MKB2 SA 2ndSoalGearBox

280 Chapter 3 Torsion
3.4 NONUNIFORM TORSION

As explained in Section 3.2, pure torsion refers to torsion of a prismatic
bar subjected to torques acting only at the ends. Nonuniform torsion dif-
fers from pure torsion in that the bar need not be prismatic and the
applied torques may act anywhere along the axis of the bar. Bars in
nonuniform torsion can be analyzed by applying the formulas of pure tor-
sion to finite segments of the bar and then adding the results, or by apply-
ing the formulas to differential elements of the bar and then integrating.
To illustrate these procedures, we will consider three cases of nonuni-
form torsion. Other cases can be handled by techniques similar to those
described here.
Case 1. Bar consisting of prismatic segments with constant torque
Fig. 3-14 throughout each segment (Fig. 3-14). The bar shown in part (a) of the
Bar in nonuniform torsion figure has two different diameters and is loaded by torques acting at
(Case 1) points A, B, C, and D. Consequently, we divide the bar into segments in
T1 T2 T3 T4 such a way that each segment is prismatic and subjected to a constant
torque. In this example, there are three such segments, AB, BC, and CD.
Each segment is in pure torsion, and therefore all of the formulas derived
A B in the preceding section may be applied to each part separately.
C D
The first step in the analysis is to determine the magnitude and direc-
LAB LBC LCD tion of the internal torque in each segment. Usually the torques can be
(a) determined by inspection, but if necessary they can be found by cutting
sections through the bar, drawing free-body diagrams, and solving equa-
T1 T2 T3 tions of equilibrium. This process is illustrated in parts (b), (c), and (d) of
TCD the figure. The first cut is made anywhere in segment CD, thereby expos-
ing the internal torque TCD. From the free-body diagram (Fig. 3-14b), we
A B
C see that TCD is equal to 2T1 2 T2 1 T3. From the next diagram we see
that TBC equals 2T1 2 T2, and from the last we find that TAB equals 2T1.
(b)
Thus,
T1 T2
TBC TCD 5 2T1 2 T2 1 T3 TBC 5 2T1 2 T2 TAB 5 2T1 (3-22a,b,c)
A B
Each of these torques is constant throughout the length of its segment.
(c)
When finding the shear stresses in each segment, we need only the
T1 magnitudes of these internal torques, since the directions of the stresses
TAB are not of interest. However, when finding the angle of twist for the entire
bar, we need to know the direction of twist in each segment in order to
A
combine the angles of twist correctly. Therefore, we need to establish a
(d)
sign convention for the internal torques. A convenient rule in many cases
is the following: An internal torque is positive when its vector points away
from the cut section and negative when its vector points toward the section.
Thus, all of the internal torques shown in Figs. 3-14b, c, and d are pictured
in their positive directions. If the calculated torque [from Eq. (3-22a, b, or c)]
turns out to have a positive sign, it means that the torque acts in the
assumed direction; if the torque has a negative sign, it acts in the opposite
direction.
The maximum shear stress in each segment of the bar is readily
obtained from the torsion formula [Eq. (3-13)] using the appropriate
cross-sectional dimensions and internal torque. For instance, the
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3.4 Nonuniform Torsion 281
maximum stress in segment BC (Fig. 3-14) is found using the diameter of

