Civil Engineering Department

M.E. (Civil Engineering.)

Name of the subject

1. Pavement Materials

Learning material of 2nd Semester

 Contributors
Writer
1. CEB-660PavementMaterials
Dr. Amit Goel

Vetting

1. Prof. K.C. Gupta

 1. Name 2.
Name

PAVEMENT MATERIALS

CEB-660

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROGRAM NAME:- M.E. CIVIL

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 OUTCOMES OF THE SUBJECT

1. Students will be able to know about strength parameters like CBR,K,Eetc of

sub grade and other layers of pavements.
2. Students will be able to know about types of bitumen ,tar and other binders
used in flexible4 pavements..
3. Students will be able to design Know about properties of concrete and
judicious selection of materials for rigid pavements,.

4
 Scheme Pavement Materials L T P C
Version ME transportation engineering 4 0 0 4

Subject Basics of highway materials Total hours =60

Code Objectives
To know different types of materials , their classification and understand the
CEB -660 application of materials in the mix design

Subject Outcome
1 Students will understand the different properties of aggregates and design of
aggregate gradation
2 Students will understand the different properties of bitumen and design of bituminous
mix
3 Students will understand design of emulsified mix and different concrete mix design

Unit -1
Pavement Materials- Sub grade functions, Importance of sub grade soil properties on pavement
performance. Identification and significance of soil characteristics, Soil classification, compaction
.strength determination of soil-CBR, plate load, resilient modulus..Road making aggregates –
Classification, Properties of aggregates, design of aggregate ,gradation. Tests on aggregates –
shape,Water absorption, specific gravity, Crushing value,Impact,Abrasion,Soundness,PSV,Texture depth.

Unit -2

Bituminous road binders – Straight- run bitumen, tar, emulsions, Cutback and modified binder
Desirable properties of bitumen. Tests on bituminous binders-Penetration test ,softening point,
ductility, viscosity,float test ,solubility, distillation, spot, specific gravity. Additives and their suitability,
Design of Bituminous mixes-Marshall method and super paves procedure. Volumetric analysis of
bituminous mix-VMA, VFB, specific gravity of combined aggregate & bituminous mix. Stiffness modulus
and fatigue life. Resilient modulus of Bituminous mix.

Unit -3
Design of cement concrete mixes-Cement, Properties of cement,.chemical composition of
cement,gradation,admixtures,accelerators,retarders,Properties of fresh concrete,Tests on hardened
concrete, Requirements of paving concrete, design of mixes – IRC, absolute volume, Road Note No.4,

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 Vibrated Concrete mix design, design of DLC and SFRC mixes, Soil stabilization techniques,ACI
method,Minimum void method.

Text books
1 Krebs and walker-Highway materials, McGraw Hill B ook Co. 1971
2 Sharma S.K. Principles, practice and design of Highway Engg 2010
3 Kadiyali, L.R., ’Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering 2006
4 Bindra, S.P, “ A course in Highway Engineering.”
5 Srinivasa kumar,”A textbook of Highway Engineering”

Reference
1. Relevant IRC and MORT&H codes and guidelines
2. Kadiyali, L.R., ’Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering 2006

Subject to Program outcome Relationship

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Department Civil Engineering

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 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

1. Pavement Management System: A Pavement Management System is a set

of defined procedures for collecting, analyzing, maintaining, and reporting pavement data, to
assist the decision makers in finding optimum strategies for maintaining pavements in serviceable
condition over a given period of time for the least cost.
2. Pavement Maintenance: Pavement management is the process of planning
themaintenance and repair of a network of roadways or other paved facilities in order to
optimize pavementconditions over the entire network. It is also applied to airport
runways and ocean freight terminals.
3. Pavement Roughness:is generally defined as an expression of irregularities in
the pavement surface that adversely affect the ride quality of a vehicle (and thus the user).
4. Serviceability:the PSR was a ride quality rating that required a panel of observers to
actually ride in an automobile over the pavement in question. ...Pavement performance
can then be defined as theserviceability trend of a … (pavement segment) with increasing
number of axle applications.
5. Pavement Deflection:Pavement surface deflectionmeasurements are the
primary means of evaluating a flexible pavement structure and rigid pavement load
transfer.
6. Skid Resistance:is defined as the frictionalresistance at the interface between a
vehicletyre and the road surface. A rough contact between the road and the tyres makes it
possible to utilize the friction forces in braking.
7. Rut:A rut is a depression or groove worn into a road or path by the travel of wheels or
skis. Ruts can be formed by wear, as from studded snow tires common in cold climate

