-19 J 22
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: p-n Junction Diode

23
No Applied Bias (VD = 0 V)

24
Reverse Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

25
Reverse saturation current
• This increase in level is due to a wide range of factors that include
• leakage currents
• generation of carriers in the depletion region
• higher doping levels (results in increased levels of reverse current)
• sensitivity to the intrinsic level of carriers in the component materials
[by a squared factor double the intrinsic level, reverse current could
increase by a factor of four].
• a direct relationship with the junction area [double the area of the
junction, the reverse current could double. Ex: High-power devices]
• temperature sensitivity
• whereas a 10°C increase in current will result in doubling of
the actual reverse current of a diode

26
Forward Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

27
Semiconductor (Si) diode characteristics

28
• Shockley’s equation, general characteristics of a semiconductor diode for the
 VD nVT 
forward-and reverse-bias regions defined as: ID  I S  e  1  A
where Is is the reverse saturation current  
VD is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n is an ideality factor (range between 1 and 2, typically n = 1)
• which is a function of operating conditions and physical construction.
VT is the thermal voltage =
VT 
kTk
V 
q
where k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.3810 -23 J/K
Tk is the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + Temperature (°C)
q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6  10 -19 C

EXAMPLE 1: At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components

in an enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT .
Answer: 25.875 mV  26 mV 29
Q: Consider a Si diode with ideality factor ‘n’ =3/2. Find the change in
applied forward bias voltage across the diode if the diode current
changes from 0.1mA to 10mA. Consider VT = 25mV.
Ans: 172.5V
 VD1 nVT   VD2 nVT 
I D1  I S  e  1  A I D2  I S  e  1  A
   
 VD2 nVT 
e  1

I D2 
 V  I2
 VD2  VD1  nVT ln( )
I D1  D1
 I1
e nVT
 1

 

30
Breakdown region
• Breakdown potential (VBV): The reverse-bias potential that results in this
dramatic change in characteristics.
• PIV: The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering
the breakdown region. (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse
voltage (denoted the PRV rating).

31
 Variation in Si diode characteristics with temperature change
In the forward-bias region, the characteristics of a silicon diode shift to the left at a
rate of 2.5 mV per centigrade degree increase in temperature
In the reverse-bias region, the reverse current of a silicon diode doubles for every
10°C rise in temperature. 32
Ideal Diode Vs Practical Diode

Ideal diode: forward biased

Ideal diode: reverse-biased. Ideal versus actual semiconductor characteristics

33
Resistance Levels
DC or Static Resistance (RD)
Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

• In general, the higher the current through a diode, the lower is the RD level.
• The RD of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the region
surrounding the point of interest.
• Typically, the dc resistance of a diode about 10  to 80  .
AC or Dynamic Resistance (rd)
• If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is applied, the situation will change
completely.
• The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down
a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current
and voltage as shown in Fig

Q (quiescent) point

• In general, the lower the Q-point of operation,  “still or

unvarying”
the higher is the ac resistance.
Average AC Resistance (rav)

• The rav is the resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the
two intersections established by the maximum and minimum values of input
voltage.
Summary
• The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line
drawn at that point.
• -> d
I D   d   VD

 I S  e nVT  1 
dVD dVD   



dI D

1
I D  I S 
dVD nVT
• In general, ID >> IS in the vertical-slope section of the characteristics and
dI D I dVD nVT
  D  rd  
dVD nVT dI D ID
26mV
Substituting n =1 and VT = 26 mV  rd 
ID
Diode Equivalent Circuit
Diode Specification
• The forward voltage VF (at a specified current and temperature)
• The maximum forward current IF (at a specified temperature)
• The reverse saturation current IS (at a specified voltage and temperature)
• The reverse-voltage rating [PIV or PRV or VBR]
• The maximum power dissipation level at a particular temperature
• Capacitance levels
• Operating temperature range
• Reverse recovery time trr
41
Semiconductor Diode Notation
Various Types of Junction Diodes [Compactness]

General purpose diode Surface mount diode Power (stud) diode Power (planar) diode

Beam lead pin diode Flat chip surface mount diode Power diode Power (disc, puck) diode
Breakdown region
• Breakdown potential (VBV): The reverse-bias potential that results in this
dramatic change in characteristics.
• PIV: The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering
the breakdown region. (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse
voltage (denoted the PRV rating).