that segment and the torque TBC calculated from Eq. (3-22b). The maxi-
mum stress in the entire bar is the largest stress from among the stresses
calculated for each of the three segments.
The angle of twist for each segment is found from Eq. (3-17), again
using the appropriate dimensions and torque. The total angle of twist of
one end of the bar with respect to the other is then obtained by algebraic
summation, as follows:
φ 5 φ1 1 φ2 1 Á 1 φn (3-23)
where φ1 is the angle of twist for segment 1, φ2 is the angle for segment 2,
and so on, and n is the total number of segments. Since each angle of twist
is found from Eq. (3-17), we can write the general formula
φ 5 a φi 5 a
n n TiLi
(3-24)
i51 i 5 1 Gi(IP)i
in which the subscript i is a numbering index for the various segments. For
segment i of the bar, Ti is the internal torque (found from equilibrium, as
illustrated in Fig. 3-14), Li is the length, Gi is the shear modulus, and (IP)i
is the polar moment of inertia. Some of the torques (and the correspon-
ding angles of twist) may be positive and some may be negative. By sum-
ming algebraically the angles of twist for all segments, we obtain the total
angle of twist φ between the ends of the bar. The process is illustrated later
in Example 3-4.
Case 2. Bar with continuously varying cross sections and constant
torque (Fig. 3-15). When the torque is constant, the maximum shear stress
Fig. 3-15
in a solid bar always occurs at the cross section having the smallest diam- Bar in nonuniform torsion
eter, as shown by Eq. (3-14). Furthermore, this observation usually holds (Case 2)
for tubular bars. If this is the case, we only need to investigate the small- T T
est cross section in order to calculate the maximum shear stress. B
A
Otherwise, it may be necessary to evaluate the stresses at more than one x dx
location in order to obtain the maximum.
L
To find the angle of twist, we consider an element of length dx at
distance x from one end of the bar (Fig. 3-17). The differential angle of
rotation dφ for this element is
Tdx
dφ 5 (3-25)
GIP(x)
in which IP(x) is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section at

distance x from the end. The angle of twist for the entire bar is the
summation of the differential angles of rotation:
L L
3 30
Tdx
φ 5 dφ 5 (3-26)
0
GI P(x)
If the expression for the polar moment of inertia IP(x) is not too complex,
this integral can be evaluated analytically. In other cases, it must be eval-
uated numerically.
Case 3. Bar with continuously varying cross sections and continuously
Fig. 3-16 varying torque (Fig. 3-16). The bar shown in part (a) of the figure is sub-
Bar in nonuniform torsion jected to a distributed torque of intensity t per unit distance along the axis
(Case 3) of the bar. As a result, the internal torque T(x) varies continuously along
t the axis (Fig. 3-16b). The internal torque can be evaluated with the aid of
TA TB
a free-body diagram and an equation of equilibrium. As in Case 2, the
A
B polar moment of inertia IP(x) can be evaluated from the cross-sectional
x dx dimensions of the bar.
Knowing both the torque and polar moment of inertia as functions
L
of x, we can use the torsion formula to determine how the shear stress
(a) varies along the axis of the bar. The cross section of maximum shear
stress can then be identified, and the maximum shear stress can be
t
TA T(x) determined.
The angle of twist for the bar of Fig. 3-16a can be found in the same
A x manner as described for Case 2. The only difference is that the torque, like
(b) the polar moment of inertia, also varies along the axis. Consequently, the
equation for the angle of twist becomes
L L
3 30 GIP(x)
T(x)dx
φ 5 dφ 5 (3-27)
0
This integral can be evaluated analytically in some cases, but usually it

must be evaluated numerically.
Limitations
The analyses described in this section are valid for bars made of linearly
elastic materials with circular cross sections (either solid or hollow). Also,
the stresses determined from the torsion formula are valid in regions of the
bar away from stress concentrations, which are high localized stresses that
occur wherever the diameter changes abruptly and wherever concentrated
torques are applied (see Section 3.12). However, stress concentrations
have relatively little effect on the angle of twist, and therefore the equa-
tions for φ are generally valid.
Finally, we must keep in mind that the torsion formula and the
formulas for angles of twist were derived for prismatic bars with cir-
cular cross sections (see Section 3.10 for a brief discussion of non-
circular bars in torsion). We can safely apply them to bars with varying
cross sections only when the changes in diameter are small and grad-
ual. As a rule of thumb, the formulas given here are satisfactory as
long as the angle of taper (the angle between the sides of the bar) is less
than 108.
• • • Example 3-4
A solid steel shaft ABCDE (Fig. 3-17) having diameter d 5 30 mm turns freely
in bearings at points A and E. The shaft is driven by a gear at C, which
applies a torque T2 5 450 N?m in the direction shown in the figure. Gears at
B and D are driven by the shaft and have resisting torques T1 5 275 N?m and
T3 5 175 N?m, respectively, acting in the opposite direction to the torque T2.
Segments BC and CD have lengths LBC 5 500 mm and LCD 5 400 mm, respec-
tively, and the shear modulus G 5 80 GPa.
Determine the maximum shear stress in each part of the shaft and the
angle of twist between gears B and D.
(© Bigjoker/Alamy)
Fig. 3-17 T1 T2 T3
Example 3-4: Steel shaft in d

