Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Final Madhi
Final Madhi
Final Madhi
N.MADHIYAZHAGAN (3416040)
J.MURALIMANO (3416051)
SATHYABAMA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC
JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI,CHENNAI – 600119.
APRIL 2018
SATHYABAMA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC
JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI, CHENNAI - 600 119
www.sathyabama.ac.in
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of N.Madhiyazhagan
(3416040) and J.Muralimano (3416051) who carried out the project entitled
“Experimental Investigation of Aluminium Foam in Automobile Application”
under our supervision from September 2017 to April 2018.
Mrs.M.SANGEETHA,M.E., (Ph.D.)
Internal Guide
Dr.S PRAKASH,M.E.,Ph.D.
Head of department
ii
DECLARATION
DATE : 1.
PLACE : 2.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere and deep sense of gratitude to our Project
Guide Mrs.M.Sangeetha M.E.,(Ph.D.) for her valuable guidance, suggestions and
constant encouragement paved way for the successful completion of our project
work.
We wish to express our thanks to all Teaching and Non-teaching staff members of
the Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering who were helpful in
many ways for the completion of our project.
iv
ABSTRACT
The Aluminium alloy foam is a new class of material with low density, better
corrosion, wear resistance and low thermal expansion. Their applications are in
lightweight structural components, shock or sound absorbing products, aeroplanes
and ships. The foam agents used in this process are calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate powder. The composite aluminium foam structure is
fabricated by bottom pouring stir casting furnace through melting route. The
specimen is examined, tested and readings are noted. Comparison is made on to
different composition of aluminium foam structure with aluminium alloy structure.
The results show the energy absorption capability of the foam structures is much
greater than the energy absorbed by aluminium structure. The main aim of this
project is to reduce the density and cost of the metals and produce higher foaming
by adding both the blowing agents. These foaming materials are applied in
structures and supportive columns of buildings.
The results show that the fabricated component has a lower density
than aluminium 6061 and cost of the substance has been reduced.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES x
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 LITERATURE SURVEY 1
2. AIM 5
2.1 AIM 5
2.2 SCOPE 5
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 7
3.1 METHODOLOGY 7
3.2 MATERIALS 8
3.2.1 Aluminium foam 8
3.2.2 Aluminium 6061-T6 Metal 8
3.2.3 Chemical Composition of Al 6061-T6 9
3.2.4 Key properties of Aluminium 6061-T6 10
3.2.5 Uses of Aluminium 6061 in industries 10
3.2.6 Stochastic or Reticulated Foam 11
3.2.7 Regular Stacked Cell Foam 11
3.2.8 Uses of Aluminium Foam 12
3.2.9 Applications of Aluminium Foam 12
3.2.10 Calcium carbonate 12
3.2.11 Degasser 13
3.2.12Degasser Applications 14
3.2.13 Magnesium Carbonate 14
3.2.14 Uses of Magnesium Carbonate 15
3.3 METHODS OF PRODUCTION 15
vi
3.3.1 Foaming by blowing agents (Hydro/Alcan) 15
3.3.2 Foaming by gas entrapment (Alporas) 15
3.3.3 Solid-Gas Eutectic Solidification (Gasar) 16
3.3.4 Foaming by powder metallurgy 17
3.3.5 Challenges in Producing Aluminium Foam 17
3.3.6 Casting Process 17
3.3.7 Different Types of Casting Process 18
3.4 STIR CASTING PROCESS 18
3.5 PROCESS PARAMETERS 19
3.5.1 Stirrer Design 19
3.5.2 Stirrer Speed 20
3.5.3 Stirring Temperature 20
3.5.4 Stirring Time 21
3.6 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 21
REFERENCES 47
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
viii
Angle from One Another
ix
LIST OF TABLES
x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Cellular materials are widespread in everyday life and are used for
cushioning, insulating, damping, constructing, filtering purposes and many other
applications. Highly porous materials are also known to have a high stiffness
combined with a very low specific weight. These metallic foams are beneficial in
many ways in our day to day life since the have low density than their parent element
from which they are made of. The metallic foams have more vibration absorption
characteristics than their parent element. Metal foams have a vast range of
porosities (micron-centimetre). The component can have very sophisticated porosity
levels which can be understood from the following project which has been conducted
on aluminium alloy.
