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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

COURSE DETAILS
Course Code AS 4402
Course Title INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Credits 02 (GPA)
Theory 30
Hours
Practical Total Hrs = 30 Hrs
Allocated
Assignments/tutorials
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME
After the completion of this module, the student will be able to
1. Explain some theories regarding the development of relations between countries.
2. Understand Sri Lanka’s position in relation to countries that are particularly important in
our contemporary context.
3. Examine the foreign policy of major players on the world stage from their point of view,
in addition to noting how it affects Sri Lanka.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To provide the students a basic insight into world military history with special attention
on the Sri Lankan situation.
COURSE CONTENT
1. Introduction to International Relations
(Introduction to Terminology and IR Theories)
2. Evolution Of International System and Emergence of Nation States in the
World.(Westphalia Agreement up to the Cold-War Period)
a. Evolution of International order from Industrial Revolution up to
the start of the Cold War.
b. Concept of Power and Balance of Power.
c. Concept of Nation States and National interest.
3. United Nations Organization, Concept of Collective Security
a. Origin and concept
b. International Interventions.
c. Successes and challenges
4. Cold War and New World Order.
a. Evolution of International order till end of the Cold War.
b. Emerge of the Super Powers.
c. The Concept of Cold War and proxy Wars.
d. Effects of the Cold War.
e. Causes and termination of the Cold War.
5. Global Politics in Post-Cold War Era.
a. Context and challenges
b. Emerging of new Super Powers and Multi-polar power
distribution
c. Alternative Power Handlers.
d. Emerge of the new threats.
6. The future prospective of the Global Order.
a. The context.
b. Multi faceted threats
c. Opportunities and challenges.
7. Evolution of the Sri Lankan Foreign policy.(From independence up to today).

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8. Foreign policy of Sri Lanka(National Interests of Sri Lanka & Policy Making
Challenges and Opportunities)
9. Sri Lanka’s Position in South Asia with special emphasis on Indo – Lanka Relations.
10. Sri Lanka and other International Organizations
11. International Stakeholders (MNCs, NGOs, INGOs, Pressure Groups, Lobbysts,
Diasporas Individuals) and their influence
12. Comparisons between SAARC and Other Selected International Organizations
13. USA and its Influence on the World
14. Understanding non-traditional security issues: Natural Disasters, AIDS, Drug. Human
Trafficking, Small Arms Proliferation, Environmental Degradation, Global Energy
Issues.
15. International Terrorism World Security Issues in Present Context
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA % OF MARKS
Semester-end Examination 60
Assignments 40
RECOMMENDED READING
International Relations by Joshua S. Goldstein and Jon C. Pevehouse

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INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

1. Introduction to Political Map and the Regions in the world of the World.

2. How do you define IR?. IR is an objective and systematic approach to

international problems. It attempts escape in future miseries and harassments so frequently
experienced in the past, and to make necessary adjustments changing conditions. (Palmer and
Perkings,1997,page xxxii)

3. What are the international relations?.

a. Political Relations. Traditionally international relations are relations among

the states only political relations including war, diplomacy, sanctions, foreign aid,
military alliances and relations among the intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)
and so on. IR represents the study of all political, economic, social and cultural affairs
and other global issues among the states within the international system, including the
roles of states, IGOs, NGOs and MNCs including non-traditional Issues. No matter
whether international relations are of an economic, legal, political or any other
character whether they are private or official and all human behavior originating from
one side of the boundary. On the other hand International politics deal with the
politics of the international community in a rather narrow scale connecting on
diplomacy and the relations among the states and other political units. In modern
times international relations included non-state actors like Non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), terrorism drug trade etc.

b. Economic Relations. Economic relations included Multinational

corporations (MNCs), Trade in goods, financial services, remittances, sanctions etc.

c. Social and Cultural Relations. Social and cultural relations included

ideas and individuals migration, tourism, professional organizations, human rights,
religion, etc.

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4. Why study IR? IR studies to achieve the following objectives.

a. Human survival

b. It reveals how men and nations tend to act in given circumstances

c. It tell us what conditions should be encouraged and what conditions

discourage if we are to promote international harmony and well being

d. What is the difference between IR and International politics?

e. IR is broader than Global or International politics.

5. What is IR theory? IR theory entails the development of conceptual

frameworks and theories to facilitate the understanding and explanation of events and
phenomena in world politics, as well as the analysis and informing of associated policies and
practices.

6. Importance of theories in international relations.

a. Positivism. Explain and predict by reducing the complexity of reality

(examples: Neorealism, Institutionalism).

b. Normativism. Challenge reality with reference to normative

standpoints/values and develop strategies of fundamental global change (examples:
Feminism and gender equality; Marxism and class struggle; Idealism and human
rights).

7. Approaches to the IR Theory. As Hedley Bull has appointed out, there are two
approaches to the theory of IR.

a. The classical approach (Philosophy, History, Law)

b. The scientific approach (logical or mathematical proof) Today the subject IR

has become interdisciplinary, behavioral, comparative, and scientific.

8. The areas you need to know.

a. History.

b. States and international relations.

c. International Law.

d. Global conflicts and International Security.

e. International Politics and economy.

f. Global challenges and issues.

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9. General Approaches to IR.

a. Power. After World War II this factor became the central theme in the
study of IR. (Balance of power, elements of national power, the power equation etc.)

b. International Institutions and Organizations (Actors).

c. International Systems.

d. Organizational Community Approach (Conflict, Conflict Management and

Conflict Resolution. (The contributions of behavioral sciences are very useful)

e. War and Peace.

f. Ideologies.

g. Nationalism, Imperialism and Colonialism.

h. National Interest.

i. Decision Making and Policy Formation.

j. National Character. (Nation state)

k. Political and International Behavior.

l. Political Strategic Studies.

m. Alliance Systems and Alliance Politics.

n. Arms Control and Disarmament. (The disarmament commission of the UN,

the general assembly, the eighteen nation disarmament committee at Geneva)

o. Demographic Studies.

p. Economic Factors.

10. A few theories in International Relations.

a. Idealism. In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which

assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally
constructed, or otherwise immaterial. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes
how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. Idealism believes,
Power is not the only thing that matters, States have common interests and common
values and Trade is the key common interest for all nation states in the world. And the
following features are essential according to the theory idealism.

(1) Global Marketplace

(2) Interdependence
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(3) Desire for rules

(4) Desire for predictability and stability

(5) International system is based laws (Treaties) and institutions (UN,

WTO)

(6) International law.

b. Constructivism. Nicholas Onuf is usually credited with coining the term

"constructivism" to describe theories that stress the socially constructed character of
international relations. Alexander Wendt is the best-known advocate of social
constructivism in the field of international relations. Constructivism explains,

(1) Nation-states are not all alike

(2) Political culture shapes foreign policy

(3) Form of government shapes foreign policy

(4) History shapes foreign policy

(5) Domestic political trends and debates shape foreign policy

(6) States have identity

(7) State identity influences the way states interact with each other.

Ex. China sensitivity to any policies of other states that threaten its
unity and sovereignty, US desire to transform the world and Russian
fear of invasion of other great powers etc.

c. Realism. Realism is an important school of thought in international

relations theory, theoretically formalizing the realpolitik statesmanship of early
modern Europe. Although a highly diverse body of thought, it can be thought of as
unified by the belief that world politics ultimately is always and necessarily a field of
conflict among actors pursuing power. Realism explains power the ability to influence
others, irrelevance of morality and ethics and law, irrelevance of domestic political
systems. Why is power the only thing that matters? It is because human nature
anarchic world that no rule.

(1) England’s Power Balancing Act:

(a) England

(b) Russia Prussia/Germany

(c) France Austria-Hungary

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(2) The Cold War Balance of Power:

(a) 1945-1990

(b) Israel Syria/Egypt

(c) Ethiopia Somalia

(d) Taiwan China

(e) S. Korea N. Korea

(f) S. Viet Nam N. Viet Nam

(g) W. Berlin E. Berlin

(h) W. Germany E. Germany

(i) Britain/France/Japan Poland/Czech

(j) US USSR

(3) Unipolar World.

(a) EU.

(b) Japan.

(c) Russia and India.

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EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM AND EMERGENCE OF NATION

STATES IN THE WORLD

1. The International System. The term “international system” is a concept for

analysis or description of international politics or relations, but therein lies a sense of
prescription for diplomatic or military action too. Nations interacting with one another on the
global stage. Each nation is considered to be sovereign (free) but some are more powerful
than others.

2. Evolution of the Modern International System. The modern international system

is only a few centuries old. The four key events/phases define its’ evolution as follows.

a. The Peace of Westphalia (1648). Treaty that ended the Thirty Years’ War
in Central Europe between Catholics and Protestants. It declared that each nation
could do as he or she wished within their borders. Established states speaking for
themselves and being independent of influences.

b. Shifting Balance of Power (1600 to 1800). Some states in Europe throughout

this period became extremely powerful and smaller states would ban together to
balance out the power.

Ex. Napoleon and France vs. Great Britain, Austria, and Russia.

c. Rise of Nationalism (1800 to 1945). Nationalism or the belief your nation is

superior emerged as a popular idea in the 1800s.It allowed new nations such as Italy
and Germany to emerge and also created a sense of competition like never before
between nations.

d. New World Orders (1945 to Present). Following WWII only two great
powers remained, the United States and the Soviet Union. After the fall of the Soviet
Union, we are now in a new era with only the U.S. as a superpower and multiple
emerging super powers.

3. The Modern Political System. Today, in addition to nations interacting with

one another, interest groups, corporations, institutions, and activists all play a role in
international politics. The result is a constantly shifting and evolving political stage.

4. Theories of International Relations. Some major theories have developed to

explain how nations interact with one another.

a. Realism. It is believed that nation work only to increase their own power
relative to that of other states. In other words, realists believe that essentially nations
are simply looking out for themselves and that in order to survive, a nation must be
strong. Machiavelli was an Italian Philosopher in the 1500s that believed effective
leaders and nations use deceit and violence as tools against other states. He believed
you had to be brutal at times to succeed and deal with conflicts decisively.

b. Liberalism. Emphasizes that connections among nations make it difficult

for nations to make decisions that do not affect other nations. The belief is that there
are consequences to nations acting alone and not with regard for others.
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c. Idealism. Idealists believes that nations should pursue moral goals and
act ethically in international politics. They oppose the use of deception and violence
in politics.

5. International Agreements and Laws. In order to make the modern

international system les chaotic, most nations utilize international agreements and laws to
provide stability. These agreements and laws evolve over time and in some cases require
international courts or organizations like the UN to enforce them.

6. International Treaties.

Treaties Date Effect

Sykes-Picot 1916 Set the modern boundaries in the Middle East.

Treaty of Versailles 1919 Ended WWI. Unfair treatment of Germany set the
stage for WWII
Munich Agreement 1938 Appeasement of Hitler in hopes he would not take
over more.
United Nations Charter 1945 Created the UN
North Atlantic Treaty 1949 Created NATO in order to prevent the spread of
communism
Warsaw Pact 1955 Communist response to NATO.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation 1968 Made it illegal for new nations to obtain nuclear
Treaty weapons.
Camp David Accords 1978 Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt.
Kyoto Protocol 2005 Regulates emissions to reduce global warming.

7. Treaties play an important role in shaping and redefining the international system. In
many cases, they reinforce laws and protect national and international interests.

8. International Organizations. Some agreements and treaties set up

organizations to enforce its’ rules and regulations. Two Types: International Government
Organizations (IGO) and Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO).

9. Multinational Corporations. Businesses that operate in more than one

country and add another layer that links nations together in the current international system.

10. International Conflict: War. Geneva Conventions: Establish acceptable forms

of war and punishes war criminals.

11. Just War Theory. War is the final political option, must be justified, must be
winnable, and must attempt to prevent civilian casualties

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12. Types of War.

a. Total War. Involves every part of society.

b. Limited War: Only involves the military.

c. Guerrilla War: Involves unprofessional soldiers and unorthodox

fighting styles.

d. Civil War: Fought within a single country between its people.

e. Proxy War: Fought through other nations between two nations.

13. How to Define International System. International System is a set of rules,

which states relate to one another. Each state is sovereign and can make independent choices.

14. How do Realism and Liberalism differ? Realism emphasizes nation’s desire to
increase their power when compared to other nations and Liberalism stresses the importance
of collaboration between nations and international organizations.

a. Forms of power.

(1) Economic power.

(2) Military power.

(3) Geographical power.

(4) Population as a power.

(5) Political power.

(6) Knowledge as a power.

Modern discourse generally speaks in terms of state power indication

economic & military power.

b. Categories of power.

(1) Hyper power –The state is the dominant power in the international
system. It is describe as a “hegemony”.

Ex. United State.

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(2) Super power - Great power with great mobility of power.

Ex. United State, Soviet Union, and British Empire.

(3) Great Power – The state has strong political cultural and economic
power over the nation and across the world.

Ex. China, France, Germany, Japan, and Russia

d. Types of power.

(1) Soft power. Soft power includes debates on cultural values,

dialogues on ideology, Diplomacy, cultural programme, propaganda to achieve
political ends.

(2) Hard power. Hard power generally used to change the domestic
affairs of other nations through military threats or economic pressure.

(3) Balance of power. Prevent any one nation from becoming

sufficiently strong is generally called balance of power.

14. What is a Nation? And What is a State?

a. Nation. A group of people who share the same history, geography,

language, customs and sometimes religion.

b. What is a State? State a state is a self-governing political entity. The

term state can be used interchangeably with county

15. What is a nation state? A nation state is a type of state that joins the political
entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political
legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state. A state is specifically
a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term
"nation state" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a
specific cultural group as associated with it.

16. Canada and United States. Even though citizens of Canada and the US share the
same boarder and territory, they do not, in the sense of the nation-state, share a common
nationality. (The United Nations recognizes Canada and the United States as “Nation States”)

17. Who is a Real Nation State? Most countries do not completely fall within the
definition of the nation-state, since most countries have immigrants.

a. Ideal Nation States.

Ex: 1. Iceland.

2. Japan

3. North Korea.
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18. National Interest.

a. Today, the concept of "the national interest" is often associated with political
realists who wish to differentiate their policies from "idealistic" policies that seek
either to inject morality into foreign policy or promote solutions that rely on
multilateral institutions which might weaken the independence of the state. National
interest as a concept is used in both political analysis and political action.

b. As an analytical tool, it is employed to describe, explain or evaluate the

sources of the adequacy of the nation’s foreign policy. It serves as means of justifying,
denouncing, or proposing policies. In simple sense, national interest is a country's
goals and ambitions, whether economic, military, or cultural. Reynolds believes that
there is difficulty in identifying the concept and vies this as unfortunate and on the
whole unhelpful. (1984:38). He argues that national interest should relate to real
interest of the people and these interests are not to be seen as being necessarily
contained within the state context.

c. The actual content of national interest depends on the perception and

interpretation by the decision-making elite. In fact,' No statesman, no publicist, no
scholar would seriously argue that foreign policy ought to be conducted in opposition
to, or in disregard of the national interest.

19. Types of National Interest.

a. Vital vs Secondary. Vital interests potentially threaten the life of your

nation, secondary interests are more distant and less urgent.

b. Temporary vs permanent. Temporary interests last for a fixed duration,

permanent interests last over centuries

c. Specific vs General. Specific interests focus on single problems while

general interests are more universal in application.

d. Complementary vs Conflicting. Complementary interests are those that

countries have in common, conflicting interests pull countries apart.

e. Motives for expansionism. Such states actively seek to overthrow the

existing balance of power. In the aftermath of war the victorious state may choose to
dismember or otherwise disable its anguished adversary to guard against a reopening
of hostilities.

g. Defeat in war can furnish an equally powerful incitement to a nation’s

expansionist strategies and power enhancement objectives.

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20. The temporary weakness of neighbouring states can also include expansionism.
States sometimes commit aggressive acts of defensive reasons- a state may seek to predict an
attack on or a revolt within its weaker neighbours by taking pre-emptive military action
against them, although they are not the true target, but more formidable foes further away
who are more serious threats.

21. Status quo strategy.

a. Countries seek to preserve and continue a particular power relationship.

b. All nations pursue a status quo strategy from time to time, nations opposed to
changes affecting the regional or global balance of power pursue it most avidly

22. Containment. The US policy toward the perceived threat from the Soviet Union and
Communism, that sought to prevent the soviets from acquiring new territory outside of their
own country.

23. Accommodation.

a. States intend to preserve or promote peace, sometimes at the expense of their

own power.

b. Nations choosing the strategy of accommodation may seek to promote the

peaceful resolution of international disputes or they may sacrifice values of great
importance to their own well-being.

c. A nation will submit to pressure or military threats rather than risk a war it
knows it would lose.

24. Appeasement. A nation’s policy of making concessions to an aggressor nation

in order to prolong peace. The strategies are flexible and change over time based on the
circumstances

25. Other Approaches to Identifying National Interest.

a. Zones-of-Conflict model.

(1) Power struggles and wars in the zones of conflict will continue to be
the norm while peaceful competition, in the form of trade, investment and
economic cooperation, will be the norm in zones of peace.

(2) Military intervention into the zones of conflict will have to be taken
with extreme caution and should aim at making the zones of conflict should be
developed into Democracies and eventually zones of peace.
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UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION AND CONCEPT OF COLLECTIVE

SECURITY

1. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations
Aims.

a. Facilitating cooperation in international law.

b. International security.

c. Economic development.

d. Social progress.

e. Human rights and the achieving of world peace.

2. The General Assembly. The General Assembly is the main deliberative

assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the
assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member
states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity
to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement,
followed by the president of the assembly.