44
 Variation in Si diode characteristics with temperature change
In the forward-bias region, the characteristics of a silicon diode shift to the left at a
rate of 2.5 mV per centigrade degree increase in temperature
In the reverse-bias region, the reverse current of a silicon diode doubles for every
10°C rise in temperature. 45
Various Types of Diodes [Applications]
• Zener diode
• Light Emitting diode
• Varactor diode
• PIN diode
• Tunnel diode,
• IMPATT diode
• BARITT diode
• Schottky diode

IMPATT: IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time diode

BARITT: Barrier injection transit-time
46
Zener Diode invented by Clarence Melvin Zener

• The Zener region controlled by varying the doping levels

• An increase in doping that produces an increase in the number of added
impurities, will decrease the Zener potential.
• Zener diodes having Zener potentials of 1.8 V to 200 V with power ratings
from 1⁄4 W to 50 W. Because of its excellent temperature and current
capabilities,
• Preferred material in the manufacture of Zener diodes: Si. 47
48
• The Zener potential of a Zener diode is very sensitive to the temperature of
operation.
• The temperature coefficient (Tc) found the change in Zener potential due to a
change in temperature using the following equation:

Where, T1 is the new temperature level

T0 is room temperature in an enclosed cabinet (25°C)
and VZ is the nominal Zener potential at 25°C.

49
Determine Vo , I1 , ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode configuration.

I1 = 28.18mA,
ID1,= ID2 =
14.09mA

50
LEDs

• It is a p-n junction diode that gives

off visible or invisible (infrared) light
when properly biased.

Invented Oleg Losev (1927)

James R. Biard (1961)
Nick Holonyak (1962)
First October 1962
production

51
Working Principle

• During the process of

recombination electron-hole, there
is a generation of energy in the
form of photons. This effect is
known as electroluminescence.
• Colour of the light determined by
the band gap energy of the
semiconductor.
• Si and Ge: emitted light is
insignificant
• GaAs emit light in infrared
(invisible) during recombination.

52
53
Color Wavelength Frequency Photon energy

violet 380–450 nm 668–789 THz 2.75–3.26 eV

blue 450–495 nm 606–668 THz 2.50–2.75 eV

green 495–570 nm 526–606 THz 2.17–2.50 eV

yellow 570–590 nm 508–526 THz 2.10–2.17 eV

orange 590–620 nm 484–508 THz 2.00–2.10 eV

red 620–750 nm 400–484 THz 1.60–2.00 eV

54
55
Standard response curve of the human eye, showing the eye’s response to light
energy peaks at green and falls off for blue and red 56
57
 Color Wavelength[nm] Voltage drop[ΔV] Semiconductor material

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63 GaAs, AlGaAs)

Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 AlGaAs), (GaAsP), AlGaInP), GaP)

Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 GaAsP), AlGaInP), (GaP)
(GaAsP)
Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 AlGaInP)
GaP)
Traditional green: GaP) (AlGaInP) (AlGaP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9< ΔV < 4.0
Pure green: (InGaN) / (GaN)

(ZnSe) (InGaN), (SiC) as substrate

Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
(Si) as substrate—under development
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor,
Purple Multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
or white with purple plastic
IInGaN) (385-400 nm)Diamond (235 nm)
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3 < ΔV < 4.1 Boron nitride (215 nm), (AlN) (210 nm)
(AlGaN) (AlGaInN)—down to 210 nm[
Blue with one or two phosphor layers,
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added
Pink Multiple types ΔV ~ 3.3
afterwards, white with pink plastic, or white
phosphors with pink pigment or dye over top.
Cool / Pure White: Blue/UV diode with yellow
Broad
White 2.8 < ΔV < 4.2 phosphor
spectrum 58
Warm White: Blue diode with orange phosphor
Applications

 used in environmental and task lighting.

Governments promoted the domestic use of
LED-based lighting, and LED-based lighting
solutions to the public at subsidized rates.
 Used as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes and lighted wallpaper.
 Used as displays and sensors [high switching rates --
advanced communications technology.
CFL Incandescent light bulb
LED
Lightbulb Projected Lifespan 50,000 hours 10,000 hours 1,200 hours

TOTAL Cost for 50,000 Hours $69.00 $105.00 $352.50 59

• LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources
including
• lower energy consumption,
• longer lifetime, [approx. 35000 to 50000hrs]
• improved physical robustness,
• smaller size, and
• faster switching.

• Inorganic LEDs
• Organic LEDs- Future Technologies
• Miniature  Future Technologies< (2mm to 8mm) 60
61
62
Zener Diode: Applications
Voltage Regulator:
To regulate the voltage applied to a load.

63
Waveform clippers:
used to not only reshape a signal, but also to prevent voltage spikes
from affecting circuits that are connected to the power supply.
Two Zener diodes facing each other in series will act to clip both
halves of an input signal.

64