torsion A E
B C D
LBC LCD
Solution
Each segment of the bar is prismatic and subjected to a constant torque
(Case 1). Therefore, the first step in the analysis is to determine the torques
acting in the segments, after which we can find the shear stresses and
angles of twist. (Recall that we drew free-body diagrams and then applied
the laws of statics to find the reactive and internal torsional moments in a
geared shaft in Example 1-3 in Section 1.2.)
Torques acting in the segments. The torques in the end segments (AB and
DE) are zero since we are disregarding any friction in the bearings at the sup-
ports. Therefore, the end segments have no stresses and no angles of twist.
The torque TCD in segment CD is found by cutting a section through the
segment and constructing a free-body diagram, as in Fig. 3-18a. The torque
is assumed to be positive, and therefore its vector points away from the cut
section. From equilibrium of the free body, we obtain
TCD 5 T2 2 T1 5 450 N # m 2 275 N # m 5 175 N # m
Fig. 3-18 T1 T2
Free-body diagrams for

d TCD
Example 3-4
B C
LBC
(a)
T1
TBC
B
(b)
Continues ➥
••• Example 3-4 - Continued
The positive sign in the result means that TCD acts in the assumed positive
direction.
The torque in segment BC is found in a similar manner, using the free-
body diagram of Fig. 3-18b:
TBC 5 2T1 5 2275 N # m

Note that this torque has a negative sign, which means that its direction is
opposite to the direction shown in the figure.
Shear stresses. The maximum shear stresses in segments BC and CD are
found from the modified form of the torsion formula [Eq. (3-14)]; thus,
16TBC 16(275 N # m)
τBC 5 5 5 51.9 MPa ➥
πd3 π(30 mm)3
16TCD 16(175 N # m)
τCD 5 5 5 33.0 MPa ➥
πd3 π(30 mm)3
Since the directions of the shear stresses are not of interest in this example,
only absolute values of the torques are used in the preceding calculations.
Angles of twist. The angle of twist φBD between gears B and D is the
algebraic sum of the angles of twist for the intervening segments of the bar,
as given by Eq. (3-23); thus,
φBD 5 φBC 1 φCD
When calculating the individual angles of twist, we need the moment of

inertia of the cross section:
πd 4 π (30 mm)4
IP 5 5 5 79,520 mm4
32 32
Now we can determine the angles of twist, as
TBCLBC (2275 N # m)(500 mm)

φBC 5 5 5 20.0216 rad
GIP (80 GPa)(79,520 mm4)
and
TCDLCD (175 N # m)(400 mm)

φCD 5 5 5 0.0110 rad
GIP (80 GPa)(79,520 mm4)
Note that in this example the angles of twist have opposite directions.
Adding algebraically, we obtain the total angle of twist:
φBD 5 φBC 1 φCD 5 20.0216 1 0.0110 5 20.0106 rad 5 20.61° ➥

The minus sign means that gear D rotates clockwise (when viewed from the
right-hand end of the shaft) with respect to gear B. However, for most purposes
only the absolute value of the angle of twist is needed, and therefore it is suf-
ficient to say that the angle of twist between gears B and D is 0.618. The angle
of twist between the two ends of a shaft is sometimes called the wind-up.
Notes: The procedures illustrated in this example can be used for shafts
having segments of different diameters or of different materials, as long as
the dimensions and properties remain constant within each segment.
Only the effects of torsion are considered in this example and in the
problems at the end of the chapter. Bending effects are considered later,
beginning with Chapter 4.
• • • Example 3-5
Two sections (AB, BC) of steel drill pipe, joined by bolted flange plates at B,
are being tested to assess the adequacy of both the pipe and the bolted con-
nection (see Fig. 3-19). In the test, the pipe structure is fixed at A and a con-
centrated torque 2T0 is applied at x 5 2L/5 and uniformly distributed torque
intensity t0 5 3T0 /L is applied on pipe BC.
(a) Find expressions for internal torques T(x) over the length of the pipe
structure.
(b) Find the maximum shear stress τmax in the pipes and its location.
Assume that load variable T0 5 226 kN # m. Let G 5 81 GPa, and assume
that both pipes have the same inner diameter, d 5 250 mm.
Pipe AB has a thickness of tAB 5 19 mm, while pipe BC has a thickness
of tBC 5 16 mm.
(c) Find expressions for twist rotations φ(x) over the length of the pipe struc-
ture. If the maximum allowable twist of the pipe structure is φallow 5 0.58,
find the maximum permissible value of load variable T0 (kN # m). Let
L 5 3 m.
(d) Use T0 from part (c) to find the number of db 5 22-mm diameter bolts at
radius r 5 380 mm required in the flange plate connection at B. Assume
that the allowable shear stress for the bolts is τa 5 190 MPa.
Fig. 3-19 Flange