3. The Security Council.

a. The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among
countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations'
to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding
decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of
Charter Article 25.The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security
Council resolutions.

b. The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5

permanent members – China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United
States – and 10 non-permanent members, currently Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Brazil, Gabon, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, Turkey, and Uganda.

c. The Secretariat. The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the

Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It
provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their
meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN
General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The
United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest
standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the
importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis.

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4. The International Court of Justice (ICJ). The International Court of Justice

(ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations.
Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the
successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International
Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document
constituting and regulating the Court.

5. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and
social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by
the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and
chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once
a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April
with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF).

6. Concept of Collective Security. Collective Security have been commonly

regarded as a promising approach to world peace. The first seeks to confront would be
aggressors with the concerted power of the states determined to keep the peace; it involves
commitment to go to war if necessary.
7. How Do You Define the Word Collective Security? Machinery for joint action
in order to prevent or counter any attack against an established international order. -George
Schwarzerberger-

8. Provisions of the UN Charter.

a. Chapter vii of the charter points out in great detail what is the effective
collective measures. If the Security Council finds that an act of aggression or other
threat to the peace has occurred, and if the parties concerned do not comply with such
measures as the council shall deem necessary, the UN body may call upon the
member state to take any of a unite variety of military or non-military and, if
necessary, militarily measures against the offending states. Article 43.

b. “ All members of the UN undertake to make available to the SC, on its call or
in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and
facilities necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security”.
Article 43.

c. “Members shall hold immediately available air force contingents for combined
international enforcement action” Article 47.

d. This article provides for a military staff comity; “to advise and assist the
security council on all questions relating to the SC’s military requirements for the
maintenance of international peace and security, the development and command of
forces placed at its disposal, and possible disarmament”. Article 49.

e. This article states that “the members of the UN shall join in affording mutual
assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon the SC. Article 51.

f. This article recognizes “the inherent right of individual or collective self-

defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of UN”
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COLD WAR AND NEW WORLD ORDER

1. Evolution of International Order till end of the Cold War.

a. In 1898, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia called for a meeting of the leaders of

nations in order to develop a process for peacefully resolving international disputes.
For the first time, the nations considered suitable for inclusion within the international
legal order included non-European states such as the United States and Japan.
Representatives of twenty-six nations met the next year at The Hague and signed an
agreement promising to seek peaceful resolution of conflicts and established the
International Court of Arbitration as a vehicle for achieving this. They also entered
into an agreement regarding the laws of war. In 1907 there was a second meeting to
discuss other issues. One of the fears motivating this interest in peaceful resolution of
interstate conflicts was the growth of alliance networks that eventually divided
Europe into two major blocs, one headed by Germany, the other led by France and
England. Because of these alliance networks, what might have been a conflict
between two states could escalate into a large-scale war as the countries involved
called upon their allies to support them, something that did occur in August 1914. The
weakness of the Hague meetings was that recourse to the court established there relied
on the willingness of the parties to take that route rather than war. The court lacked
any power to force states to come before it or, for that matter, to enforce any decisions
it might reach.

b. During the twentieth century, the theory and the practice of international order
attempted to reconcile several conflicting issues. The first of these dealt with the
tension between a desire to incorporate all the nations of the earth into a single
coherent system for the settlement of international disputes and a recognition of the
fact that a few nations dominated international affairs militarily and politically. A
second conflict arose from the desire to enforce adherence to internationally
recognized standards of state behavior even in internal matters while recognizing the
sovereign status of every state. Finally, there was the difficulty of determining
generally acceptable standards of state behavior in a world composed of states with
quite different cultural traditions.

c. The most famous twentieth-century approach to world order came out of the
Versailles Peace Conference after World War I. President Woodrow Wilson, whose
14 Points outlined what he believed to be the causes of the war and what he saw as the
steps necessary to prevent such a war from occurring again, proposed as the key to
world peace a League of Nations that would be open to all states throughout the world
and would be capable of enforcing peace. Although egalitarian at the level of the
General Assembly in which each member state had one vote, at the highest level there
was a council composed of representatives of the five great powers—France,
England, Italy, Japan, and the United States—supplemented by representatives of four
other powers elected by the General Assembly. Wilson's plans for an international
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order were frustrated by the national interests of the various countries involved, by the
refusal of the U.S. Senate to vote in support of membership in the League, and by the
refusal to admit Germany and Russia. This meant that three of the most powerful
countries in the world were outside of the orderly world network that the League of
Nations was supposed to create.

d. During the 1920s, there were various attempts to create a peaceful

international order by executing treaties that would bind nations to seek peaceful
solutions to conflicts. Germany, for example, signed a series of treaties that bound it
to accept the borders established at the end of World War I and to accept arbitration in
those cases where there were conflicts with neighboring countries. The Kellogg-
Briand Pact (1927) bound signatories to use arbitration to settle disputes, and, in 1930,
the major naval powers signed a treaty in London to regulate the size of navies and
regulating submarine warfare. These treaties and others entered into during the 1920s
suggested to some observers that a legally based international order was coming into
being. No means were created, however, for enforcing adherence to these treaties.

e. In addition to resolving conflicts among European nations, the post–World

War I era saw the development of efforts to regulate relations among the nations of
the rest of the world and to assist in the development of these nations. Former German
colonies in Africa were assigned to various European powers. Other areas, lost to the
collapsing Ottoman Empire, Syria and Iraq, for example, became independent states
but under the supervision of France and England, respectively. These arrangements
were made under the direction or mandate of the League of Nations and were
expected to end once these countries had become fully developed modern states and
therefore capable of participation in the network of states that controlled international
order.

f. The experience of the 1930s, however, demonstrated that international order,

especially where it concerned the interests of the major nations, could not be secured
without the use of force. The failure of the French to secure support for the occupation
of the Ruhr in 1923 marked the last attempt to use force to ensure German adherence
to the terms of the Versailles Treaty. When Adolf Hitler repudiated the treaty's
limitations on the size of the German armed forces in 1935, the League of Nations
took no steps to enforce adherence to the treaty. Likewise, there was no forceful
reaction the following year when the Germans reoccupied the demilitarized Rhineland
in violation of the treaty.

g. The efforts at establishing international order that were made after World War
II were designed to avoid the problems associated with the post–World War I
settlement. The United Nations (UN), formally created in October 1945, was
established to maintain the unity of the countries that won the war. Like the League of
Nations, the United Nations consisted of two houses, the General Assembly where
each nation had one vote and the Security Council that consisted of five permanent
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members and six elected by the General Assembly. Membership in the UN grew
rapidly from the initial 51 members to more than 160 in 2003. Some saw the UN as
paving the way for a world government that would maintain world order, but there
were a number of forces that worked against such an outcome, above all, the division
of the world into two large political blocs identified with the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact. These two large military and political
blocs in turn not only confronted one another directly, they also competed for support
from the so-called Third World nations of Asia and Africa. To a great extent, world
order in the post–World War II era was created by the tension between the two great
power blocs called USA and USSR.

2. The concept of Cold War and Proxy Wars.

a. A proxy war is an armed conflict between two states or non-state actors which
act on the instigation or on behalf of other parties that are not directly involved in the
hostilities. In order for a conflict to be considered a proxy war, there must be a direct,
long-term relationship between external actors and the belligerents involved. The
aforementioned relationship usually takes the form of funding, military training, arms,
or other forms of material assistance which assist a belligerent party in sustaining its
war effort.

b. During the Cold War, proxy warfare was motivated by fears that a
conventional war between the United States and Soviet Union would result in nuclear
holocaust, rendering the use of ideological proxies a safer way of exercising
hostilities. The Soviet government found that supporting parties antagonistic to the
US and Western nations was a cost-effective way to combat NATO influence in lieu
of direct military engagement. In addition, the proliferation of televised media and its
impact on public perception made the US public especially susceptible to war-
weariness and skeptical of risking American life abroad. This encouraged the
American practice of arming insurgent forces, such as the funneling of supplies to the
mujahideen during the Soviet–Afghan War.

c. A significant disparity in the belligerents' conventional military strength may

motivate the weaker party to begin or continue a conflict through allied nations or
non-state actors. Such a situation arose during the Arab–Israeli conflict, which
continued as a series of proxy wars following Israel's decisive defeat of the Arab
coalitions in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War.
The coalition members, upon failing to achieve military dominance via direct
conventional warfare, have since resorted to funding armed insurgent and paramilitary
organizations, such as Hezbollah, to engage in irregular combat against Israel.

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d. Additionally, the governments of some nations, particularly liberal

democracies, may choose to engage in proxy warfare (despite military superiority)
when a majority of their citizens oppose declaring or entering a conventional war.
This featured prominently in US strategy following the Vietnam War, due to the so-
called "Vietnam Syndrome" of extreme war weariness among the American
population. This was also a significant factor in motivating the US to enter conflicts
such as the Syrian Civil War via proxy actors, after a series of costly, drawn-out direct
engagements in the Middle East spurred a recurrence of war weariness, a so-called
"War on Terror syndrome".

e. Nations may also resort to proxy warfare to avoid potential negative

international reactions from allied nations, profitable trading partners, or
intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations. This is especially
significant when standing peace treaties, acts of alliance, or other international
agreements ostensibly forbid direct warfare: breaking such agreements could lead to a
variety of negative consequences due to either negative international reaction (see
above), punitive provisions listed in the prior agreement, or retaliatory action by the
other parties and their allies.

f. In some cases, nations may be motivated to engage in proxy warfare due to

financial concerns: supporting irregular troops, insurgents, non-state actors, or less-
advanced allied militaries (often with obsolete or surplus equipment) can be
significantly cheaper than deploying national armed forces, and the proxies usually
bear the brunt of casualties and economic damage resulting from prolonged conflict.

g. Another common motivating factor is the existence of a security dilemma.

Leaders that feel threatened by a rival nation's military power may respond
aggressively to perceived efforts by the rival to strengthen their position, such as
military intervention to install a more favorable government in a third-party state.
They may respond by attempting to undermine such efforts, often by backing parties
favorable to their own interests (such as those directly or indirectly under their
control, sympathetic to their cause, or ideologically aligned). In this case, if one or
both rivals come to believe that their favored faction is at a disadvantage, they will
often respond by escalating military and or financial support. If their counterpart,
perceiving a material threat or desiring to avoid the appearance of weakness or defeat,
follow suit, a proxy war ensues between the two powers. This was a major factor in
many of the proxy wars during the Cold War between the US and USSR, as well as in
the ongoing series of conflicts between Saudi Arabia and Iran, especially in Yemen
and Syria.

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3. Effects of the Cold War.

a. Proxy wars can have a huge impact, especially on the local area. A proxy war
with significant effects occurred between the United States and the USSR during the
Vietnam War. In particular, the bombing campaign Operation Rolling Thunder
destroyed significant amounts of infrastructure, making life more difficult for North
Vietnamese citizens. In addition, unexploded bombs dropped during the campaign
have killed tens of thousands since the war ended, not only in Vietnam, but also in
Cambodia and Laos. Also significant was the Soviet–Afghan War, which cost
thousands of lives and billions of dollars, bankrupting the Soviet Union and
contributing to its collapse.

b. Proxy wars generally have a destabilizing effect. For example, in the Middle
East, proxy wars Saudi Arabia and Iran have devastated the region. This conflict
has resulted in, among other things, the Syrian Civil War, the rise of ISIL, the current
civil war in Yemen, and the reemergence of the Taliban. Since 2003, more than
500,000 have died in Iraq. Since 2011, more than 220,000 have died in Syria. In
Yemen, over 1,000 have died in just one month. In Afghanistan, more than 17,000
have been killed since 2009. In Pakistan, more than 57,000 have been killed since
2003.

c. In general, the lengths, intensities, and scales of existing armed conflicts are
often greatly increased when belligerents' capabilities are augmented by external
support. Belligerents are often less likely to engage in diplomatic negotiations, peace
talks are less likely to bear fruit, and damage to infrastructure can be many times
greater.

4. Causes and the termination of the Cold War.

a. U.S.-Soviet relations improved considerably during the middle 1980s. At a

dramatic summit meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland, in October 1986, Gorbachev
proposed a 50-percent reduction in the nuclear arsenals of each side, and for a time it
seemed as though a historic agreement would be reached. The summit ended in
failure, owing to differences over SDI. However, on December 8, 1987, the
Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed in Washington, eliminating an
entire class of nuclear weapons. The INF Treaty was the first arms-control pact to
require an actual reduction in nuclear arsenals rather than merely restricting their
proliferation.

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b. As the decade came to an end, much of the Eastern Bloc began to crumble.
The Hungarian government took down the barbed wire on its border with Austria and
the West. The Soviet Union did nothing in response. Although travel was still not
completely free, the Iron Curtain was starting to unravel. On November 10, 1989, one
of the most famous symbols of the Cold War came down: the Berlin Wall. By the end
of the year, leaders of every Eastern European nation except Bulgaria had been ousted
by popular uprisings.

c. By mid-1990, many of the Soviet republics had declared their independence.

Turmoil in the Soviet Union continued, as there were several attempts at
overthrowing Gorbachev. On December 8, 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist.
Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, formed the Commonwealth of
Independent States (C.I.S.). After 45 years, the Cold War was over.

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GLOBAL POLITICS IN POST- COLD WAR ERA

1 Context.

a. The post–Cold War era is the period in world history from the dissolution of
the Soviet Union on 9:00 am, December 26, 1991 to the present. The term was
criticized for its ambiguity: "Even though it has been ten years since the Berlin Wall
came down, wrote Paul Wolfowitz in 2000, we still have no better name for the
period in which we live than the post-Cold War era." The name means that this new
era “does not yet have a name.” It was suggested that Pax Americana or "clash of
civilizations" would more reflect the reality of the era but the former term would be
"offending for many." The same dilemma expressed Condoleezza Rice: “That we do
not know how to think about what follows the US-Soviet confrontation is clear from
the continued references to the "post-Cold War period.'" "We knew better where we
had been than where we were going.”

b. It has mostly been dominated by the rise of globalization (as well as

nationalism and populism in reaction) enabled by the commercialization of the
Internet and the growth of the mobile phone system. The ideology of postmodernism
and cultural relativism has according to some scholars replaced modernism and
notions of absolute progress and ideology.

c. The period has seen the United States become by far the most powerful
country in the world and the rise of China from a relatively weak developing country
to a fledgling potential superpower. Reacting on the rise of China, the United States
has strategically sought to "rebalance" the Asia-Pacific region. It has also seen the
merging of most of Europe into one economy and a shift of power from the G7 to the
larger G20. Accompanying the NATO expansion, Ballistic Missile Defenses (BMD)
was installed in East Europe. These marked important steps in the military
globalization.

d. Environmentalism has also become a mainstream concern in the post-Cold

War era following the circulation of widely accepted evidence for human activity's
effects on Earth's climate. The same heightened consciousness is true of terrorism,
owing largely to the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States and their global
fallout.

2. Emerging of new Super Powers. The term “emerging powers” is a broad and
somewhat vague category or shorthand for countries that are thought to be in the process of
increasing their economic (and political) power faster than the rest. To be described as an
emerging power, a country usually needs to be large (both regarding geographic extension
and population, though not always, as the case of Japan shows) and poorer on a per capita
basis than industrialized countries, though there is no clear definition of when a country
ceases to “emerge.” Since emerging power status is desirable and implies an optimistic
outlook, governments have an interest in depicting themselves as such. One important part of
the literature on emerging powers looks at international power transition in history, and how
the arrival of new great powers changes global dynamics. Another, currently larger and more
visible part, looks at contemporary emerging powers. For the latter, predictions and estimates
about future growth (which are often too rosy) matter greatly. Yet the question of which the
country qualifies as an emerging power is always contested and in flux. The difficulty in
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predicting the future explains why some analyses in this realm often lack serious empirical
and theoretical scholarship. The concept of emerging powers is not new: Brazil, for instance,
was seen as an emerging power in the 1970s. Still, the term gained new prominence in the
first decade of the 21st century, when large markets at the periphery of the global economy
continuously grew above average, leading to a shift of power away from established powers
toward the developing world. The BRICs grouping (consisting of Brazil, Russia, India and
China), created in 2001 and called BRICS (with a capital “S” since South Africa’s accession
in 2010), came to symbolize a narrative that seemed distant in the 1990s but appeared to
make sense in the mid-2000s: a momentous shift of power from the United States and Europe
toward emerging powers. The history of the BRICS grouping can be divided into three
phases. In the first phase (2001–2007), “BRIC” (then still without South Africa) stood for
little more than an investment category invented by Goldman Sachs. The second phase
(2008–2014) saw, contrary to general expectations, the emergence of the BRICS as a political
platform, though of a largely informal nature. 2015 began the transition to a third phase,
marked by a process of institutionalization and the launch of the BRICS’ New Development
Bank. The literature on emerging powers is wide and highly diverse in terms of structure,
scope, and focus. In addition to more academic work, a large quantity of former policymakers
and journalists write about the subject, often in a more speculative and forward-looking
fashion. Many analyses deal with emerging powers as one cohesive group, others focus on
specific emerging powers (most frequently China, followed by India). These include
interesting analyses of the social transformation ongoing in emerging powers. Finally, within
the realm of international relations, works on emerging powers usually focus on the foreign
policies of specific countries; questions of global public goods (such as climate change or
security) or norms (e.g., democracy and human rights); and global order in more general
terms.

3. Multi-polarity.

a. Multi-polarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in

which more than two nation-states have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural,
and economic influence.

b. Pre-nuclear weapons, this system is considered the least stable of all, but due
to the complexity of mutually assured destruction scenarios, with nuclear weapons,
however, the opposite may be true. This system tends to have many shifting alliances
until one of two things happens. Either a balance of power is struck, and neither side
wants to attack the other, or one side will attack the other because it either fears the
potential of the new alliance, or it feels that it can defeat the other side.

c. One of the major implications of an international system with any number of

poles, including multipolar system, is that international decisions will often be made
for strategic reasons to maintain a balance of power rather than out of ideological or
historical reasons.

d. The 'Concert of Europe,' a period from after the Napoleonic Wars to the
Crimean War, was an example of peaceful multi-polarity (the great powers of Europe
assembled regularly to discuss international and domestic issues). World War I,
World War II, the Thirty Years War, and the Warring States Period are all examples
of wartime multi-polarity.