1
Karthikeyan.et al (2015) observed the Fabricated and Shear Strength of
Aluminium Foam Sandwich Structure, the results infer that the Calcium Carbonates
(CaCo3) Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) can be used as foaming agents.
.Ashby et.al (2017) made a clear study on how the metal foams are made
and clearly depicted the ideas for foaming a metal in “Metal Foams: A Design
Guide”.
Francesco Franco et.al (2007) have found that the modelling of aluminium
metal foams have different variations and explained its uses in their journal
“Modelling of aluminium foam sandwich panels”.
Antonio Fuganti et.al (2010) worked on efficiently using the aluminium foam
for automobile and succeeded in it in their journal “Aluminium foam for automotive
applications.
2
automobile,military equipment since its low weight in his paper “technical overview
of aluminum alloy foam”.
HongjieLuo .et .al (2010) Sn was added to modify the microstructure of the
foam-able precursor to be used as a foaming agent from his journal “Study on
improvement of aluminum foams by rapid foaming” and also helped in
understanding the concept of rapid foaming in detail.
3
Mohammad Esmailian et.al(2014)worked on carbonates as foaming agents
to produce the foam which lead to the idea of using Calcium Carbonates and
Magnesium Carbonates in their paper “Carbonate-Foaming Agents in Aluminum
Foams: Advantages and Perspectives”.
4
CHAPTER 2
2.1 AIM
The main aim of the project is to reduce the density of the metal foam and fabricate
the foam using aluminium 6061 commonly known as AA6061-T6, using the very low
cost foaming agents such as Calcium carbonates, Magnesium Carbonates which
are the carbonates which are used for the melting process to produce the foam. The
component obtained has got foaming in an uneven manner. Since the working of
the foaming agents is very abundant. The foam is lower density than the metal by
itself. The proportionate amount of both foaming agents must be added in a proper
way to obtain the prefect foaming of the metal to produce the metal foam.
2.2 SCOPE
The scope of the project is to produce low cost aluminium foam and the
foaming agent used here are Calcium Carbonate and Magnesium Carbonate.
The important use of this component is to make aluminium metal foam. The
metal foam can be used in many application mainly, the car body, structure,
beams.
The cost of production is foam is very high since the component produced is
process needs more accuracy and the production of the foam needs to be
very clear and highly efficient. Mainly in aerospace structures the basic
component used is titanium alloys since it is very light weight.
In metal foams, since it has air gaps in between the structure hence the
density of the component is reduced to a certain extent which leads to the
production of lightweight aluminium with high tensile strength.
In this project, a closed cell stir casting furnace used to produce combine both
the components into a mixture and produce aluminium metal foams .
5
The metallic foams can be used in aerospace and automobile component
which needs a light weight body but with high tensile strength.
Now the component has been tested for tensile strength, hardness,
compression, size of porosity of the component and microstructure of the
component have been checked and verified with industrial quality AA 6061-
T6.
The final product is produced by stir casting process and the foaming agents
are added as a component for the better functionality.
Material which has been produced can be very effectively used in many areas
for the betterment of the automobile body and structure for their excellent
vibration and sound absorption abilities of the system.
6
CHAPTER 3
3.1 METHODOLOGY
Mould
Aluminium foam casting methods
Casting
Casting with
Precursor Gas
Closed stir Continuous
Tablets
casting Casting
Porosity Microstructure
7
3.2 MATERIALS
Metal foam is a cellular structure made up of a solid metal containing a large volume
fraction of gas-filled pores. These pores can either be sealed (closed-cell foam), or
they can be an interconnected network (open-cell foam). The closed-cell foam is
referred to as metal foams, while the open-cell foam is referred to simply as porous
metal.Metal foams are potential materials for light-weight structural sandwich
panels, packing material and energy absorbing devices and they can be used in
applications such as automobile crumple zones, structural members in air and
spacecraft, and even in biomedical prosthesis. Mostly this type of aluminium foams
are manufacturing through melting route and powder metallurgy route.The metal
that is commonly used to make metal foams is aluminium.
Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used of the 6000 series
aluminium alloys. It is a versatile heat treatable extruded alloy with medium to high
strength capabilities. Aluminium 6061 is a precipitation-hardened aluminium alloy,
containing magnesium and silicon as its major alloying elements. Originally called
"Alloy 61S", it was developed in 1935. It has good mechanical properties, exhibits
good weldability, and is very commonly extruded It is one of the most common alloys
of aluminium for general-purpose use. According to the given content in references
papers the aluminium 6061 is mostly used for making metal foams with low density
and high porosity.
8
better efficiency. The aluminium foam needs to have porosity and this porosity is
produced by blowing agents to continuously produce gases in the material.
Fig 3.2(a) Aluminium block Fig 3.2(b)cut into small pieces for melting
9
3.2.4 Key properties of Aluminium 6061-T6
Typical properties of aluminium alloy 6061 are medium to high strength, Good
toughness, Good surface finish, Excellent corrosion resistance to atmospheric
conditions, Good corrosion resistance to sea water, it can be easily anodized, Good
weld ability , braze ability and workability, the material is easily available in
abundance in the market.
Density 2.7gm/cc
10
Table 3.3Thermal Properties of Aluminium 6061-T6
11
3.2.7 Regular Stacked Cell Foam
This regular, stacked cell foam has evenly- spaced, open pores, defined as
tetra-kaidecahedrons, which are polygons with 14 faces - 8 hexagonal and 6 square.
It can be imagined as a 3D honeycomb. Sand casting is used to manufacture the
foam and as such the exact form of the foam can be determined before its
manufacture, and is repeatable in series: each manufactured piece will be identical
and will therefore have exactly the same behaviour.
Impact absorption, Heat sinks and exchangers, Matrix for chemical beds and
scrubbers, Filters and mist elimination of water and oils, Core structure for high
strength panels, Battery plates and spacers, Weight reducing components in aircraft
or automotive applications, Catalyst surface.
In this project, Calcium Carbonate has been used as foaming agent since it
does not react with aluminium 6061 at any condition and hence the calcium
carbonate decomposes to form.
This reaction occurs when the foaming agent has been added to the component
when the material is at a melting point about 680°C and the decomposition occurs
and the Calcium oxide is formed which are found in the porosities of the component
and the component produces pores due to the release of Carbon di oxide (CO 2)
which produces the foaming or porosities in the component.
3.2.11 Degasser
Degasser is a tablet chemical addition in tablet form used in the degassing of
molten aluminium. Degasser improves mechanical properties; improves castability;
eliminates hydrogen gas porosity and removes non-metallics; eliminates hard spots;
13
and improves machineability. Because it is in tablet form, expensive equipment is
not required. All that is needed is a simple plunging tool.
3.2.12.Degasser Applications
Use only clean and preheated plunging tools. Moist tools can cause a metal
explosion. Melt down the charge under a layer of flux to reduce oxidation and help
reduce inclusions. When the temperature is below 1400°F and falling, the surface
dross should be pulled to one side. Plunge the required quantity of degasser slowly
to the bottom of the melt using a preheated plungers.
14
3.2.14 Uses of Magnesium Carbonate
15
.
16
3.3.4 Foaming by Powder Metallurgy
Foamed metals can be also be prepared from metal powders. The production
process begins with the mixing of metal powders-elementary metal powders, alloy
powders, or metal powder blends-with a blowing agent, after which the mix is
compacted to yield a dense, semi-finished product. The compaction can be
achieved using any technique in which the blowing agent is embedded into the metal
matrix without any notable residual open porosity. Examples of such compaction
methods are uniaxial or isostatic compression, rod extrusion, or powder rolling. The
precursor has to be manufactured very carefully because residual porosity or other
defects will lead to poor results in further processing. The next step is heat treatment
at temperatures near the melting point of the matrix material. The blowing agent,
which is homogeneously distributed within the dense metallic matrix, decomposes
and the released gas forces the melting precursor material to expand, forming its
highly porous structure.