plate Bolt
Example 3-5: Two pipes in
nonuniform torsion A 2T0 t0 = 3T0 /L
B C (b) Section at B
x 3L/5 2L/5
2L/5
(a) Nonprismatic pipe
Solution
(a) Internal torques T(x). First, we must find the reactive torque at A using
statics (see Section 1.2, Example 1-3). Summing torsional moments about
the x axis of the structure, we find
RA 1 2T0 2 t0 a b 5 0
2L
©Mx 5 0
5
(Courtesy of Subsea Riser
3T0 24T0
RA 5 22T0 1 a ba b 5
Products) 2L
so (a)
L 5 5
Reaction RA is negative, which means that the reactive torsional moment

vector is in the (2x) direction based on a statics sign convention. We now
can draw free-body diagrams (FBD) of segments of the pipe to find inter-
nal torsional moments T(x) over the length of the pipe.
Continues ➥
Fig. 3-20 A
Example 3-5: (a) FBD of seg- 4T0 /5
ment 1, (b) FBD of segment 2, T1(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2L/5
and (c) FBD of segment 3
(a)
A 2T0 @ 2L/5
4T0 /5
T2(x), 2L/5 ≤ x ≤ 3L/5
x
2L/5 x – 2L/5
(b)
From the FBD of segment 1 (Fig. 3-20a), we see that the internal tor-
sional moment is constant and is equal to reactive torque RA. Tor-
que T1(x) is positive, because the torsional moment vector points away
from the cut section of the pipe; we refer to this as a deformation sign
convention:
4 2
T1(x) 5 T 0 … x … L (b)
5 0 5
Next, a FBD of segment 2 of the pipe structure (Fig. 3-20b) gives
4 26 2 3
T2(x) 5 T 2 2T0 5 T L … x … L (c)
5 0 5 0 5 5
where T2(x) is also constant and the minus sign means that T2(x) actually
points in the negative x direction.
Finally, the FBD of segment 3 of the pipe structure (Fig. 3-20c) provides
the following expression for internal torsional moment T3(x):
T 2 2T0 1 t0 ax 2 Lb 5 3T01
4 3 x 3
T3(x) 5 2 12 L … x … L (d)
5 0 5 L 5
Fig. 3-20 (Continued) A 2T0 @ 2L/5 2t0 = 3T0 /L

4T0 /5
T3(x), 3L/5 ≤ x ≤ L
x B
2L/5
3L/5 x – 3L/5
(c)
Evaluating Eq. (d) at B and C, we see that at B we have
T3 a L b 5 3T0 a 2 1b 5
3 3 26
T
5 5 5 0
and at C, we have
T3(L) 5 3T0(1 2 1) 5 0
We can now plot Eqs. (b), (c), and (d) to get a torsional moment diagram
(Fig. 3-21) (TMD) which displays the variation of internal torsional
moment over the length of the pipe structure (x 5 0 to x 5 L).
Fig. 3-21 A 2T0 @ 2L/5 t0 = 3T0 /L
Example 3-5: Torsional moment 4T0 /5

diagram (TMD)
B C
x 3L/5 2L/5
T1(x)
4T0 /5
TMD
0 0
T3(x)
–6T0 /5
T2(x)
(b) Maximum shear stress in pipe τmax. We will use the torsion formula
[Eq. (3-13)] to compute the shear stress in the pipe. The maximum shear
stress is on the surface of the pipe. The polar moment of inertia of each
pipe is computed as
c(d 1 2tAB)4 2 (d )4 d
π
IpAB 5
32
C [250 mm 1 2(19 mm)]4 2 (250 mm)4 D 5 2.919 3 1024 m4