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4. Emerge of new threats.

a. The end of the Cold War led to new security challenges, because of changing
notions of military force and the new sources of security threat (Smith, 2006; Shaw,
2005). The first one is related to the rise of nuclear power. With the demise of the
USSR, the simple bipolarity of the Cold War world was replaced by a multipolar
world, where the centrality of power was no longer clearly defined (Brown, 2005;
Jackson & Sorensen, 2003). The rise of the Asian economic powers, the advance of
nuclear and biological weapons in countries such as Iran, Israel and Iraq challenged
the stability of the mutual deterrence principle, comfortably sustained during the Cold
War (Hammes, 2005).

b. Another source of security threat after the Cold War was related to terrorism,
and the rise of sub-state actors (Smith, 2006). The War on terror, embedded in the
Bush doctrine, was a clear demonstration of the changing nature of war, and the
elusive image of the new enemy (Shaw, 2005). After 9/11 it became clear that
terrorism was not a war against an enemy, but against tactics (Baylis& Smith, 2007).
Its manifestations and capacity to destroy were as much the result of political
construction, as of historically embedded perceptions about the East and the West and
their manipulation by mass media and policy-makers. After the end of the Cold War
non-state actors such as Al Qaeda and Hamas, became a new source of security threat
because of their ability to operate internationally but at the same time to exist inside
the state (Shaw, 2005). Also, the controversies, around states labelled as rogue and
unable to comply with the international standards for peace and democracy such as
Afghanistan, Iraq, North Korea, Libya and Syria necessitated new means for meeting
the challenges to threat and security.

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THE FUTURE PROSPECTIVE OF THE GLOBAL ORDER

1. The Context.

a. As the foreign affairs.com explains there is no longer any question wealth and
power are moving from the North and the West to the East and the South, and the old
order dominated by the United States and Europe is giving way to one increasingly
shared with non-Western rising states. But if the great wheel of power is turning, what
kind of global political order will emerge in the aftermath?

b. Some anxious observers argue that the world will not just look less American
it will also look less liberal. Not only is the United States' preeminence passing away,
they say, but so, too, is the open and rule-based international order that the country
has championed since the 1940s. In this view, newly powerful states are beginning to
advance their own ideas and agendas for global order, and a weakened United States
will find it harder to defend the old system. The hallmarks of liberal internationalism -
- openness and rule-based relations enshrined in institutions such as the United
Nations and norms such as multilateralism could give way to a more contested and
fragmented system of blocs, spheres of influence, mercantilist networks, and regional
rivalries.

c. The fact that today's rising states are mostly large non-Western developing
countries gives force to this narrative. The old liberal international order was designed
and built in the West. Brazil, China, India, and other fast-emerging states have a
different set of cultural, political, and economic experiences, and they see the world
through their anti-imperial and anticolonial pasts. Still grappling with basic problems
of development, they do not share the concerns of the advanced capitalist societies.
The recent global economic slowdown has also bolstered this narrative of liberal
international decline. Beginning in the United States, the crisis has tarnished the
American model of liberal capitalism and raised new doubts about the ability of the
United States to act as the global economic leader.

2. Multifaceted threats. Traditional approaches to security studies are based on state

sovereignty. With the emergence of the human security discourse in the beginning of the
1990s, focusing on the well-being of individuals gained popularity within the security debate.
The concept of human security is broad and incorporates many aspects, such as
environmental, economic, or food security. Human beings are also usually part of a
community that shares a common set of values from which they derive a common identity,
and which provides them a feeling of security. Human security and community well-being
are closely intertwined, as community viability depends on individual well-being as much as
individual well-being is related to a healthy community. Yet, in traditional security discourses
the state or a state’s society remain the referent object of security, meaning that it is the entire
society of a nation state that need to be protected. However, communities can be defined on
different scales and levels, such as the sub national, national, transnational, or international
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levels. An individual person may be a citizen of a state, member of a municipality, and

member of an ethnic minority, with associated ties to each group. The predominant
challenges facing the communities and individuals in the world are non-military, such as
climate change, environmental degradation, industrialization, globalization and integration
into the global markets, erosion of cultural traditions, disputes over political participation and
autonomy, and conflicts over land use. These multifaceted challenges are not necessarily
confined within states’ territorial borders but may apply at local, regional, or even global
scales.

3. Changing nature of war and challenges in future global order.

a. Here it is important to mention globalization as a factor, which led to re-

examination of the capacity of the state to observe human security and human rights
(Strange, 2002). In the context of a borderless world, the international human rights
agenda is inevitably revisited, and the main carriers of legal standards are no longer
represented solely by state actors, but by the global civil society, comprising of
International non-governmental organizations (INGOs). Because of these inevitable
transformations, the very perception of security, threat and war changed in several
important aspects. As Mary Kaldor famously observes, the end of the Cold War saw
the rise of the modern wars, which lack time and space, because they are based on
non-quantifiable demands often related to ideology, ethnicity, religion and the social
construction of history (1999). The old wars were pushed away by new types of
threats and conflicts, such as organized crime, and religious and civil wars. The early
1990s saw the bloody demise of former Yugoslavia, and a series of conflicts in
Rwanda, Congo, Sudan and Somalia, triggered by the redefinition of political borders,
the struggle over economic resources and ethnic and religious factionalism. In the
context of globalization, the modern wars are interstate conflicts, executed by sub-
state actors. In this sense, it is important to mention that the growing presence of the
sub-state actors has posed new challenges to the classic perceptions of security,
because of non-tangible variables such as perceptions, as opposed to old-time military
ambitions related to territorial invasion and economic gain.

b. Emerging powers have actively participated in existing international

governmental organizations, albeit without weakening their sovereignty or giving in
to binding targets and commitments that are not in their clearly expressed interests
(Narlikar 2013; Hou, Keane, teVelde 2014). They continue to call for a greater voice
in these international institutions and are more sensitive to manipulation or being dealt
with on unequal terms. If binding global agreements cannot be reached, they do
follow voluntary and unilateral action. And if things do not progress enough with
respect to much-needed governance reform in these international institutions, they do
not hesitate to set up their own arrangements. This is illustrated by the envisaged
creation of the BRICS Development Bank to put pressure on the World Bank. Due to
these developments, the deepening divide between the rich and poor countries and the
rising global inequality – to mention a few problems – the world is currently in a
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fragile imbalance. The cause thereof is not only the relative weakness of the EU and
the USA but also the fact that the transforming emerging powers have only partly
been able to reliably act globally and regionally. Out of reaction the BRICS have
begun the process of establishing their own institutions to existing rival institutions.
The vacuum in the provision of global public goods and a regional leadership gap,
and global and regional governance gaps are already spreading. The world is drifting
apart. Leadership, order, and global and regional governance are no longer
guaranteed. Currently the West is not solving enough global problems. Europe makes
many promises, but the incoherence of its foreign policy and security policy weaken
its ability to act decisively. Despite NATO, despite strong positions in international
organizations and despite high economic standards the “Club of the West” is
increasingly losing its abilities to lead and govern. In many ways Europe is
succumbing to the belief that it can continue without adapting. But the rise and
dynamism of the “new” is here. European foreign policy is inhibited. The tendency to
act on single state policies illustrates its weakness. In order to avert further decline,
the EU must develop coherent European policies for foreign affairs, foreign trade,
climate issues, energy, finance, currency, migration, technology, for democratic
values and, cooperation with civil society networks. The unified activities reg.
Ukraine and solving the problems of debt-stricken EU countries indicate that the EU
and its member states try to tackle the problems. It will also have to learn to act and
solve global problems with the emerging powers in the context of a mutual (not a
unilateral one-sided) discourse on global obligations. This is absolutely essential for
the successful reduction of the global and regional governance gaps currently
looming.

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FOREIGN POLICY OF SRI LANKA

1. Learning Outcome. At the end of the lesson, the student will get a knowledge
on Sri Lankan Foreign Policy with special emphasizes on initiatives and foundations of Sri
Lankan Foreign Policy.

2. A country's foreign policy. A country's foreign policy, also called the

international relations policy, is a set of goals outlining how the country will interact with
other countries economically, politically, socially and militarily, and to a lesser extent, how
the country will interact with non-state actors.

3. Initiatives of Sri Lankan foreign policy.

a. Geopolitics.

b. Economic security.

c. Political security.

d. Leftist movement in Sri Lanka.

e. The status of security forces.

f. UK-SL defense agreement.

g. US-SL external relation agreement.

4. The Foundation of the Sri Lankan Foreign Policy. The defense and the
external relation pacts signed with UK became the foundation of the foreign policy of Sri
Lanka.

5. The Development. The changing internal and external political situation, changing
interests, the political leadership shaped the foreign policy of Sri Lanka from time to time.

6. The factors that has to be kept in your mind when you study the FP of Sri Lanka.

a. The location of Sri Lanka.

b. The economy.

c. Limited resources.

d. Security and economic development.

e. Colombo Summit 1954.

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7. The Bandung Principles became the foundation for the Non Align Movement and
non- alignment became the essence of the Sri Lankan Foreign policy. Ten Principles of
Bandung (Dasa Sila Bandung) The Asian-African Conference Bandung, 18-24 April 1955.

a. Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and principles of
the charter of the United Nations.

b. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations.

c. recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations large
and small.

d. Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another

country.

e. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or collectively, in
conformity with the charter of the United Nations.

f. (a) Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defence to serve any
particular interests of the big powers.

(b) Abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries.

g. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any country.

h. Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation,

conciliation, mediation or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of the
parties own choice, in agreement with the charter of the united nations.

i. Promotion of Mutual Interests and Cooperation.

j. Respect for justice and international obligations.

8. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

a. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an international organization of states

considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.
The movement is largely the brainchild of Gamal Abdul Nasser, former president of
Egypt, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Yugoslav president Josip Broz
Tito. It was founded in April 1955; as of 2007, it has 118 members.

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9. The important phases in the Sri Lankan Foreign Policy.

a. The Senanayake Governments (1948-1956) (The Commonwealth phase).

(1) Prime Minister DS Senanayake practiced middle path as the

fundamental nature of his foreign policy. DS supported the Commonwealth
and, the defence pact signed with UK, the launching of the Colombo Plan and
Sri Lanka’s role in at the San Francisco peace conference were the highlights
of his foreign policy. Prime Minister Dudly Senanayake explained his foreign
policy as ‘not aligned but non- aligned’.

(2) Sir John Kothalawala proposed to the world that the Asian countries
should stand together against the threats caused by the ideological conflicts
and should follow a independence foreign policy for the first time. He started
relations with socialist countries as well but did not accept communism. This
phase mark the beginning of turn inning away from the west to explore the
relations with other countries and search for and Asian identity had begun
already. Kothalawala’s foreign policy was considered robust and dynamic one
as well.

b. SWRD Bandaranayake. SWRD Bandaranayake abrogated the UK

defense pact and entertained notion of leaving the Commonwealth not as expression
of hostility to the west but because he had a vision of universality.

C. Srimao Bandaranayake. Srimao Bandaranayake played a key role in the

development of NAM and she mediated the Sino-Asian border conflict -1962.another
monumental achievement was Srima-Shasthri pact which resolved a long standing
deputes with India over the status in Sri Lanka of plantation workers of Indian Origin.
Indian Ocean Peace Keeping Proposal was brought to UN in 1971, and the resolution
of the dispute over the Cuchchative Islands was highlights and Sri Lanka became the
centre of attention of the world.

d. JR Jayewardene. President Jayewardene cannot be characterized by

single caption as it was multidimensional and blend of several elements (ties with
commonwealth, SAARC, UN and commitment to disarmament). His outstanding
feature was the adoption of open economy which has transformed the outlook and the
prospects of the nation. There was great set back in relation with India and the
exacerbation, due to the mismanagement of the ethnic question of a problem that has
imposed a great burden on foreign policy.

e. Ranasinghe Premadasa. The foreign relation problems faced by president

Jayawardene’s government especially with India continued with the increased
attention being paid by the international community to the human rights situation in
Sri Lanka.

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f. Chandrika Bandaranayake Kumarathunga. The assumption of office

president CBK in 1994 has seen a dramatic transformation in Sri Lanka’s foreign
relations giving Sri Lanka new dignity and new image with the comity of nations.
These policies further enhanced after the assumption of duty by the president
Mahinda Rajapaksa.

g. Mahinda Rajapaksa. The foreign policy of Sri Lanka took a course under
the ‘Mahinda Chinthana President Mahinda declared that “I will follow anon aligned,
free and progressive foreign policy. Priority will be given in the political defense,
economic trade a central spheres to the cordial and friendly relationships with that we
already have with countries in the Asian region including India, Japan, China and
Pakistan. It is my belief that UN and the international financial institutions should be
more democratic in their approach. We will actively intervene in this regard .It is my
intention to strongly implement international treaties, declaration on anti-corruption.
This will enable us to act under the international law found guilty of corruption, when
engaging in trade with foreign countries or foreign institutions. I will create a foreign
service which has a correct awareness of our history, economic needs and the cultural
heritage”.

h. Maithreepala Sirisena. The Sirisena-led Coalition Government had

campaigned for good governance or ‘Yahapalanaya’ and wanted to conduct a more
balanced, so-called “non-aligned” foreign policy. Soon after the election, President
Maithripala Sirisena, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe, and Foreign Minister
Mangala Samaraweera travelled to China, India, Japan, Pakistan, the United States,
the United Kingdom, and other European countries – signaling a fundamental
departure from the previous regime.

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FOREIGN POLICY AND NATIONAL INTERESTS OF NATION STATES

1. What is National Interest?

a. The national interest is a country's goals and ambitions whether economic,

military, or cultural. The notion is an important one in international relations where
pursuit of the national interest is the foundation of the realist’s school. (Realists -states
are primarily motivated by the desire for military and economic power or security,
rather than ideals or ethics).

(1) State defines their own interests.

(2) State defines how to achieve them.

(3) States interests are called “national interests”.

(4) Methods used to achieve National interests are called Foreign policy.

2. What is Foreign Policy?

a. Foreign Policy is an instrument to serve a country’s national goals and

interest. It has to be formed in a manner that follows changing contours of
international politics, so as to pressure and promote the national interest. Foreign
Policy has to be flexible enough to adjust itself changing dynamics of a global order.

b. A country's foreign policy, also called the international relations policy, is a

set of goals outlining how the country will interact with other countries economically,
politically, socially and militarily, and to a lesser extent, how the country will interact
with non-state actors.

c. Determiners of Foreign Policy. The domestic milieu of a country plays

the important role in shaping foreign policy. In fact, to a large extent foreign policy is
a reflection of domestic dimensions of a country, it needs and priorities and strength
of weaknesses foreign policy is shaped by certain in objective conditions.

(1) History

(2) Geography

(3) Socio Economic conditioner

(4) Changing needs of priorities of international politics etc

d. Any way the determiners of a foreign policy can be divided into two
categories as follows:

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(1) Internal Determiners.

(a) The economic, political, and the social structure of that country

(b) Pressure groups and other groups who affect the rulers.

(2) External Determiners. The factors which are going to affect the
national existence and physical existence.

Ex. Invasions, political threats

3. National Interest of Sri Lanka.

a. In this new emerging global order, Sri Lanka, a nation in transition from the
third world to the second with a per capita income of US $ 3200, will need to craft its
path to be able to become a developed country. Even in its current economic state,
with 27 percent of the population living in poverty, a small section in the Sri Lankan
society is extremely wealthy. Therefore income inequality one of the major problems
as an interest achieves. The Central Bank projection of achieving a per capita income
of US $ 7000 by 2020 will be unachievable with the current state of the economy
(Asanga Abegoonasekara 2017) will have to accelerate to achieve the expected
results.

b. In March 2017, Sri Lankan President Maithripala Sirisena became the first Sri
Lankan Head of State to visit Russia in several decades. President Sirisena’s official
visit will strengthen Sri Lanka’s relations with a geo-strategically important country.
No previous Sri Lankan president has held in high esteem the values and teachings of
Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. In contrast, their pictures are placed in the main
boardroom of the current president’s residence. This is a clear indication of the deep
socialist values that President Sirisena holds as an interest.

c. While considering economic development Sri Lanka should consider the

national security. The large-scale strategic foreign projects must be added a strategic
value to the Sri Lanka economy. It is important to remember that given the volatile
global order, what may be the best strategic option today may not be the same in a
few years’ time. A simulator should be designed to deeply understand future events
and scenarios (Asanga Abegoonasekara 2017). Foresight analysis is a methodology
that Sri Lanka could adopt to predict the best future scenarios. Has Sri Lanka assessed
the strategic and economic significance of the Hambantota and Trincomalee port
projects in 2030, 2050 and beyond? The Sri Lankan policymakers should take these
questions into consideration while making strategic decisions. If they do not have the
necessary data sets to decide, they should defer the decision. Due to Sri Lanka’s
geographically strategic position, it cannot ignore regional and extra-regional entities’
interests in it. The Sri Lankan government should view its national interest as the first
point of reference.