Metal is heated until it becomes liquid and is then poured into a mould. The
mould is a hollow cavity that includes the desired shape, but the mould also includes
runners and risers that enable the metal to fill the mould. The mould and the metal
are then cooled until the metal solidifies. The solidified part (the casting) is then
recovered from the mould. Subsequent operations remove excess material caused
by the casting process.
18
Fig.3.7 Closed Gas Furnace in with a Stir Casting Setup
19
are required for uniform distribution of reinforcement in liquid metal, perfect uniform
porosity and to increase the amount of pores..
Electrical motor
20
3.5.4 Stirring Time
21
For Magnesium carbonate
This carbon di oxide released has to escape out of the structure. Now the
casted alloy looks like the reduced temperature. The experiment was carried out in
the production laboratory of Velammal engineering college and the stir casting
furnace has been used in this process to produce the casted metal foam which
requires a high level of working to be done. The work was assisted by Mr.Murugan.
The furnace is cleaned thoroughly by using the necessary tools required for
clearing the residue of the before conducted experiment. The furnace cup (or
flask), pneumatic holder, mould in which the aluminium is going to be casted
is cleaned thoroughly.
Now the cleaned furnace cup is paint with a coating of silicone lime paste to
stop the component from sticking to the walls of the furnace and then the
furnace cup is allowed to cool for about minimum of 45 minutes.
Then the stirrer mechanism is totally checked for any kind of flaws on the
structure. The electric motor is checked before the process starts.
Now the furnace is turned on and the thermostat is set to 750°C. The stirrer,
pneumatic holder, mould are also coated with a fine thin layer of silicone lime
paste.
The furnace cup is placed in the furnace position to after the furnace reaches
120°C. The mould is preheated at about 300°C to solidify the paste on the
surface.
After about 6-12 minutes the furnace reaches to a temperature of 400°C then
the aluminium is introduced in the furnace flask so that the aluminium melts
when the temperature in the furnace cup is increased. This whole process is
done in closed condition so that the gases does not escape out of the system.
22
Then, the metals melts at about 750°C (15-20 minutes), molten metal is ready
for stirring, the calculated AA6061-T6 that is 566.35 grams in one mould.
The stirrer is fitted with the electrical motor and the fitted motor is turned on.
Now the foaming agents are added in a closed atmosphere this helps in the
better foaming of the component.
After the whole amount of the foaming agent (CaCO3 and MgCO3) is added
to the molten liquid then it is stirred for about 45 seconds for equal distribution
of the foaming throughout the content.
The pneumatic holder is released after the mould has been placed in the
position and now the component is allowed to cool and the mould is closed
tight.
CHAPTER 4
23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The final component has the very good porosity structures on the surface of
the casted metal as seen in the made composite. The component has lowered
density than that of aluminium 6061-T6 but by a very small fraction. The following
component is shown in the figure 4.1.
Composition
AA6061-89%
CaCO3-5%
MgCO3-6%
Composition
AA6061-90%
CaCO3-5%
MgCO3-4%
24
4.2 MESUREMENT OF POROSITY
Here, we have attained a very light amount of foaming that occurred due to
the act of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate diffusing into the component
as Calcium oxide and magnesium oxide which have been deposited in the air gap
which leads to the foaming of the component. The resulting structures have been
examined according to their wt%. The component M1 has 6%of calcium carbonate
and 5% magnesium carbonate and the rest of the wt% is AA 6061. The component
has a very minor foaming since the CaO and MgO have been deposited on the
structure and the components analysis have been done.
The porosity of the component is the air gap or the air pockets which are
present in the final component which leads to the lowering the density of the
component and this helps in the better elasticity of the final product. The product is
made with uneven porosities which leads to a very high internal strength of the
component.
25
Fig4.2(a) fig 4.2(b)
26
Fig 4.3(A) Fig 4.3 (B)
From the above results,33.3 microns, 31.9microns, 18.05 microns, 19.54microns and
less than 10 microns of porosity values are obtained. It is revealed that we can attain
uniform porosity by using the calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate together.In the
above sample degasser was not used to reduce the slag (Aluminium oxide formation) that
will be formed on the top surface due to the reaction of aluminium with atmospheric oxygen.
27
The visible level porosity on the interior of the casted structure is seen on the
above shows that there are micron level porosities that are uniform. But under a
microscope structure the porosity is not uniform.