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 areas, or they can form through the deformation of the asphalt concrete pavement or sub-
base material.
8. WBM Roads:The pavement base course made of crushed or broken aggregates
mechanically interlocked by rolling and voids filled by screening and binding material
with the assistance of water.
9. Bituminous Road: A bituminous road is an asphalt concrete road, although it is rarely
called a bituminous road where I come from. Bitumen is by definition any of various
natural substances, such as asphalt, consisting of mainly hydrocarbons. Asphalt concrete
is the end product that you see on a bitumen road.
10. Cement Concrete Road:Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sub-
layer with an asphalt. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than
in new construction. Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to
restore a smooth wearing surface.
11. Tack Coat:a thin coating of tar or asphalt applied before a road is laid to form an
adhesive bond.
12. Bituminous macadam:a pavement constructed by spreading two or more layers of
crushed stone on a suitable base and pouring abituminous binder on each.
13. Penetration Macadam:Screened gravel or crushed stone aggregate, bound by
bituminous grouting, the binder being introduced after compaction of the aggregate.
14. Built Up spray grout:This technique consists of two layer composite construction of
crushed coarse aggregate with application of bituminous binder after each layer and
aggregate on the tope of second layer. It is quite useful for strengthening of existing
bituminous road surfaces.
15. Seal coat:a final coat of bituminous material applied during construction to a bituminous
macadam or concrete for sealing the surface of the pavement.

Topic:Subgrade and its properties

1Subgrade:

is the native material underneath a constructed road, pavement or railway (US: railroad) track. It
is also called formation level. The term can also refer to imported material that has been used to
build an embankment.
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Subgrade is that portion of the earth roadbed which after having been constructed to reasonably close
conformance with the lines, grades, and cross-sections indicated on the plans, receives the base or
surface material. In a fill section, the subgrade is the top of the embankment or the fill. In a cut section
the subgrade is the bottom of the cut (Figure 1). The subgrade supports the sub base and/or the
pavement section. To ensure a stable, long-lasting, and maintenance free roadway, the subgrade is
required to be constructed using certain proven procedures that provide satisfactory results. After the
rough grading is completed, the fine grade stakes are set and the final processing of the subgrade may
begin. The rough grade is the top grade of the embankment as built using the information provided on
the grade sheets. The grade is normally within 2 in. at this point. The finish grading operation consists of
trimming the excess material down to the final grade. Filling any low spots with thin lifts of materials
tends to slide these lifts around if not properly worked into the underlying materials.

The subgrade is constructed uniformly transversely across the width of the pavement including
2 ft outside the edge of shoulders or curbs, unless indicated otherwise on the plans.

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Desirable properties
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are

• Stability

• Incompressibility

• Permanency of strength

• Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground
water

• Good drainage, and

• Ease of compaction

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11
Topic: Different types of soil

Types of soil:
The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it
obligatory on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. A survey
of locally available materials and soil types conducted in India revealed wide variety of soil
types, gravel, moorum and naturally occurring soft aggregates, which can be used in road
construction. Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Moorum / red soil,
Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil.

Figure-2: Indian standard grain size soil classification system

Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines
contributing to cohesion of materials.

Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually
these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.

Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, and exhibit little cohesion.
When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a shiny surface
makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific property of such soil.

Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and show
no dilatancy. Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage
properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not
observed for silts.

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13
Topic : Classification of soil and index and

Classification of soil

It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the
various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an
engineering context, so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret.

It is important to distinguish between description and classification:

Description of soil is a statement that describes the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a
description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at by using visual examination, simple tests,
observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.

Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be
based mainly on mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil
belongs can be used in its description.

The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow useful
comparisons to be made between different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant criteria for
classifying soils are the size distribution of particles and the plasticity of the soil.

1. Classification Based on Grain Size

The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very large: from boulders with dimension of
over 300 mm down to clay particles that are less than 0.002 mm. Some clays contain
particles less than 0.001 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water.

In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), soils are classified into groups
according to size, and the groups are further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups.
The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder, cobble, gravel,
sand, silt or clay.

Very coarse soils Boulder size   > 300 mm

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 Cobble size   80 - 300 mm
Coarse soils Gravel size (G) Coarse 20 - 80 mm
Fine 4.75 - 20 mm
Sand size (S) Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm
Medium 0.425 - 2 mm
Fine 0.075 - 0.425 mm
Fine soils Silt size (M)   0.002 - 0.075 mm
Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm
Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and C respectively.

Physical weathering produces very coarse and coarse soils. Chemical weathering produce generally
fine soils. 

Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the soil material by weight has particle
sizes greater than
0.075 mm. They are basically divided into either gravels (G) or sands (S).

2 .According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P).
If fine soils are present, they are grouped as containing silt fines (M) or as containing clay fines (C).