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SRI LANKA’S POSITION IN SOUTH ASIA

1. Sri Lanka’s location has shaped its history intrinsically for millennia and will continue
to be so in the future. In ancient times, Sri Lanka was important as the half way point
between the two great empires of Rome and China and near the equator where our
navigational winds and monsoon effects changed directions. Therefore, it has strategic
geographical advantages where global and navigational contexts were concerned. It featured
prominently in the spice routes which were also called maritime silk roads. In fact, it is said
that cinnamon from Sri Lanka and cassia from China found their way along the Spice Routes
to the Middle East as far back as 2000 BC. Foreign merchants were attracted to ancient
Taprobane because of its importance as a centre of international trade and some of them even
settled in the islands, particularly Moors, descendants of Arab traders. They were a dominant
influence on the islands’ international trade in the Polonnaruwa period, between the 11th to
13th century periods. The Moors maintained this dominance until the early decades of the
16th century.

2. An examination of the foreign relations of the island under the Polonnaruwa Kings
reveals political linkages with Southeast Asia, in particular Myanmar and Cambodia. Peace
and prosperity along the Maritime Silk Road helped increase the volume of international
trade via the Indian Ocean from which Sri Lanka naturally profited. Much of the trade was in
luxury goods, and in that respect Sri Lanka was the transit point as well as a terminal point.
The latter was due to Sri Lanka’s own considerable luxury products such as gems and pearls.
However, ancient Sri Lanka was a largely self-sufficient agrarian economy, where the role of
trade was a generally peripheral activity. It was only after the collapse of the ancient
Hydraulic civilization in the Polonnaruwa period that the country’s rulers began to give
greater attention to the economic possibilities of trade. Exports of spices, particularly
cinnamon, became a particularly lucrative activity.

3. During the 13th and 15th centuries, Sri Lanka’s position as a trade hub on the East-
West maritime route had been established, as had its position as a gateway to India. Sri Lanka
had direct commercial links with Malacca and with regions in India such as Gujarat and
Bengal. During the colonial rule by the Portuguese, Dutch and lastly the English, the volume
of trade expanded. The tea trade, which was started by the British, still plays a significant role
in the Sri Lankan economy. However, in the last 500years, the Indian Ocean region lost its
geo-political and geo-economic relevance first to colonial dictates and, thereafter, post-
colonial cold war concerns.

Sri Lanka’s Strategic Role in the Indian Ocean

4. Now for the first time in five centuries, global economic balance of power is once
again shifting towards Asia. It is estimated that, by 2030, Asia will surpass North America
and Europe combined in global power based on gross domestic product (GDP), population
size, military spending and technological investments. The global financial system is also
moving away, albeit slowly, from the dollar dominated international system to a more multi-
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currency system. The new consumer markets are emerging all across Asia, and the Asian
middle class is expanding rapidly. Of the four largest economies of the world – US, China,
Japan and India –three are located in Asia. The busy East-West shipping route passes just six
to ten nautical miles south of the island with more than 60,000 ships plying this route
annually carrying two-thirds of global petroleum, half the supply of container cargo and
more. Thus, Sri Lanka’s situation in the nautical corridor between the East and West is not
only of importance from a geostrategic perspective but also from a maritime, economics and
security perspective.

5. Sri Lanka is a small country –it can’t change the geopolitical realities of the region
surrounding us. Hence, a wise foreign policy is essential not only for the present but to ensure
prosperity and safety of future generations.

6. Along with many opportunities, the renewed interest in Asia will also bring
vulnerability to emerging competition among major naval powers. The blue water naval
capabilities of key Asian states have ushered a new strategic environment and the Indian
Ocean has become an important geo-strategic space. While the maritime space of Asia is
strongly connected to the Indian and Pacific Oceans through trade and commerce routes,
there is a difference in the power dynamics of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The power play
in the Pacific is dominated by its proximity to the US, centrality to the US security policies
and now the rise of the Chinese naval power. In contrast, the Indian Ocean region has a
multipolar characteristic.

7. This transition in global power to Asia started with the economic awakening of East
Asia, driven by the growth of China and the complementary growth of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, particularly Indonesia and Vietnam. While the
South Asian region has not matched the same level of development, the region is acquiring an
intrinsic significance of its own, underpinned by the growth of India. Currently India is the
fastest growing large economy in the world. In the future, the power transition in the Indian
Ocean will be heavily influenced by South Asian developments.

8. The Indian Ocean plays a crucial role in the future of both China and India. The sea
routes through the Indian Ocean are very important to China’s maritime trade and energy
supply. Therefore, both countries will have to respect each other’s legitimate interest in
ensuring that their future prospects are not affected in the long term.

9. Unlike the Asia Pacific, the Indian Ocean region is not economically integrated. No
single power or coalition will be able to maintain peace and stability on their own in the
Indian Ocean. In capacity terms also, no country is capable of handling the maritime security
threats and challenges in isolation, no matter how advanced or developed it might be. In
addition, it is preferable that the region continues its historic and multipolar characteristics to
prevent a spill-over of tensions from other regions. In such a background, all maritime
nations have a role to play in ensuring the overall balance of strategic weight. Smaller nations

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such as Sri Lanka, even with comparatively limited maritime resources, can become an
integral element of security in the region.

10. The Indian Ocean is in need of a mutually benefiting security architecture established
on a multilateral basis. There is also space for an effective multilateral governing structure. In
this regard, the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka has expressed an interest in crafting an Indian
Ocean Order with accepted rules and agreements that would guide interactions between
states. Speaking in Singapore in 2016 at the inauguration of the Indian Ocean Conference,
Mr. Ranil Wickramasinghe called for this Order to be built on consensual agreement in which
no state is allowed to dominate the system.

11. The Indian Ocean Order would have the primary responsibility of upholding the
freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean ensuring that shipping and air routes to East Asia
and beyond are kept open. This will help build closer economic cooperation amongst
countries in the region. In this regard, the Prime Minister has called for a dialogue between
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and ASEAN leaders. Perhaps
that can happen sooner than later, and Sri Lanka would be delighted to play a role. Be that as
it may, Sri Lanka remains committed to preventing international terrorism, transnational
crimes and people smuggling in the seas around our country. Supplementing the blue water
capability of the Sri Lanka navy and the consolidation of the coast guards are areas of
concern for our government. It is also reviewing possibilities of integrating the capabilities of
our navy and air force.
Repositioning of Sri Lanka

12. The government of Sri Lanka has to have clear vision of what it wants to be in the
world today. It is repositioning itself to maximize its relationship with both historic and new
trading partners, to leverage our geostrategic position and make it a hub of the India Ocean as
well as a transshipment port for the Bay of Bengal trade. To fully realize this potential, Sri
Lanka is engaging in initiatives with regional players who have major economic stakes in the
Indian Ocean. It is also pushing to further integrate with the world by undertaking reforms to
facilitate trade and encourage productive foreign investments. It has set a target of boosting
exports to US$ 20 billion in 2020 and increasing exports by nearly 80 per cent between 2016
and 2020. It is unfortunate that in the last decade also of the previous government, Sri Lanka
lost its focus, with exports to GDP falling from 34 per cent to less than 14 per cent. So it is
critical that Sri Lanka implements its plans to leverage its competitive advantages as planned.
Unlike ASEAN, which provided its members with a stable and peaceful environment to focus
on economic development in formative stages of their countries development, SAARC has
not been able to achieve the same level of regional integration. These geopolitical realities
require that Sri Lanka build strong bilateral relations with the Bay of Bengal members of
ASEAN, in addition to its fellow South Asian members. In sum, Sri Lanka cannot be content
with its traditional markets and its must thus look beyond for new opportunities.

13. India and Sri Lanka hope to finalize an economic and technical cooperation or Indo-
Sri Lanka Economic and Technology Cooperative Agreement (ETCA) by 2017. The ETCA
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will enhance the scope of India and Sri Lanka’s Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to extend freer
movement of goods and services, with the added emphasis of cooperation on development of
technology and investment. The ETCA will provide an impetus to existing synergies and has
the potential to promote rapid growth in the sub-regional economy between Sri Lanka and the
five South Indian States.

14. Sri Lanka is also negotiating an FTA with Singapore. Singapore already has a
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) with India. Therefore, Sri Lanka
believes that, by next year, the Singapore-India CECA, the India-Sri Lanka ECTA and the Sri
Lanka-Singapore FTA will enable another southern sub-region of South Asia and Singapore
to establish a tri-partite arrangement for trade and investment.

15. Sri Lanka supports the One Belt One Road Initiative, in line with the major historical
role we played in the Maritime Silk Route. This will consolidate its position as a hub of the
Indian Ocean while further integrating us with the Asian markets. Chinese investments will
be primarily directed towards industrialization and further development of the Hambantota
Hub in southern Sri Lanka. In addition, a US$ 1.4 billion reclamation is now underway,
adjacent to the city of Colombo, for the creation of a 560-acre financial city under English
law, to fill a vacuum for offshore financial services between Singapore and Dubai. Chinese
investors have made significant commitments to invest equity in the China-debt strapped
Hambantota port and the Mattala International Airport the previous government built; now as
public-private partnership ventures.

16. The Sri Lanka government is currently negotiating a US$1.3 billion lease agreement
with China Merchants Port to lease the currently empty deep sea port, in order to integrate it
with the proposed industrial zones. In addition, we inaugurated the 15,000-acre Sri Lanka-
China logistics and industrial zone to become a serious player in the global production
network. It was revealed at the inauguration that Chinese investors were ready to bring in
US$5 billion in investments in the zone over the next three years.

17. Economic cooperation with Japan is as important to Sri Lanka. It is grateful for four
decades of Japanese donor assistance that have made significant impact on its social and
economic development. The Japanese Prime Minister, Mr. Shinzō Abe, has also appointed a
senior official to coordinate the Japan-Sri Lanka Joint Comprehensive Partnership Program
that was initiated last year.[3] After a lull, Japan is once again getting involved in major
infrastructure projects in Sri Lanka including light rail and expressways.

18. Many may not be aware that Sri Lanka is home to the second largest natural harbour
in the world in Trincomalee – it is said to be one of the finest deep sea harbours in the world.
Sri Lanka has now initiated action to develop this port centered on the large Trinco
development zone. The government is working with India and Japan, with SurbanaJurong of
Singapore being contracted to draw up a city master plan. The proposed container terminal in
Trincomalee Port will serve trade in India’s east coast as well as Bangladesh and Myanmar.

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19. With the strong interest in utilizing the zones along the south west corridor centered
around Colombo port and western Mega polis, logistics and industrial zones located near the
Hambantota and the north-east corridor centered around the Trincomalee port developed by
investors from China, Korea, Japan and also likely from India, Sri Lanka plans to create an
export market focused on Europe, China, Japan, US and the crescent of markets around the
Indian Ocean. In the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, there exists a fast-growing population of over
two billion people. This combined market has the potential of three billion consumers by
2050.

20. Going forward, Sri Lanka’s development strategy will be aimed at capturing trade
opportunities within this identified Indian Ocean market by pursuing trade liberalization
agreements with their governments. It has already made the application with the European
Union to regain the Generalized System of Preferences Plus facility for preferential access to
the single market, and are hopeful of an agreement by next year. A concerted effort is also
underway to improve the business climate, domestic reforms that are rule-based and make
business and investment more secure. Sri Lanka is taking measures to increase the ease of
doing business more directly, for example, it is bringing a number of different agencies
together to create a one-stop investment and trade facilitation shop.

21. Sri Lanka is reviewing its laws and regulations to create a simple rules-based business
environment, including those related to land ownership, as well as tariffs and para-tariffs. It
has adopted policies that enable private enterprise to thrive, for example, Sri Lanka has a
simple three-tier tax rate with the lowest at 14 percent. Together, these reforms – alongside
our educated workforce and solid infrastructure – are making Sri Lanka the most attractive,
secure and competitive investment destination in the region.

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SRI LANKA AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. What is an International Organization? An international organization is an

organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.

2. The Role of International Organizations. The role of international organizations

are, Helping to set the international agenda, Mediating political bargaining, Providing place
for political initiatives and acting as catalysts for coalition- formation etc. International
organizations also define the salient issues and decide which issues can be grouped together,
thus help governmental priority determination or other governmental arrangements.

3. Initiatives of Sri Lankan Participation in International Organizations. The base

for Sri Lankan participation in international organizations, as a newly independent state in
1948 was, attaining Economic & Political security for its existence.

4. Sri Lanka as a member of Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth of

Nations is a voluntary association of 52 sovereign states. Nearly all of them are former
British colonies or dependencies of those colonies. The purpose of Commonwealth is to
promote of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty,
egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace, which are promoted through
multilateral projects and meetings, such as the Commonwealth Games, held once every four
years.

5. Sri Lanka as a member of Colombo Plan -1950. The Colombo Plan is not
intended as an integrated master plan to which national plans were expected to conform. It is,
instead, a framework for bi-lateral arrangements involving foreign aid and technical
assistance for the economic and social development of the region. In the spring 1949, the
Indian Ambassador to China, KavalamMadhavaPanikkar, proposed a multilateral fund to the
British and Australian ambassadors, in order to help the states of Southeast Asia to battle
communist movements in their countries. This organization was known as Colombo Plan.
The United States was to be by far the largest contributor of aid to the organization and the
current membership is 27 countries.

6. Sri Lanka as a member of Non-align Movement. The Non-Aligned Movement

(NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power
bloc. Once a front-line member of the Movement, Sri Lanka opted for the non-aligned path in
the country’s foreign policy since its inception in 1961 on the back of its predecessor, the
Afro-Asian Solidarity Movement. In 1976, Sri Lanka became the Chairperson at the
Movement. Sri Lanka, a one-time chairperson of the now 120-member nation Movement, the
second largest grouping to the United Nations Organization.

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7. Admission of Sri Lanka to the UN and other International Organizations in

Geneva. Sri Lanka became a member of the UN on 14th December 1955. The
Permanent Mission of Sri Lanka to the United Nations in Geneva was established in June
1965. The Permanent Mission functions as the Permanent Sri Lanka delegation to the Geneva
Office of the United Nations (UN). The UN system, also known unofficially as the "UN
family", is made up of the UN itself and many affiliated programs, funds, and specialized
agencies, all with their own membership, leadership, and budget. The programs and funds are
financed through voluntary rather than assessed contributions. The Specialized Agencies are
independent international organizations funded by both voluntary and assessed contributions.

8. UN Funds and Programs. The Funds and Programs were created by the United
Nations to meet needs not envisaged at San Francisco, such as Palestine refugees,
development assistance, food aid, or the environment. They are subordinate to the United
Nations, but since they are immediately controlled by distinct inter-governmental bodies and
derive most of their financial resources from other sources than the United Nations budgets,
they are somewhat more akin to specialized agencies than to "subsidiary organs" such as UN
commissions and committees. Moreover, as their activities are more operational and carried
out at field level, they have needs dictated by an environment quite different from that of
headquarters-centered administrations. The Programmes and Funds apply UN rules and
regulations in the realm of administration and personnel.

9. Specialized agencies. Specialized agencies are autonomous organizations

working with the United Nations and each other through the coordinating machinery of the
United Nations Economic and Social Council at the intergovernmental level, and through the
Chief Executives Board for coordination (CEB) at the inter-secretariat level. Specialized
agencies may or may not have been originally created by the United Nations, but they are
incorporated into the United Nations System by the United Nations Economic and Social
Council acting under Articles 57 and 63 of the United Nations Charter. At present the UN has
in total 15 specialized agencies that carry out various functions on behalf of the UN.

10. As Sri Lanka’s Permanent Mission to the UN, the Mission represents Sri Lanka’s
national interest on following.

a. Conference on Disarmament (CD), UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) ,UN

Specialized Agencies based in Geneva such as the World Health Organization
(WHO), the International Labor Organization (ILO), the World Trade Organization
(WTO), the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
etc. The Mission also liaises with other international organizations based in Geneva
such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and the International Organization for
Migration (IOM), as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).

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b. Sri Lanka as a member of UN Specialized Agencies/ Funds/Programmes

UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WFP, FAO, UNESCO,
WFP, World Bank, ICAO, IFAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, ADB, ITU, UNCTADUNESCO
(1944).

(1) UNESCO. The aim UNESCO of is to contribute peace and

security by promoting internal collaboration through education science and
culture in order to further universal respect for justice than rule of law and the
human rights.

(2) UNIDO. The United Nations Industrial Development

Organization is the specialized agency of the United Nations that promotes
industrial development for poverty reduction, inclusive globalization and
environmental sustainability.

(3) UNWTO. The World Tourism Organization is the United Nations

agency responsible for the promotion of responsible, sustainable and
universally accessible tourism.

(4) UPU. The Universal Postal Union is the primary forum for
cooperation between postal sector players. It helps to ensure a truly universal
network of up-to-date products and services.

(5) WHO. The World Health Organization is the directing and

coordinating authority on international health within the United Nations
system. The objective of WHO is the attainment by all peoples of the highest
possible level of health. Health, as defined in the WHO Constitution, is a state
of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity.

(6) WIPO. The World Intellectual Property Organization protects

intellectual property throughout the world through 23 international treaties.

(7) WMO. The World Meteorological Organization facilitates the

free international exchange of meteorological data and information and the
furtherance of its use in aviation, shipping, security, and agriculture, among
other things.

(8) WFP. The World Food Programme aims to eradicate hunger and
malnutrition. It is the world’s largest humanitarian agency. Every year, the
programme feeds almost 80 million people in around 75 countries.

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(9) FAO. The Food and Agriculture Organization leads international

efforts to fight hunger. It is both a forum for negotiating agreements between
developing and developed countries and a source of technical knowledge and
information to aid development.

(10) UNESCO. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization focuses on everything from teacher training to helping improve
education worldwide to protecting important historical and cultural sites
around the world. UNESCO added 28 new World Heritage Sites this year to
the list of irreplaceable treasures that will be protected for today's travelers and
future generations.

(11) WFP. The World Food Programme aims to eradicate hunger and
malnutrition. It is the world’s largest humanitarian agency. Every year, the
programme feeds almost 80 million people in around 75 countries.