In this casted component the amount of foaming done on the very low due to
the addition of degassersince the degasser produces outlet to allow the carbon
dioxide coming in the component more easier produces less foaming than the
previous sample here we have obtained. The component has lower value of
Porosity than that of the previous sample it has got an average of 5-4 microns
per unit area of the sample.
28
Fig 4.5 (A) Fig 4.5 (B)
Fig 4.5(A) & (B) Porosity Structure of Sample 2 with Very Less Porosity
Photo-1: less than 5 microns- 2 Nos. Photo-2: less than 3 microns Nos.
From the below figures we can infer that the porosities have been filled with Cao
Residues and the component has a CaO deposition on the surface layer and the
microstructural analysis has a revealed that the CaO did not get burned in the
structural analysis of the structure. The foaming agent decomposed and occupy
the grain boundaries.
29
Fig 4.6 Microstructure of Sample 1 (100X)
In these results show the porosity have been foamed successfully and the
casting has been successful. The air holes are not empty in the case of this sample
M-3. The micro structures have been done on de-wintor inverted trinocular
metallurgical microscope. The magnification has been done for 100 X level and 200x
level. In the photo-3 we can observe that the porosities have been maintained to a
similar level hence this foam can be produced by a following foaming agents (CaCO 3
and MgCO3) at a much lower cost and the material has a good amount of porosities.
Photo-1 & 2: Shows the microstructure of AA 6061 with addition of foaming agent.
30
Fig.4.7 Microstructure of sample 1(200X)
31
Fig.4.8(a) Microstructure of Sample 2 with Foaming Agent
Figure 4.8 (a) Shows the microstructure of AA 6061 with addition of foaming agent.
The foaming agent decomposed and occupies the grain boundaries.
Figure 4.8 (b) Shows the resolved grain boundaries in which the residue of the
foaming agent retained the space and settled at the grain boundaries. The residues
are the oxides of the foaming agent. The grain boundaries are resolved and the
deposits are observed. Figure 4.8 (b) shows the macro porosities without the
presence of deposits at the grain boundaries.
32
refusal of brittle non metallic and other materials that have very low strength in
tension like concrete, wood, masonry, etc
Friction between the machine (figure 4.9) head and the sample effects the results
causing stresses to have a small inclination. Bearing blocks are used to ensure the
load is applied to the specimen. Spherical loading heads are used to avoid applying
the load at a single point if the loading surfaces are at a small angle.Testing load
range for the compressive machine is Maximum of 5 Tons. The Make of this
machine is Associated Scientific Engineering Works, New Delhi. Gear rotation
speed (for gradual loading): for this machine is 1.25. 1.5 & 2.5 mm /min.
33
usually shortened in the direction of the applied forces and expands in the direction
perpendicular to the force. A compression test is essentially the opposite of the more
common tension test.
The compression test results shows that the maximum load on the structure more
than normal AA6061 (17.66KN) which is 19.05 KN which for sample M-2 and the
elongation of the material is improved in negative because it is a compressive load
34
acting on a unit area of 10mm diameter and 40mm length.
Sample 1
The structure shows deformation after the effect of
working under high pressure and this component is
permanently bent due to sustained pressure that
had been occurring on the top portion of the metal
foam piece.
Sample 2
The resultant component is given and this shows
that there is lot of cracking on the surface of the
material which leads to a lot of cracking on the
surface of the material.
.
36
4.5.1 Results For Tensile Strength
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine
and slowly extending it until it fractures. During this process, the elongation of the
gauge section is recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that
it is not specific to the geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is
used to calculate the engineering strain, ε, using the following equation:
Where ΔL is the change in gauge length, L0 is the initial gauge length, and L is the
final length. The force measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress, σ,
where F is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen. The
machine does these calculations as the force increases, so that the data points can
be graphed into a stress–strain curve.
The tensile test results shows that the tensile strength of the foam component has
a little more tensile strength than the base component that has been produced.