π
5
32
and
c(d 1 2tBC)4 2 (d )4 d
π
IpBC 5
32
C [250 mm 1 2(16 mm)]4 2 (250 mm)4 D 5 2.374 3 1024 m4

π
5
32
Continues ➥
The shear modulus G is constant, so the torsional rigidity of AB is

1.23 times that of BC. From the TMD (Fig. 3-21), we see that the
maximum torsional moments in both AB and BC (each equal to 6T0/5)
are near joint B. Applying the torsion formula to pipes AB and BC
near B gives
d 1 2tAB
a T ba b
6
5 0 2
τ max AB 5
IpAB
a 226 kN # mb c d
6 250 mm 1 2(19 mm)
5 2
5 5 133.8 MPa
2.919 3 1024 m4
d 1 2tBC
a T ba b
6
5 0 2
τ max BC 5
IpBC
a 226 kN # mb c d
6 250 mm 1 2(16 mm)
5 2
5 5 161.1 MPa ➥
2.374 3 1024 m4
So the maximum shear stress in the pipe is just to the right of the flange
plate connection at joint B. “Just to the right of” means that we must
move an appropriate distance away from the connection to avoid any
stress concentration effects at the point of attachment of the two pipes
in accordance with St. Venant’s principle (see Section 3.12).
(c) Twist rotations φ(x). Next, we use the torque-displacement relation,
Eqs. (3-24) through (3-27), to find the variation of twist rotation φ over
the length of the pipe structure. Support A is fixed, so φA 5 φ(0) 5 0. The
internal torque from x 5 0 to x 5 2L/5 (segment 1) is constant, so we use
Eq. (3-24) to find twist rotation φ1(x) which varies linearly from x 5 0 to
x 5 2L/5:
4T0
a b(x)
T1(x)(x) 5 4T0x 2L
φ1(x) 5 5 5 0 … x … (e)
GIpAB GIpAB 5GIpAB 5
Evaluating Eq. (e) at x 5 2L/5, we find the twist rotation at the point of
application of torque 2T0 to be
4T0
T1 a ba b a ba b
2L 2L 2L
8T0L 0.32T0L
φ1 a b 5
2L 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 (f)
5 GIpAB GIpAB 25GIpAB GIpAB
Next, we find an expression for the variation of twist angle φ2(x) from
x 5 2L/5 to x 5 3L/5 (point B). As with φ1(x), twist φ2(x) varies linearly over
segment 2, because torque T2(x) is constant (Fig. 3-21). Using Eq. (3-24),
we get
T2(x) ax 2 b a T b ax 2 b
2L 26 2L
5 8T0L 5 0
φ2(x) 5 φ1 a b 1
2L 5
5 1
5 GIpAB 25GIpAB GIpAB
2T0(2L 2 3x) 2L 3L
5 … x … (g)
5GIpAB 5 5
Finally, we develop an expression for twist over segment 3 (or pipe BC ).

We see that the internal torsional moment now has a linear variation
(Fig. 3-21), so an integral form of the torque-displacement relation
[Eq. (3-27)] is required. We insert the expression for T3(x) from Eq. (d)
and add the torsional displacement at B to get a formula for the varia-
tion of twist in BC:
L5
c3T0 a 2 1b d
ζ
φ3(x) 5 φ2 a b 1
3L L
3L dζ
5 GIpBC
ζ
2T0 c2L 2 3a bd c3T0 a 2 1b d
3L x
L5
5 L
5 1 3L dζ
5GIpAB GIpBC
Torque T3(x) has a linear variation, so evaluating the integral yields a

quadratic expression for variation of twist in BC:
2LT0 3T0(21L2 2 50Lx 1 25x2) 3L

φ3(x) 5 1 … x … L (h)
25GIpAB 50GIpBC L 5
Substituting x 5 3L/5, we obtain the twist at B:
2LT0
φ3 a b 5
3L
5 25GIpAB
At x 5 L, we get the twist at C:
2LT0 6LT0 T0L