(12) World Bank. The World Bank focuses on poverty reduction and the
improvement of living standards worldwide by providing low-interest loans,
interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries for education, health,
infrastructure, and communications, among other things. The World Bank
works in over 100 countries.

(13) The World Bank Group. International Bank for Reconstruction

and Development (IBRD).

(a) International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

(ICSID).

(b) International Development Association (IDA).

(c) International Finance Corporation (IFC).

(d) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).

(14) ICAO. The International Civilian Aviation Organization sets

international rules on air navigation, the investigation of air accidents, and
aerial border-crossing procedures.

(15) IFAD. The International Fund for Agricultural Development, since it

was created in 1977, has focused exclusively on rural poverty reduction,
working with poor rural populations in developing countries to eliminate
poverty, hunger and malnutrition; raise their productivity and incomes; and
improve the quality of their lives.

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(16) ILO. The International Labor Organization promotes international

labor rights by formulating international standards on the freedom to associate,
collective bargaining, the abolition of forced labor, and equality of opportunity
and treatment.

(17) IMF. The International Monetary Fund fosters economic growth and
employment by providing temporary financial assistance to countries to help
ease balance of payments adjustment and technical assistance. The IMF
currently has $28 billion in outstanding loans to 74 nations.

(18) IMO. The International Maritime Organization has created a

comprehensive shipping regulatory framework, addressing safety and
environmental concerns, legal matters, technical cooperation, security, and
efficiency.

(19) ITU. The International Telecommunication Union is the United

Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies.
It is committed to connecting the entire world's people – wherever they live
and whatever their means. Through our work, we protect and support
everyone's fundamental right to communicate

(20) UNCTAD. The United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development is the United Nations body responsible for dealing with
development issues, particularly international trade – the main driver of
development.

11. Sri Lanka as a member of UN Related Organizations.

a. WTO. The World Trade Organization is a forum for governments to

negotiate trade agreements, and a place where member governments try to sort out the
trade problems they face with each other.

b. IAEA. The International Atomic Energy Agency is the world's centre

for cooperation in the nuclear field. The Agency works with its Member States and
multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear
technologies.

6. G15. Sri Lanka is the current Chair of the Group of Fifteen (G15) - a
Summit Level Group of Developing Countries, as well as the Colombo Process - the
Regional Consultative Process on migration for countries of origin in Asia.

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12. Sri Lanka’s participation of regional bodies.

a. SAARC. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

(SAARC) is the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union of
nations in South Asia. Its member states include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Nepal, the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC comprises 3% of the
world's area, 21% of the world's population and 3.8% (US$ 2.9 trillion) of the global
economy, as of 2015.

b. BIMSTEC. The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and

Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is an international organization involving a group
of countries in South Asia and South East Asia. These are: Bangladesh, India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal. The BIMSTEC states are among
the countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.

c. ARF. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), the first region wide Asia-Pacific
multilateral forum for official consultations on peace and security issues. An
outgrowth of the annual ministerial-level meeting of members of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) and the states serving as ASEAN’s “dialogue
partners,” the ARF provides a setting for discussion and diplomacy and the
development of cooperative responses to regional problems. The inaugural ARF
meeting was held in July 1994 in Bangkok, Thailand, and was attended by
10 ASEAN members (Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) and ASEAN’s 10 dialogue
partners (Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, words).

d. Shanghai Cooperation. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

is a Eurasian political, economic, and security organization, the creation of which was
announced on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai, China by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan; the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization Charter was signed in June 2002 and entered into force on 19 September
2003. These countries, except for Uzbekistan, had been members of the Shanghai
Five group, founded on 26 April 1996 in Shanghai. India and Pakistan joined SCO as
full members on 9 June 2017 in Astana, Kazakhstan.

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INTERNATIONAL ACTORS

1. International actor can be defined as ‘a person or entity with the capacity of having an
impact in international relations’. Actors of foreign policy are usually divided into two
categories: state actors and non-state actors. States are the principal actors and most important
actors.

2. Assumptions on principal Actors as follows.

a. States are the principal actors.

b. State is viewed as a unitary actor.

c. State is a rational actor.

d. States coexist in a context of international anarchy.

3. First Assumption of Realism. States are the principal actors and most
important actors. States are the key unit of analysis. The study of IR is the study of relations
among these units. Why? Because only the state, given its claim to sovereignty (Sovereignty
is the quality or state of being sovereign, or of having supreme power or authority), possesses
the monopoly of legitimate force to resolve conflicts between individuals and groups within
its territory and also between itself and other states and international actors. Non-state actors
like international organizations (UN), Multi-National Corporations, and transnational actors
are acknowledged by realists, but they are of secondary importance. States are the dominant
actors. Kenneth Waltz and Robert Gilpin argue that states are the ‘basic actors in the
international system’ by arguing that ‘the behavior of other actors is conditioned and
delimited by state decisions and state power.

4. Second Assumption of Realism. State is viewed as a unitary actor. For realists a

country faces the outside world as an integrated unit. A common assumption among realists
is that political differences within the state are ultimately resolved, namely the government
speaks with one voice for the state as a whole. On any particular issue, realists assume that
state as a unitary actor has one policy. Of course there may be exceptions, but realists support
the argument that state is an integrated actor also. For instance, when a foreign ministry
expresses policies different from ministry of defense, action is taken to bring these alternative
positions to a common position. States have sufficient autonomy from their national societies
to recognize and pursue the interests of the nation as a whole, not just those of particular
powerful groups and they may devise goals and strategies that run counter to the preferences
of important parts of society. Decision-makers respond on behalf of the nation state to the
opportunities and dangers engendered by the international system.

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5. Third Assumption of Realism. State is a rational actor. States are goal oriented
and their goals are consistent. Also, states are assumed to derive strategies to achieve their
goals and they are cost sensitive. States make cost-benefit analysis of every alternative, they
evaluate alternatives and select the ones that maximizes their benefits. Thus, states can
change their strategies in the face of changes in external constraints and opportunities.

6. Fourth Assumption of Realism. States coexist in a context of international

anarchy which refers to the absence of a centralized authority to protect states from one
another; each state has to survive on its own. Thus, states are by definition self-help agents.
They assume that within the hierarchy of international relations issues, national security tops
the list. For them, military and related political issues dominate world politics.

7. State as a Rational Actor. As states are rational and define their interest in terms
of their power, realists assume that all states behave in a standard manner. Based on the
rationality assumption, international system is composed of states that have the same patterns
of behavior.

8. Balance of power mentality. For realists, the tendency of states to balance against
challengers through the formation of defensive alliances is a strong behavioral expectation
about the effects of anarchy on states. All states, according to realists, are then obliged to
pursue a balance of power strategy.

9. Non-state Actors. Even though the Nation States are the most influential actors in
the international arena, they are strongly influence by a variety of n0nstate actors. These
actors also called transnational actors. First states often take actions through IGOSs-
organizations whose members are national governments. At the same time IGOS fulfill a
variety of functions and vary in size from just a few states to virtually the whole UN
membership.

Ex. OPEC, WTO, NATO, AU etc.

10. Multinational Corporations. Multinational corporations (MNCs) are huge

industrial organizations having a wide network of branches and subsidiaries spread over a
number of countries. The two main characteristics of MNCs are their large size and the fact
that their worldwide activities are centrally controlled by the parent companies.

11. POSITIVE ROLE OF MNCs. The first important contribution of MNCs is its
role in filling the resource gap between targeted or desired investment and domestically
mobilized savings. An inflow of foreign capital can reduce or even remove the deficit in the
balance of payments if the MNCs can generate a net positive flow of export earnings. The
third important role of MNCs is filling the gap between targeted governmental tax revenues
and locally raised taxes. Fourthly, Multinationals not only provide financial resources but
they also supply a “package” of needed resources including management experience,
entrepreneurial abilities, and technological skills. Moreover, MNCs bring with them the most
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sophisticated technological knowledge about production processes while transferring modern

machinery and equipment to capital poor LDCs.

12. Other Beneficial Roles. The MNCs also bring several other benefits to the host
country.

a. The domestic labour may benefit in the form of higher real wages.

b. The consumers benefits by way of lower prices and better quality products.

c. Investments by MNCs will also induce more domestic investment. For

example, ancillary units can be set up to ‘feed’ the main industries of the MNCs.

d. MNCs expenditures on research and development (R&D), although limited is

bound to benefit the host country.

13. Negative roles of MNCs. Although MNCs provide capital, they may lower
domestic savings and investment rates by stifling competition through exclusive production
agreements with the host governments. MNCs often fail to reinvest much of their profits and
also they may inhibit the expansion of indigenous firms. Although the initial impact of MNC
investment is to improve the foreign exchange position of the recipient nation, its long-run
impact may reduce foreign exchange earnings on both current and capital accounts, while
MNCs do contribute to public revenue in the form of corporate taxes, their contribution is
considerably less than it should be as a result of liberal tax concessions, excessive investment
allowances, subsidies and tariff protection provided by the host government. The
development of local skills may be inhibited by the MNCs by stifling the growth of
indigenous entrepreneurship as a result of the MNCs dominance of local markets. In many
situations MNC activities reinforce dualistic economic structures and widens income
inequalities. They tend to promote the interests of some few modern-sector workers only.
They also divert resources away from the production of consumer goods by producing
luxurious goods demanded by the local elites. MNCs typically produce inappropriate
products and stimulate inappropriate consumption patterns through advertising and their
monopolistic market power. Production is done with capital-intensive technique which is not
useful for labour surplus economies. This would aggravate the unemployment problem in the
host country. The behavior pattern of MNCs reveals that they do not engage development
activities in underdeveloped countries. However, these Less develop Countries (LDCs) have
to bear the bulk of their costs. MNCs often use their economic power to influence
government policies in directions unfavorable to development. The host government has to
provide them special economic and political concessions in the form of excessive protection,
lower tax, subsidized inputs, and cheap provision of factory sites. As a result, the private
profits of MNCs may exceed social benefits. Multinationals may damage the host countries
by suppressing domestic entrepreneurship through their superior knowledge, worldwide
contacts, and advertising skills. They drive out local competitors and inhibit the emergence of
small-scale enterprises.
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14. NGOS. Another type of transnational actor is NGOs. They are private
organizations and some of have considerable size and resources. NGOs are being recognized
in the UN and other forums, as legitimate actors along with states though not equal to them.
Some of these groups have a political purpose, some a humanitarian one, some an economic
or technical one. Sometimes NGOs combine efforts through transnational advocacy
networks. There is no single pattern to NGOs. Together, IGOs and NGOs are referred to as
International Organizations (IO).The are more than 25,000 NGOs and 5,000 IGOs in the
world.

15. Pressure Groups. Pressure Groups is a Non-profit and usually voluntary

organization whose members have a common cause for which they seek to influence political
or corporate decision makers to achieve a declared objective.

16. Lobbying. Lobbying is a influence done by many types of people, associations

and organized groups, including individuals in the private sector, corporations, fellow
legislators or government officials, or advocacy groups (interest groups).

17. Diasporas. A diaspora is a scattered population whose origin lies within a smaller
geographic locale. Diaspora can also refer to the movement of the population from its
original homeland.

Ex. 1. Jewish Diaspora.

2. LTTE or Tamil Diaspora.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN SAARC AND OTHER SELECTED INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS

1. The founding principal of the European Union is “FUNCTIONALISM”. If you want

to prevent war, you have to work together (Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman). A first step is
to control jointly the things needed for war such as steel for weapons and energy for factories
and transport. In other words the future wars could be prevented by creating economic link
functionalism in Europe. EU today 500 million citizens and nearly equals the US economy in
GDP.

2. European Coal and Steel Community EEC -1952. Coal and steel were key to
European recovery and growth France Germany Italy joined with Benilux countries agreed to
unite their coal and steel industries. They set up the European Coal and Steel Community.

3. The treaty of Rome. Under the above treaty, the same six countries formed two new
organizations.

a. Eurotom. (Euratom Treaty on 25 March 1957)

b. European Economic Community EEC later on renamed as European

Community EC. (Treaty of Rome of 1957)

c. European Economic Community.

4. The six countries got on so well that they decided to go a step further and to set up the
European Economic Community (EEC). The main idea of EEC was to create a 'common
market'. That means getting rid of all national obstacles to free trade, such as border checks
and customs duties, as if Europe were one country. In 1989, countries from central and
Eastern Europe broke free from Communist rule. The unnatural separation between the
eastern and western parts of Europe, the 'Iron Curtain', ceased to exist. The countries that had
regained their freedom reformed their laws and economies and joined the EU. The EU now
has 28 member countries.

5. The European Custom Union. A customs union is a type of trade bloc which is
composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. The participant countries set up
common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different import quotas. Common
competition policy is also helpful to avoid competition deficiency. The purposes for
establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and
establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. It is the third
stage of economic integration in Europe. In a custom union, participating states adopt a
unified set of tariffs with regard to goods coming in from outside the free trade area.

6. The EU Common market.

a. A common market represents a major step towards significant economic

integration. In addition to containing the provisions of a customs union, a common
market (CM) removes all barriers to the mobility of people, capital and other
resources within the area in question, as well as eliminating non‑tariff barriers to
trade, such as the regulatory treatment of product standards. The creation of a single

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European economic area based on a common market was the fundamental objective
of the Treaty of Rome Article

b. Establishing a common market typically requires significant policy

harmonization in a number of areas. Free movement of labour, for example,
necessitates agreement on worker qualifications and certifications. It is useful to
define here the concepts of "common market", "single market" and "internal market"
which are used almost synonymously. The establishment of the common market first
required the elimination of all import and export duties existing between Member
States before the foundation of the European Economic Community (EEC). The
creation of a common market resembling an internal market implies not only the
liberalization of trade among the participating member states but also necessitates the
free movement of production factors: labour, capital and services. It further entails the
free establishment of persons and companies in all the territory of the member states,
in order to exercise their professional or business activities. A common market means
that in addition to customs union, member states allow labor and capital to flow freely
across borders. (Currently the European Union partially achieved this.

7. Economic and monetary union (EMU). The fourth step in the plan for the
European integration was an economic and monetary union (EMU).Overall economic
policies of the member states would be coordinated for greatest efficiency and stability. The
deepest form of economic integration, an economic union adds to a common market the need
to harmonize a number of key policy areas. Most notably, economic unions require formally
coordinated monetary and fiscal policies as well as labour market, regional development,
transportation and industrial policies. Since all countries would essentially share the same
economic space, it would be counter-productive to operate divergent policies in those areas.
An economic union frequently includes the use of a common currency and a unified
monetary policy. Eliminating exchange rate uncertainty improves the functioning of an
economic union by allowing trade to follow economically efficient paths without being
unduly affected by exchange rate considerations. The same is true of business location
decisions.

8. Blurring of lines. Because countries are free to negotiate economic integration

agreements as they see fit, in practice, formal agreements rarely fall neatly into one of the
four stages discussed above. This can lead to some confusion of terminology and also
confusion as to the state of economic integration in some parts of the worl. In the case of
Canada, for example, the country is part of a free trade area with the United States and
Mexico. However, the North American Free Trade Agreement also includes provisions that
partially liberate the flow of labour and capital in the region – an element of a common
market.

9. The Structure of the European Union.

a. The Eurocrats. The Eurocrats consist of staff of 24000, organized under

the European commission (27 members) at EU headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.
The aims of Eurocrats are to propose solutions to the council of ministers.

b. The European Parliament. At present it operates partly as a watchdog over

the commission but some power to legislate. It must approve the commission’s budget
but cannot control it over item by item.
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10. The single European Act. The first major treaty of Rome- the Single European
Act began a new phase of accelerated integration. The EU set a target date of the end of 1992
for the creation of a true common market in Europe.

11. The outcome of Maastritcht Treaty -1992.

a. A single currency introduced. (The first monetary union)

b. Justice and home affairs. (European police agency, expanded the idea of
citizenship)

c. Political and military integration, common military force.

12. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. The headquarters of

SAARC is situated in Kathmandu, Nepal. The current membership is eight countries and nine
observers. The population is 1,600,000,000 people currently. SAARC is an organization of
South Asian nations, founded in December 1985 by Ziaur Brahman and dedicated to
economic, technological, social, and cultural development emphasizing collective self-
reliance.

13. The 16 stated areas of cooperation. The 16 stated areas of cooperation are
agriculture and rural, biotechnology, culture, energy, environment, economy and trade,
finance, funding mechanism, human resource development, poverty alleviation, people to
people contact, security aspects, social development, science and technology;
communications, tourism.

14. Objectives of SAARC. The objectives of the Association as defined in the

Charter are to promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve their quality of
life; to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full
potential; to promote and strengthen selective self-reliance among the countries of South
Asia; to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems.
Further its objectives are to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the
economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; to strengthen cooperation with other
developing countries; to strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on
matters of common interest; and to cooperate with international and regional organizations
with similar aims and purposes.

15. Principles.

a. Respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity, political equality and

independence of all members states.

b. Non-interference in the internal matters is one of its objectives. Cooperation

for mutual benefit

c. All decisions to be taken unanimously and need a quorum of all eight

members.

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d. All bilateral issues to be kept aside and only multilateral (involving many
countries) issues to be discussed without being prejudiced by bilateral issues.

16. SAARC-Trade Agreements.SAARC Preferential Trading Agreement (SAPTA) in

1995.

a. South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) signed in 2004.

b. SAFTA came into effect on 1st January 2008.

17. SAPTA. The Agreement on SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement

(SAPTA) which envisages the creation of a Preferential Trading Area among the seven
member states of the SAARC, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka was signed in Dhaka in April 1993. The idea of liberalizing trade among
SAARC countries was first mooted by Sri Lanka at the sixth Summit of the South Asian
Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) held in Colombo in December 1991. It was
agreed that SAPTA is a stepping stone to higher levels of trade liberalization and economic
co-operation among the SAARC member countries.