For example, the combined symbol SW refers to well-graded sand with no fines.

Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid in establishing its identity and
description. Some typical grading curves are shown.

Curve A - a poorly-graded medium SAND 

Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having equal amounts of gravel and sand) 

Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND 

Curve D - a sandy SILT 

Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand) 

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Prev  Next
Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle
sizes less than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which
water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.

Index properties:

A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity index (IP), is
provided in ISSCS to aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP = 0.73
(WL - 20).

Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C), silts (M),
or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a percentage of the mass
of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.Three
divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows.

WL< 35%
Low plasticity

Intermediate plasticity 35% < WL< 50%

High plasticity WL> 50%

The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% separate the soils into various
classes.

For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high plasticity. 

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 3.Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:

Group Symbol Classification

Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND
 
Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity
 
CL CLAY of low plasticity
CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity
 
OL Organic soil of low plasticity
OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity
 
Pt Peat

Clayey soils" necessarily do not consist of 100% clay size particles. The proportion of clay mineral
flakes (< 0.002 mm size) in a fine soil increases its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in
water content. This is called the activityof the clayey soil, and it represents the degree of plasticity
related to the clay content.

Activity = (PIasticity index) /(% clay particles by weight)

Classification as per activity is:

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 Activity  Classification

< 0.75 Inactive 

0.75 - 1.25 Normal 

> 1.25 Active

Liquidity Index
In fine soils, especially with clay size content, the existing state is dependent on the current water
content (w) with respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index
(LI) provides a quantitative measure of the present state.

Classification as per liquidity index is:

Liquidity index  Classification

>1 Liquid

0.75 - 1.00 Very soft

0.50 - 0.75 Soft

0.25 - 0. 50  Medium stiff

0 - 0.25 Stiff

<0 Semi-solid

Visual Classification
Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to identification in the
field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:

SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.

SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands.

CLAY particles are sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed off
hands

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Example :The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained soil:
       WL= 48% ; WP = 26%
      Clay content = 55%
      Silt content = 35%
      Sand content = 10%
      In situ moisture content = 39% = w

Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index 

Solution:

Plasticity index, IP = WL– WP = 48 – 26 = 22%

Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.

According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay of intermediate plasticity.

Liquidity index ,   =   = 0.59 

The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency. 

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Topic :introduction to Different test to evaluate the soil properties

Different laboratory and in-situ test procedures for evaluating the soil properties of soil:

In-situ shear strength tests

 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
 Vane Shear Test (VST)
 Dilatometer Test (DMT)
 Pressure meter Test (PMT)
 Settlement test
 Plate Load Test

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 Topic :SPT Test no: 4

Standard penetration testThe standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DCPT and
SCPT are carried out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to
penetration by a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations between penetration resistance and soil
properties are available for use in foundation design.
This is the most extensively used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon sampler, which consists of a
driving shoe, a split-barrel of circular cross-section which is longitudinally split into two parts and a
coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard for carrying out the test.

Procedure
 The borehole is advanced to the required depth and the bottom cleaned.

 The split-spoon sampler, attached to standard drill rods of required length is lowered into

the borehole and rested at the bottom.

 The split-spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450mm by blows of a drop

hammer (monkey) of 65 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of 750 mm.

 The number of blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving the

sampler.

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 The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together and

recorded as the N value at that particular depth of the borehole.

 The number of blows required to effect the first 150mm of penetration, called the seating

drive, is disregarded.

 The split-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods.

 The split-barrel is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling.

 The soil sample collected inside the split barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the

natural moisture content and transported to the laboratory for tests.

 Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of the SPT, the

liner containing the soil sample is sealed with molten wax at both its ends before it is taken

away to the laboratory.

The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole. This can be increased to
1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be
possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the N value can be
recorded for the first 300 mm penetration. The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if
50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration 100 blows are required for 300m
penetration 10 successive blows produce no advance.

Precautions

 The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent condition.
 The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free from wear
and tear.
 The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free, frictionless and
vertical. The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change from this will seriously affect the
N value.

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  The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out.

 If this is not done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the
undisturbed soil

When a casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured that the casing is driven just short of the level at
which the SPT is to be carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried out in a soil plug enclosed at the
bottom of the casing.
When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured that the water
level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above the ground water level. If the water level in the
borehole is lower than the ground water level, ‘quick' condition may develop in the soil and very low N
values may be recorded.
In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is still extensively used because the test is simple and relatively
economical. it is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for visual inspection in the
field and for natural moisture content and classification tests in the laboratory.
SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used in empirical
correlations and design charts. IS: 2131-1981 recommends that the field value of N be corrected for two
effects, namely,
(a) effect of overburden pressure, and
(b) effect of dilatancy.

