Debre Markos University

College of Natural and Computational Science

Department of Physics

Mechanics (Phys 2001): Lecture note

Chapter One: Vectors

By
Yesgat Enawgaw (MSc.)

February, 2021

Debre Markos University, Ethiopia

 Chapter One
Vectors
Introduction
Each of the physical quantities we will encounter in this course can be categorized as either a
vector quantity or a scalar quantity.

A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified by a number and unit. It has magnitude but
no direction. Scalars obey the rules of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass, time, volume,
speed, etc.

A vector is a quantity that is specified by both a magnitude and direction in space. Vectors
obey the laws of vector algebra. Examples are: displacement, velocity, acceleration,
momentum, etc.

Scalar quantities can be manipulated with the rules of ordinary arithmetic. Vectors can also
be added and subtracted from each other, and multiplied, but there are a number of important
differences, as will be seen in the following sections.

1.1 Representation of vectors

Vectors are represented algebraically by a letter (or symbol) with an arrow over its head or by
boldface type and the magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar.

For example Vector A is represented by ⃗ or A the magnitude of vector A is written as

│⃗ │or │A.

Vectors can also be represented by graphically, using an arrow.

Vector A represented graphically as

Fig 1.1 graphical representation of a vector

The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of a vector and the head of the arrow
represents the direction of vector.

1.2 Vector addition and subtraction

Vector addition

The sum of two or more vectors is called resultant vector and represented by R (or ⃗ ).
Vectors can be added using graphical method of vector addition or Parallelogram law of
vector addition

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A. Graphical method of vector addition
Graphically vectors can be added by joining their head to tail and in any order their resultant
vector is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector. In
Fig 1.2 graphical technique of vector addition is applied to add four vectors. The resultant
vector R = A + B + C + D is the vector that completes the polygon. In other words, R is the
vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector. Again, the order in
which the vectors are added is unimportant.

Figure 1.2 Graphical method of vector addition

B. Parallelogram law of vector addition

The parallelogram law states that the resultant R of two vectors A and B is the diagonal of the

parallelogram for which the two vectors A and B becomes adjacent sides. All three vectors A,

B and R are concurrent as shown in Figure 1.3. A and B are also called the components of R.

The magnitude of the diagonal (resultant vector) is obtained using cosine law and direction
(i.e.the angle that the diagonal vector makes with the sides) is obtained using the sine law.

Applying cosine and sine laws for the triangle formed by the two vectors:

( 1.1)

Figure 1.3 parallelogram method of vector addition

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Vectors subtraction
Vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the negative of a vector. We define the
operation A-B as the vector -B added to the vector A:
A-B = A+(-B)

Figure 1.4: Subtraction of vectors

Resolving vectors

Splitting a vector in to perpendicular vectors is called resolving a vector. Consider a vector R

laying on XY plane as shown the figure 1.5 below.

Vector R can be resolve into two components; Rx the x component of R and Ry the y
component of R

R R

R cos

Figure 1.5: Vector Resolution

The components of vector R are given by

Rx= Rcos and Ry= R sin (1.2)

R can be written as R= Rx i+ Ry j

1.3 Vector multiplication

1.3.1 Dot (Scalar) product

Scalar (or dot) product definition:

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 a.b = |a|.|b| cos θ ≡ ab cos θ (1.3)

(Write shorthand |a| = a ).

 Scalar product is the magnitude of a multiplied by the projection of b onto a.

 Obviously if a is perpendicular to b then a.b = 0.
 Also a.a = |a| 2 (since θ =0◦). Hence a = √ (a.a)

bcos a

Fig 1.7: The projection of b onto a

Properties of scalar product

 i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 and i.j = j.k = k.i = 0
 This leads to a.b = (ax i + ay j + az k).(bx i + by j + bzk) = axbx + ayby + azbz (this
is a very useful relation)
 a.b = b.a : commutative
 a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c : distributive
 If c = a + b Then c2 = c.c = (a + b).(a + b) = a 2 + b 2 + 2a.b = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab
cosθ
 Parentheses are important
Note (u.v) w u (v.w) because one is a vector along , the other is along û.

1.3.2 Cross (Vector) Product

Vector (or cross) product of two vectors, definition:
a x b = │a││b│ (1.4)

where is a unit vector in a direction perpendicular to both a and b.

To get direction of a x b use right hand rule:

 Make a set of directions with your right hand thumb & first index finger, and with
middle finger positioned perpendicular to plane of both
 Point your thumb along the first vector a
 Point your 1st index finger along b, making the smallest possible angle to a
 The direction of the middle finger gives the direction of a x b.

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 Figure 1.8: the direction of a x b

Properties of vector product

 (a + b) xc = (a x c) + (b x c) : distributive
 a x b = -b x a : NON-commutative
 (a x b) x c a x (b x c) : NON-associative
 If m is a scalar, m(a x b) = (ma) x b = a x (mb) = (a x b)m.
 Importantly a x b = 0 if vectors are parallel
 i x j = k, j x k = i , k x i = j
 ixi=jxj=kxk=0

1.3.3 Triple scalar product

The scalar triple product, as its name may suggest, results in a scalar as its result. It is a
means of combining three vectors via cross product and a dot product. Given the vectors

A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k

B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k

C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k

a scalar triple product will involve a dot product and a cross product

A.(B x C) (1.5)

It is necessary to perform the cross product before the dot product when computing a scalar
triple product,

(1.6)

Since A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k one can take the dot product to find that

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 (1.7)

which is simply

(1.8)

Note: Exchanging any two adjacent rows in a determinant changes the sign of the original
determinant.

Thus,

(1.9)

Theorem: For a given set of three vectors A, B and C

A. B x C= A x B.C= C x A. B ( 1.10)

1.3.4 The Vector Triple Product

The vector triple product, as its name suggests, produces a vector. It is the result of taking the
cross product of one vector with the cross product of two other vectors.

Theorem: for a given three vectors A, B and C

A x B x C = (A .C) B - (A.B) C (1.11)

Proving the vector triple product formula can be done in a number of ways. The straight
forward method is to assign

and work out the various dot and cross products to show that the result is the same.

1.3.5 Applications of Vector Product

Some applications of the vector product are:

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 To finding a vector which is perpendicular to two given vectors. The two vectors
should be non-zero and must not be parallel.
 To find the area of a parallelogram.

Figure 1.9: A parallelogram with two sides given by b and c

Area= │a x b│ =ab (1.12)

 To find the volume of a parallelepiped

 Figure 1.10: A parallelepiped with edges given by a, b and c.

Volume = a.( b x c) (1.13)