18. Objectives of SAPTA. The objective of the SAPTA is to promote and sustain
mutual trade and the economic co-operation among the member states through exchange of
trade concessions. SAPTA therefore is the first step towards higher levels of trade and
economic co-operation in the region.

19. South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) 2006. SAARC countries created a
framework for the establishment of a free trade area covering 1.6 billion people. This
agreement went into force on January 1, 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members put
down their duties down to 20 per cent in 2009.

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THE US INFLUENCE IN WORLD POLITICS

1. History of United States foreign policy. History of United States foreign policy is
a brief overview of major trends regarding the foreign policy of the United States from the
American Revolution to the present. The major themes are becoming an "Empire of Liberty",
promoting democracy, expanding across the continent, supporting liberal internationalism,
contesting World Wars and the Cold War, fighting international terrorism, "developing" or
exploiting the Third World, and building a strong world economy.

2. Establishment of the United States and "Empire of Liberty".

a. From the establishment of the United States after regional, not global, focus,
but with the long-term ideal of creating an "Empire of Liberty."

b. The military and financial alliance with France in 1778, which brought in
Spain and the Netherlands to fight the British, turned the American Revolutionary
War into a world war in which the British naval and military supremacy was
neutralized. The diplomats—especially Franklin, Adams and Jefferson—secured
recognition of American independence and large loans to the new national
government. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 was highly favorable to the United States
which now could expand westward to the Mississippi River.

c. Historian Samuel Flagg Bemis was a leading expert on diplomatic history.

According to Jerold Combs.

d. Bemis's The Diplomacy of the American Revolution, published originally in

1935, is still the standard work on the subject. It emphasized the danger of American
entanglement in European quarrels. European diplomacy in the eighteenth century
was "rotten, corrupt, and perfidious," warned Bemis. America's diplomatic success
had resulted from staying clear of European politics while reaping advantage from
European strife. Franklin, Jay, and Adams had done just this during the Revolution
and as a consequence had won the greatest victory in the annals of American
diplomacy. Bemis conceded that the French alliance had been necessary to win the
war. Yet he regretted that it had brought involvement with "the baleful realm of
European diplomacy." Vergennes [the French foreign minister] was quite willing to
lead America to an "abattoir" [slaughterhouse] where portions of the United States
might be dismembered if this would advance the interests of France.

e. American foreign affairs from independence in 1776 to the new Constitution

in 1789 were handled under the Articles of Confederation directly by Congress until
the new government created a department of foreign affairs and the office of secretary
for foreign affairs on January 10, 1781.

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3. Early National Era: 1789–1800. The cabinet-level Department of Foreign Affairs

was created in 1789 by the First Congress. It was soon renamed the Department of State and
changed the title of secretary for foreign affairs to Secretary of State; Thomas Jefferson
returned from France to take the position.

4. When the French Revolution led to war in 1793 between Britain (America's leading
trading partner), and France (the old ally, with a treaty still in effect), Washington and his
cabinet decided on a policy of neutrality. In 1795 Washington supported the Jay Treaty,
designed by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to avoid war with Britain and encourage
commerce. The Jeffersonians vehemently opposed the treaty, but Washington's support
proved decisive, and the U.S. and Britain were on friendly terms for a decade. However the
foreign policy dispute polarized parties at home, leading to the First Party System.

5. In a "Farewell Message" that became a foundation of policy President George

Washington in 1796 counseled against foreign entanglements:

a. ‘Europe has a set of primary interests, which is not related to us, or a very
remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of
which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence therefore it must be unwise in us
to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or
the ordinary combinations & collisions of her friendships, or enmities. Our detached
& distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course’.

b. By 1797 the French were openly seizing American ships, leading to an

undeclared war known as the Quasi-War of 1798–99. President John Adams tried
diplomacy; it failed. In 1798, the French demanded American diplomats pay huge
bribes in order to see the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand, which the Americans
rejected. The Jeffersonian Republicans, suspicious of Adams, demanded the
documentation, which Adams released using X, Y and Z as codes for the names of the
French diplomats. The XYZ Affair ignited a wave of nationalist sentiment.
Overwhelmed, the U.S. Congress approved Adams' plan to organize the navy. Adams
reluctantly signed the Alien and Sedition Acts as a wartime measure. Adams broke
with the Hamiltonian wing of his Federalist Party and made peace with France in
1800.

6. Jeffersonian Era: 1801–48.

a. Thomas Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a great "Empire of

Liberty", that would promote republicanism and counter the imperialism of the British
Empire. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803, made by Jefferson in a $15 million deal
with Napoleon Bonaparte, doubled the size of the growing nation by adding a huge
swath of territory west of the Mississippi River, opening up millions of new farm sites
for the yeomen farmers idealized by Jeffersonian Democracy.

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b. President Jefferson in the Embargo Act of 1807 forbid trade with both France
and Britain, but his policy, largely seen as partisan in favor of agrarian interests
instead of commercial interests, was highly unpopular in New England and ineffective
in stopping bad treatment from British warships.

7. War of 1812.

a. The Jeffersonians deeply distrusted the British in the first place, but the British
shut down most American trade with France, and impressed into the Royal Navy
about 6000 sailors on American ships who claimed American citizenship. American
honor was humiliated by the British attack on the American warship the Chesapeake
in 1807.

b. In the west, Indians supported by Britain (but not under their control) used
ambushes and raids to kill settlers, thus delaying the expansion of frontier settlements
into the Midwest (Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, especially).

c. In 1812 diplomacy had broken down and the U.S. declared war on Britain.
The War of 1812 was marked by very bad planning and military fiascoes on both
sides. It ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1815. Militarily it was a stalemate as both
sides failed in their invasion attempts, but the Royal Navy blockaded the coastline and
shut down American trade (except for smuggling supplies into British Canada).
However the British achieved their main goal of defeating Napoleon, while the
American armies defeated the Indian alliance that the British had supported, ending
the British war goal of establishing a pro-British Indian boundary nation in the
Midwest. The British stopped impressing American sailors and trade with France
(now an ally of Britain) resumed, so the causes of the war had been cleared away.
Especially after the great American victory at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans
felt proud and triumphant for having won their "second war of independence."
Successful generals Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison became political
heroes as well. After 1815 tensions de-escalated along the U.S.-Canada border, with
peaceful trade and generally good relations. Boundary disputes were settled amicably.
Both the U.S. and Canada saw a surge in nationalism and national pride after 1815,
with the U.S. moving toward greater democracy and the British postponing
democracy in Canada. After 1780 The United States opened relations with North
African countries, and with the Ottoman Empire.

8. Latin America.

a. In response to the new independence of Spanish colonies in Latin America in

the early 19th century, the United States established the Monroe Doctrine in 1823.
This policy declared opposition to European interference in the Americas and left a
lasting imprint on the psyche of later American leaders. The failure of Spain to

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colonize or police Florida led to its purchase by the U.S. in 1821. John Quincy Adams
was the leading American diplomat of the era.

b. In 1846 after an intense political debate in which the expansionist Democrats

prevailed over the Whigs, the U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas. Mexico never
recognized that Texas had achieved independence and promised war should the U.S.
annex it. President James K. Polk peacefully resolved a border dispute with Britain
regarding Oregon, then sent U.S. Army patrols into the disputed area of Texas. That
triggered the Mexican–American War, which the Americans won easily. As a result
of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 the U.S. acquired territory that included
California, Arizona and New Mexico, and the Hispanic residents there were given full
U.S. citizenship.

9. American Civil War.

a. Every nation was officially neutral throughout the American Civil War, and
none recognized the Confederacy. That marked a major diplomatic achievement for
Secretary Seward and the Lincoln Administration. France, under Napoleon III, had
invaded Mexico and installed a puppet regime; it hoped to negate American influence.
France therefore encouraged Britain in a policy of mediation suggesting that both
would recognize the Confederacy. Lincoln repeatedly warned that meant war. The
British textile industry depended on cotton from the South, but it had stocks to keep
the mills operating for a year and in any case the industrialists and workers carried
little weight in British politics. Knowing a war would cut off vital shipments of
American food, wreak havoc on the British merchant fleet, and cause the immediate
loss of Canada, Britain, with its powerful Royal Navy, refused to go along with
French schemes.

b. Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to

European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not
committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments
about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesman, on the other hand,
were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle
for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the
European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in
every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as
proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European
government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American
Republic”.

c. Elite opinion in Britain tended to favor the Confederacy, while public opinion
tended to favor the United States. Large scale trade continued in both directions with
the United States, with the Americans shipping grain to Britain while Britain sent
manufactured items and munitions. Immigration continued into the United States.
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British trade with the Confederacy was limited, with a trickle of cotton going to
Britain and some munitions slipped in by numerous small blockade runners. The
Confederate strategy for securing independence was largely based on the hope of
military intervention by Britain and France, but Confederate diplomacy proved inept.
With the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862, it
became a war against slavery that most British supported.

d. A serious diplomatic dispute with the United States erupted over the "Trent
Affair" in late 1861. Public opinion in the Union called for war against Britain, but
Lincoln gave in and sent back the diplomats his Navy had illegally seized.

e. British financiers built and operated most of the blockade runners, spending
hundreds of millions of pounds on them; but that was legal and not the cause of
serious tension. They were staffed by sailors and officers on leave from the Royal
Navy. When the U.S. Navy captured one of the fast blockade runners, it sold the ship
and cargo as prize money for the American sailors, and then released the crew.

f. A long-term issue was the British shipyard (John Laird and Sons) building two
warships for the Confederacy, including the CSS Alabama, over vehement protests
from the United States. The controversy was resolved after the Civil War in the form
of the Alabama Claims, in which the United States finally was given $15.5 million in
arbitration by an international tribunal for damages caused by British-built warships.

g. In the end, these instances of British involvement neither shifted the outcome
of the war nor provoked either side into war. The U.S. diplomatic mission headed by
Minister Charles Francis Adams, Sr. proved much more successful than the
Confederate missions, which were never officially recognized.

h. Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on
the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces.
A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery,
not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:

i. The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic

government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established
An American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would
likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps
beyond.

10. Postwar adjustments. Relations with Britain (and Canada) were tense; Canada
was negligent in allowing Confederates to raid Vermont. Confederation came in 1867, in part
as a way to meet the American challenge without depending on British armed forces. The
U.S. looked the other way when Irish activists known as Fenians tried and failed badly in an
invasion of Canada in 1871. The arbitration of the Alabama Claims in 1872 provided a
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satisfactory reconciliation; The British paid the United States $15.5 million for the economic
damage caused by Confederate warships purchased from it. Congress did pay Russia for the
Alaska Purchase in 1867, but otherwise rejected proposals for any major expansions, such as
the proposal by President Ulysses Grant to acquire Santo Domingo.

11. James G. Blaine. James G. Blaine, a leading Republican (and its losing candidate
for president in 1884) was a highly innovative Secretary of State in the 1880s. By 1881,
Blaine had completely abandoned his high-tariff Protectionism and used his position as
Secretary of State to promote freer trade, especially within the Western Hemisphere. His
reasons were twofold: firstly, Blaine's wariness of British interference in the Americas was
undiminished, and he saw increased trade with Latin America as the best way to keep Britain
from dominating the region. Secondly, he believed that by encouraging exports, he could
increase American prosperity. President Garfield agreed with his Secretary of State's vision
and Blaine called for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the
Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade. At the same
time, Blaine hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by
Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling
for renegotiation of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal
through Panama without British involvement, as well as attempting to reduce British
involvement in the strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii. His plans for the United States'
involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere, as he sought
commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar. By 1882, however, a new Secretary was
reversing Blaine's Latin American initiatives.

12. Serving again as Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison, Blaine worked for
closer ties with the Kingdom of Hawaii, and sponsored a program to bring together all the
independent nations of the Western Hemisphere in what became the Pan-American Union.

14. 1893–1914. Before 1892 senior diplomats from the United States to other
countries, and from them to the U.S., were called "ministers." In 1892 four major European
countries (Britain, France, Germany Italy) raise title of their chief diplomat to the US to
"ambassador"; the US reciprocated in 1893.

15. Looking outward. While European powers, and Japan, engaged in a intense
scramble for colonial possessions in Africa and Asia, the United States stood aloof. This all
changed 1893 to 1900, with the result of American ownership of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and
the Philippines, and a dominant role temporarily in Cuba.

16. By the early 1880s, the United States had a small army stationed at scattered Western
forts, and an old fashioned wooden navy. By 1890 the U.S. began investment in new naval
technology including steam-powered battleships with powerful armaments and steel decking.

17. In 1893 the business community in Kingdom of Hawaii overthrew the Queen and
sought annexation by President Harrison, who forwarded the proposal to the Senate for
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approval. But the newly elected President Cleveland withdrew the proposed annexation;
Hawaii formed an independent Republic of Hawaii. Unexpectedly foreign-policy became a
central concern of American politics. Historian Henry Graff says that at first, "Public opinion
at home seemed to indicate acquiescence...."Unmistakably, the sentiment at home was
maturing with immense force for the United States to join the great powers of the world in a
quest for overseas colonies."

18. President Grover Cleveland, on taking office in March 1893, rescinded the annexation
proposal. His biographer Alyn Brodsky argues he was deeply adverse to an immoral action
against the little kingdom.

a. ‘Just as he stood up for the Samoan Islands against Germany because he

opposed the conquest of a lesser state by a greater one, so did he stand up for the
Hawaiian Islands against his own nation. He could have let the annexation of Hawaii
move inexorably to its inevitable culmination. But he opted for confrontation, which
he hated, as it was to him the only way a weak and defenseless people might retain
their independence. It was not the idea of annexation that Grover Cleveland opposed,
but the idea of annexation as a pretext for illicit territorial acquisition.’

19. Cleveland had to mobilize support from Southern Democrats to fight the treaty. He
sent former Georgia Congressman James H. Blount as a special representative to Hawaii to
investigate and provide a solution. Blount was well known for his opposition to imperialism.
Blount was also a leader in the white supremacy movement that in the 1890s was ending the
right to vote by southern Blacks. Some observers speculated he would support annexation on
grounds of the inability of the Asiatics to govern them. Instead, Blount opposed imperialism,
and called for the US military to restore of Queen Liliuokalani. He argued that the Hawaii
natives should be allowed to continue their "Asiatic ways."

20. A vigorous nationwide anti-expansionist movement, organized as the American Anti-

Imperialist League, emerged that listened to Cleveland and Carl Schurz, as well as
Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, author Mark
Twain and sociologist William Graham Sumner, and many prominent intellectuals and
politicians who came of age in the Civil War. The anti-imperialists opposed expansion,
believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just republican government
must derive from "consent of the governed." The League argued that such activity would
necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention—
ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence, George Washington's Farewell Address
and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.

21. However, the Antis could not stop the even more energetic forces of imperialism.
They were led by Secretary of State John Hay, naval strategist Alfred T. Mahan, Republican
congressman Henry Cabot Lodge, Secretary of War Elihu Root, and young politician
Theodore Roosevelt. This expansionist had vigorous support from newspaper publishers
William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, whipping up popular excitement. Mahan and
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Roosevelt designed a global strategy calling for a competitive modern navy, Pacific bases, an
isthmian canal through Nicaragua or Panama, and, above all, an assertive role for America as
the largest industrial power. President McKinley's position was that Hawaii could never
survive on its own. It would quickly be gobbled up by Japan--already a fourth of the islands'
population was Japanese. Japan would then dominate the Pacific and undermine American
hopes for large-scale trade with Asia. While the Democrats could block a treaty in the Senate
by denying it a two thirds majority, McKinley annexed Hawaii through a joint resolution,
which required only a majority vote in each house. Hawaii became a territory in 1898 with
full U.S. citizenship for its residents. It became the 50th state in 1959.

22. Foreign-policy expertise. Foreign-policy expertise in America in the 1890s was in

limited supply. The State Department had a cadre of diplomats who rotated around, but the
most senior positions were political patronage appointments. The holders sometimes acquired
a limited expertise, but the overall pool was shallow. At the level of presidential candidate
and secretary of state, the entire half-century after 1850 showed minimal expertise or interest,
with the exception of William Seward in the 1860s, and James G. Blaine in the 1880s. After
1900, experience deepened in the State Department, and at the very top level, Roosevelt,
Taft, Wilson, Hoover and their secretaries of state comprised a remarkable group with deep
knowledge of international affairs. American elections rarely featured serious discussion of
foreign-policy, with a few exceptions such as 1910, 1916, 1920 and 1940.

23. Anytime a crisis erupted, the major newspapers and magazines commented at length
on what Washington should do. The media relied primarily on a small number of foreign-
policy experts based in New York City and Boston. Newspapers elsewhere copied their
reports and editorials. Sometimes the regional media had a local cadre of experts who could
comment on Europe, but they rarely had anyone who knew much about Latin America or
Asia. Conceptually, the media experts relied on American traditions – what would
Washington or Jefferson or Lincoln have done in this crisis? And what impact it might have
on current business conditions. Social Darwinist ideas were broad, but they seldom shaped
foreign-policy views. The psychic crisis that some historians discover in the 1890s had very
little impact. Travel in Europe, a close reading of the British media, with the chief sources for
the media experts. Religious magazines had a cadre of returned missionaries who were
helpful, and ethnic groups, especially the Irish and the Germans and the Jews had their own
national experts whose views appeared in their own periodicals.