φ3(L) 5 2 5 20.215
25GIpAB 25GIpBC GIpAB
If we assume that IpAB 5 1.23 IpBC (based on the numerical properties

here), we can plot the variation of twist over the length of the pipe
structure (Fig. 3-22), noting that φmax occurs at x 5 2L/5 [see Eq. (f)].
Continues ➥
Fig 3-22 =
 8  T0 L at x = 2L/5
max  25  GIpAB
Example 3-5: Torsional 0.4
displacement diagram (TDD)
0.2
T 0L
0
GIpAB
A B C
–0.2 ϕc
–0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ζ
x distance (fraction of L)
Finally, if we restrict φmax to the allowable value of 0.58, we can solve for
the maximum permissible value of load variable T0 (kN # m) using the
numerical properties given previously:
GIpAB (81 GPa)(2.919 3 1024 m4)

T0 max 5 1φallow2 5 (0.5°)
0.32L 0.32(3m )
5 215 kN # m ➥ (i)
(d) Number of bolts required in flange plate. We now use T0,max from Eq. (i)
to find the required number of db 5 22 mm diameter bolts at radius
r 5 380 mm in the flange plate connection at B. The allowable shear
stress in the bolts is τa 5 190 MPa. We assume that each bolt carries an
(© Can Stock Photo Inc./ equal share of the torque at B, so each of n bolts carries shear force Fb
Nostalgie) at distance r from the centroid of the cross section (Fig. 3-23).
Fig. 3-23 db
Example 3-5: Flange plate Fb

bolts at B
r
d
T0
The maximum shear force Fb per bolt is τa times the bolt cross-sectional area
Ab, and the total torque at B is 6T0,max /5 (see TMD in Fig. 3-21), so we find
6 6
T (215 kN # m)
6 5 0 max 5
nFbr 5 T0 max or n 5 5
5 τaAbr
(190 MPa)c (22 mm) 2d(380 mm)
π
4
5 9.4 ➥
Use ten 22-mm diameter bolts at a radius of 380 mm in the flange plate
connection at B.

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280 Chapter 3 Torsion

3.4 NONUNIFORM TORSION

maximum stress in segment BC (Fig. 3-14) is found using the diameter of

in which IP(x) is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section at

This integral can be evaluated analytically in some cases, but usually it

Example 3-4: Steel shaft in d

TCD 5 T2 2 T1 5 450 N # m 2 275 N # m 5 175 N # m

Free-body diagrams for

••• Example 3-4 - Continued

TBC 5 2T1 5 2275 N # m

φBD 5 φBC 1 φCD

When calculating the individual angles of twist, we need the moment of

Now we can determine the angles of twist, as

TBCLBC (2275 N # m)(500 mm)

TCDLCD (175 N # m)(400 mm)

φBD 5 φBC 1 φCD 5 20.0216 1 0.0110 5 20.0106 rad 5 20.61° ➥

Fig. 3-19 Flange

(a) Nonprismatic pipe

Reaction RA is negative, which means that the reactive torsional moment

••• Example 3-5 - Continued

Next, a FBD of segment 2 of the pipe structure (Fig. 3-20b) gives

Fig. 3-20 (Continued) A 2T0 @ 2L/5 2t0 = 3T0 /L

Evaluating Eq. (d) at B and C, we see that at B we have

Fig. 3-21 A 2T0 @ 2L/5 t0 = 3T0 /L

Example 3-5: Torsional moment 4T0 /5

C [250 mm 1 2(19 mm)]4 2 (250 mm)4 D 5 2.919 3 1024 m4

C [250 mm 1 2(16 mm)]4 2 (250 mm)4 D 5 2.374 3 1024 m4

••• Example 3-5 - Continued

The shear modulus G is constant, so the torsional rigidity of AB is

Finally, we develop an expression for twist over segment 3 (or pipe BC ).

Torque T3(x) has a linear variation, so evaluating the integral yields a

2LT0 3T0(21L2 2 50Lx 1 25x2) 3L

Substituting x 5 3L/5, we obtain the twist at B:

At x 5 L, we get the twist at C:

2LT0 6LT0 T0L

If we assume that IpAB 5 1.23 IpBC (based on the numerical properties

••• Example 3-5 - Continued

GIpAB (81 GPa)(2.919 3 1024 m4)

Example 3-5: Flange plate Fb

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