The base metal has a very high quality AA6061 metal which has very good tensile
strength has now been added to a very good amount of the structural strength of
the material and the product has got a good tensile strength that has been shown
in the given stress-strain graph from the results.The tensile strength at break is the
tensile stress at the moment at which a test specimen tears. Like elongation at
break, this is also determined by tensile testing.
37
Fig 4.14 Result Graph of Tensile Strength(Sample 1: Stress-Strain Curve of
AA 6061 Foam)
38
The tensile strength of the sample 1 is found to be 87.68 MPa according to the given
data from the laboratory and the elongation is positive which infers that the
component has elasticity and the foam component is elastic in nature and this can
used in automobile and various application for absorbing the energy on the
component. The maximum strain applied on the component is 33.8 joules which
leads to the breakage of the component. The comparative study of the component
has been done to see whether the component has the same flexibility as that of
AA6061 the base metal.
39
The tensile test results infer that the component has the same tensile strength that
is close to the 80 Mpa which shows that the as a whole the tensile test results have
proved that the tensile strength of the component varies with the variation in the
percentage of the foaming agent this shows that the component has better foaming
agents than other low costing foaming agents.
40
Fig.4.16 Hardness Testing Machine
Fig.4.17 Opposing Indenter Faces are Set At 136 Degree Angle from One
Another
41
samples must be highly polished to enable measuring the size of the impressions.
A square base pyramid shaped diamond is used for testing in the Rockwell scale.
The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a
standardized high strain-rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed
42
by a material during fracture. The purpose of impact testing is to measure an
object's ability to resist high-rate loading. It is usually thought of in terms of two
objects striking each other at high relative speeds.
Fig.4.19CharphyImpact Tester
Sample ID Joules
Sample 1 8.9
Sample 2 4.3
The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch
sensitivity of engineering materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of metals,
but similar tests are used for polymers, ceramics and composites.
Metal industry sectors include Oil and Gas, Aerospace, Power Generation,
Automotive, and Nuclear.
43
The notched test specimen is broken by the impact of a heavy pendulum or
hammer, falling at a predetermined velocity through a fixed distance. The test
measures the energy absorbed by the fractured specimen. Impact testing is used to
determine material behavior at higher deformation speeds.
The sample one shows a perfect foam structure on the inside structure of the given
component which leads to the macrostructural information of the given component
which show the strength of the fabricate specimen. The similar results are been
done on the functionality of the sample 2 as well and there is very little variation in
the other sample.
44
and this shows that both the components have almost similar amount of density but
it is a very tiny level.
This infers that the density of the component has been successfully reduced
to a certain level. This is very helpful to understand that the component can be used
in automobile application and other locomotives.
45
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
From the result we can understand that the component has better wear
resistance and the porosity has been attained non uniformly on the inner surface of
the system and the component has a good tensile comparatively and the density of
fabricated component is reduced this shows that the component can be used in
automobile applications, beams in constructions. The usage of magnesium
carbonate and calcium carbonate using as foaming agents has resulted in uneven
foaming of the component and the component is produced to form a very good
quality lower density AA6061-T6
46
REFERENCES
[2] Ashby.M.F, Evans.A, Metal foams-a design guide, Vol.97, pp. 89-118.
[6] HongjieLuo, Hao Lin, Zhihui Zhao, Yihan Liu, Guangchun Yao“Preparation of
aluminum foam sandwich reinforced by steel sheets”, 8th International
Conference on Porous Metals and Metallic Foams, Metfoam 2013; Procedia
Materials Science, Vol. 4, pp.39-43, (2014).
[8] Jeon, Y. P., Kang, C. G. & Lee, S. M. “Effect of cell size on compression and
bending strength of aluminium-foamed material by complex stirring in
induction heating. J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 209, No. 1, pp. 435–444,
(2009).
[12] Mu, Y., Yao, G., Liang, L., Luo, H. &Zu, G. “Deformation mechanisms of
closed cell aluminium foam in compression”, Scr. Mater., Vol. 63, No. 6, pp.
629–632, (2010).
[13] Nieh, T. G., Higashi, K. & Wadsworth, J. “Effect of cell morphology on the
compressive properties of open cell aluminium foams”, Mater. Sci. Eng. A,
Vol. 283, No. 1–2, pp. 105–110, (2000).
48