24. Cuba and Spain. In the mid-1890s, American public opinion denounced the
Spanish repression of the Cuban independence movement as brutal and unacceptable. The
U.S. increased pressure and was dissatisfied with Spanish responses. When the American
battleship the USS Maine exploded for undetermined reasons in the harbor of Havana, Cuba,
on 15 February 1898, the issue became overwhelming and McKinley could not resist the
demands for immediate action. Most Democrats and many Republicans demanded war to
liberate Cuba. Almost simultaneously the two countries declared war. (Every other country
was neutral.) The U.S. easily won the one-sided four-month-long Spanish–American War
from April through July. In the peace treaty of Paris the U.S. and took over the last remnants
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of the Spanish Empire, notably Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. It marked
America's transition from a regional to a global power. Cuba was given independence under
American supervision. However the permanent status of the Philippines became a heated
political topic. Democrats, led by William Jennings Bryan, had strongly supported the war
but not strongly opposed annexation. McKinley was reelected and annexation was decided.

25. The U.S. Navy emerged as a major naval power thanks to modernization programs
begun in the 1880s and adopted the sea power theories of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. The
Army remained small but was reorganized in the Roosevelt Administration along modern
lines and no longer focused on scattered forts in the West. The Philippine–American War was
a short operation to suppress insurgents and ensure U.S. control of the islands; by 1907,
however, interest in the Philippines as an entry to Asia faded in favor of the Panama Canal,
and American foreign policy centered on the Caribbean. The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the
Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed a right for the United States to intervene to stabilize
weak states in the Americas, further weakened European influence in Latin America and
further established U.S. regional hegemony.

26. The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910 ended a half century of peaceful
borders and brought escalating tensions, as revolutionaries threatened American business
interests and hundreds of thousands of refugees fled north. President Woodrow Wilson tried
using military intervention to stabilize Mexico but that failed. After Mexico in 1917 rejected
Germany's invitation in the Zimmermann Telegram to join in war against the U.S., relations
stabilized and there were no more interventions in Mexico. Military interventions did occur in
other small countries like Nicaragua, but were ended by the Good Neighbor policy
announced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, which allowed for American
recognition of and friendship with dictatorships.

27. World War I. 1914 - 19 (From neutrality to war to end all wars: 1914 -1917).
American foreign policy was largely determined by President Woodrow Wilson, who had
shown little interest in foreign affairs before entering the White House in 1913. His chief
advisor was "Colonel" Edward House, who was sent on many top-level missions. With the
outbreak of war in 1914, the United States declared neutrality and worked to broker a peace.
It insisted on its neutral rights, which included allowing private corporations and banks to sell
or loan money to either side. With the British blockade, there were almost no sales or loans to
Germany, only to the Allies. The widely publicized German atrocities in Germany was
Shocked by the American public opinion. Neutrality was supported by Irish-Americans, who
hated Britain, by German Americans who wanted to remain neutral, and by women and the
churches. It was supported by the more educated upscale WASP element, led by Theodore
Roosevelt. Wilson insisted on neutrality, denouncing both British and German violations,
especially those German violations in which American civilians were killed. The German U-
boat torpedoed the RMS Lusitania in 1915. It sank in 20 minutes, killing 128 American
civilians and over 1,000 Britons. It was against the laws of war to sink any passenger ship
without allowing the passengers to reach the life boats. American opinion turned strongly
against Germany as a bloodthirsty threat to civilization. Germany apologized and repeatedly
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promised to stop attacks by its U-boats, but reversed course in early 1917 when it saw the
opportunity to strangle Britain by unrestricted submarine warfare. It also made overtures to
Mexico, in the Zimmermann Telegram, hoping to divert American military attention to south
of the border. The German decision was not made or approved by the civilian government in
Berlin, but by the military commanders and the Kaiser. They realized it meant war with the
United States, but hoped to weaken the British by cutting off its imports, and strike a winning
below with German soldiers transferred from the Eastern front, where Russia had
surrendered. Following the repeated sinking of American merchant ships in early 1917,
Wilson asked and obtained a declaration of war in April 1917. He neutralized the antiwar
element by arguing this was a war with the main goal of ending aggressive militarism and
indeed ending all wars. During the war the U.S. was not officially tied to the Allies by treaty,
but military cooperation meant that the American contribution became significant in mid-
1918. After the failure of the German spring offensive, as fresh American troops arrived in
France at 10,000 a day, the Germans were in a hopeless position, and surrendered. Coupled
with Wilson's Fourteen Points in January 1918, the U.S. now had the initiative on the
military, diplomatic and public relations fronts. Wilsonianism—Wilson's ideals—had become
the hope of the world, including the civilian population Germany itself.

28. Winning the war and fighting for peace. At the peace conference at Versailles,
Wilson tried with mixed success to enact his Fourteen Points. He was forced to accept
British, French and Italian demands for financial revenge: Germany would be made to pay
reparations that amounted to the total cost of the war for the Allies and admit guilt in
humiliating fashion. It was a humiliating punishment for Germany which subsequent
commentators thought was too harsh and unfair. Wilson succeeded in obtaining his main
goal, a League of Nations that would hopefully resolve all future conflicts before they caused
another major war. Wilson, however, refused to consult with Republicans, who took control
of Congress after the 1918 elections and which demanded revisions protecting the right of
Congress to declare war. Wilson refused to compromise with the majority party in Congress,
or even brings any leading Republican to the peace conference. His personal enemy, Henry
Cabot Lodge, now control the Senate. Lodge did support the League of Nations, but wanted
provisions that would insist that only Congress could declare war on behalf of the United
States. Wilson was largely successful in designing the new League of Nations, declaring it
would be.

a. ‘A great charter for a new order of affairs. There is ground here for deep
satisfaction, universal reassurance, and confident hope.’

29. The League did go into operation, but the United States never joined. With a two-
thirds vote needed, the Senate did not ratify either the original Treaty or its Republican
version. Washington made separate peace treaties with the different European nations.
Nevertheless, Wilson's idealism and call for self-determination of all nations had an effect on
nationalism across the globe, while at home his idealistic vision, called "Wilsonianism" of
spreading democracy and peace under American auspices had a profound influence on much
of American foreign policy ever since.
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30. Debate on Wilson's role. Perhaps the harshest attack on Wilson's diplomacy
comes from Stanford historian Thomas A. Bailey in two books that remain heavily cited by
scholars, Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace (1944) and Woodrow Wilson and the Great
Betrayal (1945), Bailey.

31. ‘Contended that Wilson's wartime isolationism, as well as his peace proposals at war's
end, were seriously flawed. Highlighting the fact that American delegates encountered
staunch opposition to Wilson's proposed League of Nations, Bailey concluded that the
president and his diplomatic staff essentially sold out, compromising important American
ideals to secure mere fragments of Wilson's progressive vision. Hence, while Bailey primarily
targeted President Wilson in these critiques, others, including House, did not emerge
unscathed.

32. Scot Bruce argues that. More recently, prominent historians such as Thomas J.
Knock, Arthur Walworth, and John Milton Cooper, among others, shied away from
condemning Wilson and his peacemakers for extensive diplomatic failures in Paris. Instead,
they framed Wilsonian progressivism, articulated through the League of Nations, as a
comparatively enlightened framework tragically undermined by British and French
machinations at the peace conference....Historian Margaret MacMillan, continued this
analytical trend in her prize-winning book, Paris, 1919: Six Months That Changed the World
(2001), which characterized Wilson as the frustrated idealist, unable to secure his progressive
vision due to opposition from old-guard imperialists in his midst. While realists like Lloyd E.
Ambrosius questioned the merits of defining Wilsonian progressivism too idealistically, the
idea has persisted that well-intentioned U.S. delegate’s encountered staunch opposition to
Wilson's proposals in Paris, and therefore compromised under pressure. Even the great
Wilson scholar, Arthur S. Link, subscribed to a version of this narrative.

33. Interwar years, 1919-41.

a. In the 1920s, American policy was an active involvement in international

affairs, while ignoring the League of Nations, setting up numerous diplomatic
ventures, and using the enormous financial power of the United States to dictate major
diplomatic questions in Europe.

b. The Republican presidents, Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge and Herbert

Hoover, avoided any political commitments or alliances with anyone else. They
minimize contact with the League of Nations. However, as historian Jerald Combs
reports their administrations in no way returned to 19th-century isolationism. The key
Republican leaders:

c. Including Elihu Root, Charles Evans Hughes, and Hoover himself, were
Progressives who accepted much of Wilson's internationalism.... They did seek to use
American political influence and economic power to goad European governments to
moderate the Versailles peace terms, induce the Europeans to settle their quarrels
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peacefully, secure disarmament agreements, and strengthen the European capitalist

economies to provide prosperity for them and their American trading partners.

34. Naval disarmament. The Washington Naval Conference, was the most
successful diplomatic venture the 1920s. It was held in Washington, under the Chairmanship
of Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922.
Conducted outside the auspice of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the
United States, Japan, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal
Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It focused on resolving misunderstandings or
conflicts regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. The main achievement was a
series of naval disarmament agreements agreed to by all the participants that lasted for a
decade. It resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty (the
Washington Naval Treaty), the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements.
These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but were not renewed, as the world scene
turned increasingly negative after 1930.

35. Dawes Plan. The Dawes plan was the American solution to the crisis of reparations,
in which France was demanding more money than Germany was willing to pay, so France
occupied the key industrial Ruhr district of Germany with its army. The Occupation of the
Ruhr in 1923 caused an international crisis; Germany deliberately hyper inflated currency,
making the occupation highly expensive for France. The crisis was solved by a compromise
brokered by the United States in the form of the Dawes Plan in 1924. This plan, sponsored by
American Charles G. Dawes, set out a new financial scheme. New York banks loaned
Germany hundreds of millions of dollars that it used to pay reparations and rebuild its heavy
industry. France, Britain and the other countries used the reparations in turn to repay wartime
loans they received from the United States. By 1928 Germany called for a new payment plan,
resulting in the Young Plan that established the German reparation requirements at 112
billion marks (US$26.3 billion) and created a schedule of payments that would see Germany
complete payments by 1988. With the collapse of the German economy in 1931, reparations
were suspended for a year and in 1932 during the Lausanne Conference they were suspended
indefinitely. Between 1919 and 1932, Germany paid less than 21 billion marks in reparations.
After 1953 West Germany paid the entire remaining balance.

36. Mexico. Since the turmoil of the Mexican revolution had died down, the
Harding administration was prepared to normalize relations with Mexico. Between 1911 and
1920 American imports from Mexico increased from $57,000,000 to $179,000,000 and
exports from $61,000,000 to $208,000,000. Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover took the
lead in order to promote trade and investments other than in oil and land, which had long
dominated bilateral economic ties. President Álvaro Obregón assured Americans that they
would be protected in Mexico, and Mexico was granted recognition in 1923. A major crisis
erupted in the mid-1930s when the Mexican government expropriated millions of acres of
land from hundreds of American property owners as part of President Lázaro Cárdenas's land
redistribution program. No compensation was provided to the American owners. The
emerging threat of the Second World War forced the United States to agree to a compromise
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solution. The US negotiated an agreement with President Manuel Avila Camacho that
amounted to a military alliance.

37. Intervention ends in Latin America. Small-scale military interventions

continued after 1921 as the Banana Wars tapered off. The Hoover administration began a
goodwill policy and withdrew all military forces. President Roosevelt announced the "Good
Neighbor Policy" by which the United States would no longer intervene to promote good
government, but would accept whatever governments were locally chosen. His Secretary of
State Cordell Hull endorsed article 8 of the 1933 Montevideo Convention on Rights and
Duties of States; it provides that "no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external
affairs of another".

38. Isolationism in 1930s. In the 1930s, the United States entered the period of
deep isolationism, rejecting international conferences, and focusing moment mostly on
reciprocal tariff agreements with smaller countries of Latin America.

39. Spanish Civil War: 1936-1939.

a. When the Spanish Civil War erupted in 1936, the United States remained
neutral and banned arms sales to either side. This was in line with both American
neutrality policies, and with a Europe-wide agreement to not sell arms for use in the
Spanish war lest it escalate into a world war. Congress endorsed the embargo by a
near-unanimous vote. Only armaments were embargoed; American companies could
sell oil and supplies to both sides. Roosevelt quietly favored the left-wing Republican
(or "Loyalist") government, but intense pressure by American Catholics forced him to
maintain a policy of neutrality. The Catholics were outraged by the systematic torture,
rape and execution of priests, bishops, and nuns by anarchist elements of the Loyalist
coalition. This successful pressure on Roosevelt was one of the handfuls of foreign
policy successes notched by Catholic pressures on the White House in the 20th
century. Germany and Italy provided munitions, and air support, and troops to the
Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union provided aid to the Loyalist
government, and mobilized thousands of volunteers to fight, including several
hundred from the United States in the Abraham Lincoln Battalion. All along the
Spanish military forces supported the nationalists, and they steadily pushed the
government forces back. By 1938, however, Roosevelt was planning to secretly send
American warplanes through France to the desperate Loyalists. His senior diplomats
warned that this would worsen the European crisis, so Roosevelt desisted.

b. Adolf Hitler and Franco mutually disliked one another, and Franco repeatedly
manipulated Hitler for his own benefit during World War Two. Franco sheltered
Jewish refugees escaping through France and never turned over the Spanish Jews to
Nazi Germany as requested, and when during the Second World War the Blue
Division was dispatched to help the Germans, it was forbidden to fight against the
Allies, and was limited only to fighting the Soviet.
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40. Coming of War: 1937-41.

a. President Roosevelt tried to avoid repeating what he saw as Woodrow

Wilson's mistakes in World War I. He often made exactly the opposite decision.
Wilson called for neutrality in thought and deed, while Roosevelt made it clear his
administration strongly favored Britain and China. Unlike the loans in World War I,
the United States made large-scale grants of military and economic aid to the Allies
through Lend-Lease, with little expectation of repayment. Wilson did not greatly
expand war production before the declaration of war; Roosevelt did. Wilson waited
for the declaration to begin a draft; Roosevelt started one in 1940. Wilson never made
the United States an official ally but Roosevelt did. Wilson never met with the top
Allied leaders but Roosevelt did. Wilson proclaimed independent policy, as seen in
the 14 Points, while Roosevelt always had a collaborative policy with the Allies. In
1917, United States declared war on Germany; in 1941, Roosevelt waited until the
enemy attacked at Pearl Harbor. Wilson refused to collaborate with the Republicans;
Roosevelt named leading Republicans to head the War Department and the Navy
Department. Wilson let General John J. Pershing make the major military decisions;
Roosevelt made the major decisions in his war including the "Europe first" strategy.
He rejected the idea of an armistice and demanded unconditional surrender. Roosevelt
often mentioned his role in the Wilson administration, but added that he had profited
more from Wilson's errors than from his successes.

b. Political scientist Roberta Wohlstetter explores why all American intelligence

agencies failed to predict the attack on Pearl Harbor. The basic reason was that the
Japanese plans were a very closely held secret. The attack fleet kept radio silence and
was not spotted by anyone end route to Hawaii. There were air patrols over Hawaii,
but they were too few and too ineffective to scan a vast ocean. Japan Navy spread
false information-- using fake radio signals-- to indicate the main fleet was in
Japanese waters, and suggested their main threat was north toward Russia. The U.S.
had MAGIC, which successfully cracked the Japanese diplomatic code. However, the
Japanese Foreign Ministry and its diplomats were deliberately never told about the
upcoming attack, so American intelligence was wasting its time trying to discover
secrets through MAGIC American intelligence expected attacks against British and
Dutch possessions, and were looking for those clues. At Pearl Harbor, they focused on
predicting local sabotage. There was no overall American intelligence center -- the
forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was formed during. In 1941 no
one coordinated the masses of information coming in from the Army, Navy, and State
department, and from British and Dutch allies. The system of notification was flawed,
so the sender thought was an urgent message did not appear urgent to the recipient.
After the attack, congressional investigators identify and link together all sorts of
small little signals pointing to an attack, while they discarded signals pointing in other
directions. Even in hindsight there was so much confusion, noise, and poor
coordination that Wohlstetter concludes no accurate predictions of the attack on Pearl
Harbor was at all likely before December 7.
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41. World War II: 1941–45. The same pattern which emerged with the First World
War continued with the second: warring European powers, blockades, official U.S. neutrality
but this time President Roosevelt tried to avoid all of Wilson's mistakes. American policy
substantially favored Britain and its allies, and the U.S. getting caught up in the war. Unlike
the loans in World War I, the United States made large-scale grants of military and economic
aid to the Allies through Lend-Lease. Industries greatly expanded to produce war materials.
The United States officially entered World War II against Germany, Japan, and Italy in
December 1941, following the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. This time the U.S.
was a full-fledged member of the Allies of World War II, not just an "associate" as in the first
war. During the war, the U.S. conducted military operations on both the Atlantic and Pacific
fronts. After the war and devastation of its European and Asian rivals, the United States
found itself in a uniquely powerful position due to the lack of damage to its domestic
industries.

42. Postwar peace. After 1945, the isolationist pattern characterizing the inter-war
period had ended for good. It was Franklin Roosevelt policy to establish a new international
organization that would be much more effective than the old League of Nations, and avoid its
flaws. He successfully sponsored the formation of the United Nations.

43. Picture of UN building in New York. The major long-term goal of Roosevelt's
foreign policy during the war was creating a United Nations to resolve all world problems.
The United States was a major force in establishing the United Nations in 1945, hosting a
meeting of fifty nations in San Francisco. Avoiding the rancorous debates of 1919, where
there was no veto, the US and the Soviet Union, as well as Britain, France and China, became
permanent members of the Security Council with veto power. The idea of the U.N. was to
promote world peace through consensus among nations, with boycotts, sanctions and even
military power exercised by the Security Council. It depended on member governments for
funds and had difficulty funding its budget. In 2009, its $5 billion budget was funded using a
complex formula based on GDP; the U.S. contributed 20% in 2009. However, the United
Nations' vision of peace soon became jeopardized as the international structure was
rebalanced with the development and testing of nuclear weapons by major powers.

44. Cold War: 1947–91.

a. President Kennedy met with Soviet foreign minister Gromyko in 1962.

Kennedy knew about Soviet missiles in Cuba but had not revealed this information
yet. The Cuban Missile crisis brought the world close to the brink of World War III
but luckily cooler heads prevailed. From the late 1940s until 1991, world affairs were
dominated by the Cold War, in which the U.S. and its allies faced the Soviet Union
and its allies. There was no large-scale fighting but instead numerous regional wars as
well as the ever-present threat of a catastrophic nuclear war.

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b. In 1948 the United States enacted the Marshall Plan, which supplied Western
Europe including Germany--with $13 billion USD in reconstruction aid. Stalin vetoed
any participation by East European nations. A similar program was operated by the
United States to restore the Japanese economy. The U.S. actively sought allies, which
it subsidized with military and economic "foreign aid", as well as diplomatic support.
The main diplomatic initiative was the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1949, committing the United States to nuclear defense of
Western Europe, which engaged in a military buildup under NATO's supervision. The
result was peace in Europe, coupled with the fear of Soviet invasion and a reliance on
American protection. In the 1950s, a number of other less successful regional
alliances were developed by the United States, such as the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO). Economic and propaganda warfare against the communist
world was part of the American toolbox. The United States operated a worldwide
network of bases for its Army, Navy and Air Force, with large contingents stationed
in Germany, Japan and South Korea.

c. Most nations aligned with either the Western or Eastern camp, but after 1960
the Soviets broke with China as the Communist movement worldwide became
divided. Some countries, such as India and Yugoslavia, tried to be neutral. Rejecting
the rollback of Communism by force because it risked nuclear war, Washington
developed a new strategy called containment to oppose the spread of communism.
The containment policy was developed by U.S. diplomat George Kennan in 1947.
Kennan characterized the Soviet Union as an aggressive, anti-Western power that
necessitated containment, a characterization which would shape US foreign policy for
decades to come. The idea of containment was to match Soviet aggression with force
wherever it occurred while not using nuclear weapons. The policy of containment
created a bipolar, zero-sum world where the ideological conflicts between the Soviet
Union and the United States dominated geopolitics. Due to the antagonism on both
sides and each country’s search for security, a tense worldwide contest developed
between the two states as the two nations' governments vied for global supremacy
militarily, culturally, and influentially.

d. The Cold War was characterized by a lack of global wars but a persistence of
regional proxy wars, often fought between client states and proxies of the United
States and Soviet Union. The US also intervened in the affairs of other countries
through a number of secret operations.

e. During the Cold War, the Containment polict seeking to stop Soviet expansion
involved the United States and its allies in the Korean War (1950-1953), a stalemate.
Even longer and more disastrous was the Vietnam War (1963-75). Under Jimmy
Carter, the U.S. and its Arab allies succeeded in creating a Vietnamese -like disaster
for the Soviet Union by supporting anti-Soviet Mujahideen forces in Afghanistan
(Operation Cyclone).

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45. Nixon. President Richard Nixon (1969-74) radically transformed American policy,
with the aid of his top advisor Henry Kissinger.[80] First of all he rejected the long-standing
containment policy that made it the highest goal to stop the expansion of communism. By
playing off the two main communist rivals, China in USSR, he managed to put a pause on the
Cold War through friendly relationships with each of them, or Détente. Moscow and Beijing
went along, and accepted Nixon's terms of pulling their support away from Vietnam. This
allowed Nixon to turn that war over to the government of South Vietnam, withdrawing all
American and Allied troops, while continuing a bombing threat. The Vietnamization policy
seem to work until 1975, when North Vietnam militarily conquered South Vietnam as the
United States stood by without intervening.[81] After Nixon resigned, president Gerald Ford
continued his foreign policy, but came under strong attack from the right by Ronald Reagan.
Jimmy Carter defeated Ford in the election of 1976, but his foreign-policy became mired in
endless difficulties, including a proxy war against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, and a
confrontation with the new anti-American regime in Iran. Carter lost to Reagan in the 1980
election.

46. Reagan. Reagan rejected détente, and containment, and announced his goal was
to win the Cold War, by destroying the threat of Soviet communism, denouncing Moscow as
the "evil Empire". His main action was a dramatic increase in military spending, and a heavy
investment in high-tech weapons that the Soviets, with their primitive computer systems,
were unable to match. After furious political battles at home and in Western Europe, Reagan
succeeded in stationing medium-range ballistic Missiles in Western Europe, aimed at the
Soviet Union. The sclerotic Soviet leadership collapsed, and finally in 1985 Mikhail
Gorbachev came to power with a commitment to salvage communism in the Soviet Union.
He negotiated a series of compromises with Reagan that weakened Soviet power. In 1989, all
the East European satellites revolted in overthrew Moscow's control. West Germany took
over East Germany. In 1991, Russia overthrew communism, and at the end of the year
Gorbachev lost power and the Soviet Union was dissolved. The United States and NATO had
won the Cold War, leaving the United States the world's only superpower. Reagan had a
vision for restoring American power, and defeating the Soviet enemy, and it all came true
shortly after he left office. However, he was highly inattentive to details and let his senior
staff, and sometimes his junior staff, make the presidential-level decisions. Putting all
together, historians and presidential scholars have Reagan high marks in foreign policy. In
2017 a C-SPAN survey of scholars – most of whom opposed his specific policies-- ranked
Reagan in terms of leadership in comparison with all 42 presidents. He ranked number nine
in international relations.

47. Post-Cold War to 1992–present.

a. With the breakup of the Soviet Union into separate nations, and with the re-
emergence of the nation of Russia, the world of pro-U.S. and pro-Soviet alliances
broke down. Different challenges presented themselves, such as climate change as
well as the threat of nuclear terrorism. Regional powerbrokers and dictators such as
Saddam Hussein in Iraq challenged the peace with a surprise attack on the small
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nation of Kuwait in 1991. President George H. W. Bush organized a coalition of

allied and Middle Eastern powers which successfully pushed back the invading
forces, but stopped short of invading Iraq and capturing Hussein; as a result, the
dictator was free to rule unchecked for another twelve years. After the Gulf War,
many scholars, such as Zbigniew Brzezinski, claimed the lack of a new strategic
vision for U.S. foreign policy resulted in many missed opportunities for its foreign
policy. During the 1990s, the United States mostly scaled back its foreign policy
budget as well as its cold war defense budget which amounted to 6.5% of GDP while
focusing on domestic economic prosperity under President Clinton, who succeeded in
achieving a budget surplus for 1999 and 2000. The United States also served as a
peacekeeper in the warring ethnic disputes in the former Yugoslavia by cooperating as
a U.N. peacekeeper.

b. A decade of economic prosperity ended with the September 11, 2001 attacks
on the World Trade Center in New York City. The surprise attack by terrorists
belonging to a militant Al-Qaeda organization prompted a national mourning and
paradigm shift in U.S. foreign policy. The focus on domestic prosperity during the
1990s gave way to a trend of unilateral action under President George W. Bush to
combat what was seen to be the growing trend of fundamentalist terrorism in the
Middle East. The United States declared a War on Terrorism. This policy dominated
U.S. foreign policy over the last decade as the nation embarked on two military
campaigns in the Middle East, in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although both campaigns
attracted international support, particularly the fighting in Afghanistan, the scale and
duration of the war has lessened the motivation of American allies. Furthermore,
when no WMDs were found after a military conquest of Iraq, there was worldwide
skepticism that the war had been fought to prevent terrorism, and the war in Iraq has
had serious negative public relations consequences for the image of the United States.
The "Bush Doctrine" shifted diplomatic and security policy toward maximizing the
spread of liberal political institutions and democratic values. The policy has been
called "democratic realism," "national security liberalism," "democratic globalism," or
"messianic universalism." The policy helped inspire democratic upheavals in the
Middle East.

c. Across the world there was a transition from a bipolar world to a multipolar
world. While the United States remains a strong power economically and militarily,
rising nations such as China, India, and Brazil as well as Russia have challenged its
dominance. Foreign policy analysts such as Nina Harchigian suggest that the six
emerging big powers share common concerns: free trade, economic growth,
prevention of terrorism, efforts to stymie nuclear proliferation. And if they can avoid
war, the coming decades can be peaceful and productive provided there are no
misunderstandings or dangerous rivalries.

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d. In his first formal television interview as president, Barack Obama addressed

the Muslim world through an Arabic-language satellite TV network and expressed a
commitment to repair relations that have deteriorated under the previous
administration. Still under the Obama administration, American foreign policy has
continued to irritate the Muslim world including one of its main allies, Pakistan.

e. But serious problems remain for the U.S. The Mideast continues to fester with
religious hatred and Arab resentment of Israel. The U.S. position is that the danger of
nuclear proliferation is more evident with nations such as Iran and North Korea
openly flouting the international community by insisting on building nuclear
weapons. Important issues such as climate change, which require many governments
to work together in sometimes tough solutions, present tough diplomatic challenges.

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UNDERSTANDING NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY ISSUES

1. Introduction. The emergence of a number of non-state actors, such as

terrorist networks, drug cartels and maritime piracy networks, and intra-state conflicts
(e.g. Civil wars) have assumed importance as new-age threats to the national security of
present-day states. Apart from such non-state transnational actors, the impact of
environmental degradation on the future of the nation-state, especially the implications
of global climate change, has emerged as a credible and serious threat to the future
existence of modern-day nation-states. At the same time, we must realize that development
in the world is uneven and imbalanced, the gap between the rich North and the poor South is
further widening, and the many traditional security issues triggered by ethnic, religious,
territorial and natural resources disputes are far from being resolved. The September 11th
incident indicates that non-traditional security issues as represented by international terrorism
are of graver concern.

2. The list of Non-traditional security issues as follows. Terrorism, Illicit drug,

HIV/AIDS, Piracy, Illegal migration, Energy, food and water, Environmental security/
climate change, Economic security, Societal security, Information security are more
pronounced.

3. Non-traditional Security issues as a threat to the stability of Nation States.

Non-traditional security issues have become a new feature of the international and regional
security environment, bringing new challenges to Nation States. The hallmark of these issues
is that they are, in most cases, trans-national or trans-regional and are harmful to the stability
of all countries. Moreover, recent years have seen a noticeable rise of international terrorist
activities, which constitutes a real threat to regional and international peace and is becoming
an important factor of uncertainty affecting the security situation.

4. The UNs Human Development Report (HDR) of 1994. This report highlighted
the need for a shift from the exclusive stress on territorial security to focusing on people’s
security, and instead of seeking security through armaments to gaining security through
sustainable development. The seven identified security essentials by the UN’s Human
Development Report (HDR) of 1994 as follows.

a. Economic security.

b. Food security.

c. Health security.

d. Environmental security.

e. Personal security.

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f. Community security.

g. Political security.

5. The illegal drug trade. The illegal drug trade is a global black market,
competing with legal drug trade, dedicated to cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale
of those substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit
trade, except under license, of many types of drugs by drug prohibition laws. The following
mentioned drugs are more pronounced.

a. Cannabis.

b. Alcohol.

c. Tobacco.

d. Heroin.

6. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Since early 2000, the UN Security

Council has highlighted the threat posed by the HIV/AIDS epidemic to global peace and
security. It has held several discussions on HIV/AIDS—the first time the world’s top political
body has addressed a health and development issue. In July 2000, the Security Council
passed Resolution 1308, emphasizing the need to combat the spread of the virus during
peacekeeping operations.

7. Piracy.

a. The threat posed by piracy and armed robbery against ships has been on the
IMO's agenda since the early 1980s. In the late 1990s and the early 2000s the focus
was on the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. More recently,
since 2005, IMO has focused on piracy off the coast of Somalia, in the Gulf of Aden
and the wider Indian Ocean, and is currently implementing a strategy for enhancing
maritime security in West and Central Africa, in line with the region's maritime
security agreements. The Organization, with support and cooperation from the
shipping industry, has through the years developed and adopted a number of
antipiracy measures, which have contributed towards the mitigation of the negative
impact posed by piracy world wide. Information regarding acts of piracy and armed
robbery against ships is publicly available (subject to registration) in IMO's Piracy
and Armed Robbery module within the Organization's Global Integrated Shipping
Information System (GISIS).

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b. In addition, IMO provides assistance, to Member States seeking to develop

their own national or regional measures to address the threat of piracy, armed robbery
against ships and other illicit maritime activities, if and when requested. This was the
case of the Code of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery
against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden (Djibouti Code of
Conduct), agreed between countries in and around the western Indian Ocean and the
case of the Code of Conduct concerning the repression of piracy, armed robbery
against ships, and illicit maritime activity in west and central Africa in the Gulf of
Guinea region of West Africa.

8. Illegal immigration. Illegal immigration is the movement of people across national

borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the destination country. Illegal
immigrants are also known as illegal aliens to differentiate them from legal aliens.
Conversely, illegal emigration refers to unlawfully leaving a country.

9. Economic security. Economic security or financial security is the condition of

having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the
foreseeable future. It includes;

a. Probable continued solvency.

b. Predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other economic entity,

such as a country.

c. Employment security or job security.

10. Societal Security. Societal Security may be defined as the availability of true
justice and fair play in the way things are being run in every sector of the society.
Environment Security

11. Environmental security is environmental viability for life support, with three
sub-elements.

a. Preventing or repairing military damage to the environment,

b. Preventing or responding to environmentally caused conflicts, and

c. Protecting the environment due to its inherent moral value.

d. It considers the abilities of individuals, communities or nations to cope with

environmental risks, changes or conflicts, or limited natural resources. For example,
climate change can be viewed a threat to environmental security. Human activity
impacts CO2 emissions, impacting regional and global climatic and environmental

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changes and thus changes in agricultural output. This can lead to food shortages
which will then cause political debate, ethnic tension, and civil unrest.

12. Information security. Information security means protecting information and

information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or
destruction.

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TERRORISM

1. What is Terrorism? Typically Terrorist sees themselves as combating

tyranny and oppression, whose tactics are more provoking and accordingly notorious. They
often act in a transnational fashion across national boundaries.

2. Definition.

a. Terrorism is the deliberate, systematic murder, damage and menacing of the

innocent to inspire fear in order to gain political ends -Paul Johnson (1984).

b. Terrorism is Use of violence for political purpose by nongovernmental actors,

and the use of terror, violence and intimidation to achieve an end -Peter Sederberg
(1989).

3. The Origin of Terrorism.

a. It is probably a mistake to believe that terrorism is mindless violence, without

purpose other than release for pent-up frustration. Terrorism can have several tactical
aims.

Ex. Provoking Israel to retaliate to severely against Arab states and to get
support from the Arab regimes.

b. Terrorism is a quite a recent phenomenon, almost entirely dependent on, and

so to a great extent a result of, modern communications media specially television.

4. History.

a. Terrorist activities on important scale have occurred at least since the days of
the Roman Empire. In the 19th century in Europe especially in prerevolutionary
Russia the terrorists acts were common and of three groups of religious terrorists that
existed centuries ago

Ex.

1. The Thugs (Hindu)

2. The Assassins (Islam)

3. The Zealots (Jewish)

b. Clearly terrorism is not a phenomenon produced solely from modern media.

The Assassins for example did not need mass media to reach interested audiences
because of their prominent victims were murdered in venerated sites and royal courts
usually on holy days when may witness were present.

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e. Terrorist in modern age has been more successful in acquiring substantial

support from the state governments.

Ex.

1. Libya maintained camps within its borders capable of training 5000

men at a time.
2. The arms and ammunition manufactured in the Soviet Union,
Czechoslovakia and East

3. Germany had been shipped weapons to PLO.

5. The Result.

a. Terrorists in modern days have been more successful in acquiring substantial

support from state governments. The State Supported Terrorism is that terrorists
acquired access to increasingly sophisticated military technology.

Ex.

1. Antiaircraft missiles

2. Rocket launchers

3. Radar guided antiaircraft cannons

b. In 1970s terrorists were arrested in Rome and Paris and Kenya with anti-
aircraft missiles and portable rocket launchers. When the Israelis attack to the PLO
camps in Lebanon in 1982 they found that the Soviets had supplied that organization
with BM-21 rocket launchers and ZSU-4 antiaircraft cannon. In 1979 a report claimed
that Libya maintained camps within its borders capable of training 5000 men at a
time. In 1984 another report claimed that an ever increasing flow of arms and
ammunition manufactured in the Soviet Union, Checoslovakia and East Germany had
been shipped the PLO via East Germany and Hungary.

6. Dealing with terrorism. The conventional military attacks launched against

states that support terrorism

Ex.

1. US against Libya in 1986

2. NATO invasion of Afghanistan in 2002

3. US invasion of Iraq in 2003

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7. Chronology of events in Middle East Terrorism.

a. 48-73 Palestine was not organized.

b. 1969 Yasser Arphat (FATAH)Started terrorism activities based on Jordan,

were expelled and had gone to Lebanon.

c. His bulla based in Lebanon under the leader Nasralla. (Shiite connection from
Iran and acquired modern weapons)

d. 1976- PLO admitted to the Arab League.

e. 1982- Israel invaded Lebanon. (Lebanon PLO base)

f. 1988- State of Palestine formed and Arphat became the president.

g. 1988- Palestine Authority was formed.

h. Hamas encouraged terrorist activities.

8. Iraq. Shiite majority, Kurds in northern part, Al-Qaida groups.

9. Afghanistan.

a. 1920 -1970 A monarchy.

b. Taraki was overthrown by a rebellion.

c. 1979- USSR invaded Afghanistan.

d. 1988- USSR withdrew.

e. 1992- An Islamic republic was formed.

f. 1996- Talibans formed a government and introduced strict rules.

g. 2002- USA invaded Afghanistan and Hamid Karsai came to power.

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