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a. Correction for overburden pressure
Several investigators have found that the penetration resistance or the N value in a
granular soil is influenced by the overburden pressure. Of two granular soils possessing
the same relative density but having different confining pressures, the one with a higher
confining pressure gives a higher N value. Since the confining pressure (which is directly
proportional to the overburden pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow
depths are underestimated and the N values at larger depths are overestimated. To
allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at different effective overburden
pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.
N= CN X N’

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Topic :Static cone penetration test

Static cone penetration test:

At field SCPT is widely used of recording variation in the in-situ penetration resistance of soil in
cases where in-situ density is disturbed by boring method & SPT is unreliable below water table.
The test is very useful for soft clays, soft silts, medium sands & fine sands.

Procedure:
 By this test basically by pushing the standard cone at the rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec in to
the soil and noting the friction, the strength is determined.

 After installing the equipment as per IS-4968, part III the sounding rod is pushed
in to the soil and the driving is operated at the steady rate of 10 mm/sec
approximately so as to advance the cone only by external loading to the depth
which a cone assembly available.

 For finding combine cone friction resistance, the shearing strength of the soil qs , and tip
resistance qc is noted in gauge & added to get the total strength.

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Limitations:
This test is unsuitable for gravelly soil & soil for having SPT N value greater than 50. Also
in dense sand anchorage becomes to cumbersome & expensive & for such cases
Dynamic SPT can be used. This test is also unsuitable for field operation since erroneous
value obtained due to presence of brick bats, loose stones etc.

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27
28
 Topic :Plate load test

Plate load test

The plate load test is a semi-direct method to measure the allowable pressure of soil to induce
a given amount of settlement. Plates, round or square, varying in sizes, from 30 to 60 cm and
thickness of about 2.5 cm are employed for the test.

The load on the plate is applied by making use of a hydraulic jack. The reaction of the jack load
is taken by a cross beam or a steel truss anchored suitably at both the ends. The settlement of
the plate is measured by a set of three dial gauges of sensitivity 0.02mm placed at 120º apart.
The dial gauges are fixed to independent supports which do not get disturbed during the test.
Fig shows the arrangement for the plate load test.

Procedure:

 The method of performing the test is essentially as follows:

 Excavate a pit of size not less than 5 times the size of the plate. The bottom of the pit
coincides with level of the foundation.

29
 If water table is above the level of foundation, pump out the water carefully and it
should be kept just at the level of the foundation.
 A suitable size of the plate is selected for the test. Normally a plate of size 30cm is used
in sandy soils and bigger size in clay soils.
 The ground should be leveled and the plate is seated over the ground. A seating load of
about is first placed and released after sometime.
 A higher load is next placed on the plate and settlements are recorded by means of the
dial gauges. Observations on every load increment shall be taken until the rate of
settlement is less than 0.25mm per hour.
 Load increments shall be approximately one-fifth of the estimated safe bearing capacity
of the soil.
 The average of the settlements recorded by 2 or 3 dial gauges taken as the settlements
of the plate for each of the load increment.
 The test should continue until a total settlement of 2.5cm or the settlement at which the
soil fails, whichever is earlier, is obtained. After the load is increased, the elastic
rebound of the soil should be recorded.

30
Limitations:

 Since a plate load test is of short duration, consolidation settlements cannot be predicted.
 The test gives the value of immediate settlements only.
 If the underlying soil is sandy in nature immediate settlement can be taken as total settlement.
 If the soil is of clayey type, the immediate settlement is only a part of the total settlement.
 Load tests, therefore do not have much significance in clayey soils to determine allowable
pressure on the basis of settlement criterion.
 Plate load test results should be used with caution and the present practice is not to rely too
much on this test. If the soil is not homogenous to a great depth, plate load tests give very
misleading results.
 Plate load tests is not at all recommended in soils which are not homogenous at least to a depth
equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation.
 Plate load tests should not be relied on to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of sandy soils
as the scale effects give misleading results.

31
 However, when the tests are carried on clay soils, the ultimate bearing capacity as determined
by the test may be taken as equal to that of the foundation since the bearing capacity of clay is
essentially independent of the footing size. The plate load test is possibly the only way of
determining the allowable bearing pressures in gravelly soil deposit

32
Topic :Resilient modulus no: 7

Resilient Modulus (Mr) is a fundamental material property used to characterize unbound

pavement materials. It is a measure of material stiffness and provides a mean to analyse
stiffness of materials under different conditions, such as moisture, density and stress level.

A relationship between the modulus of subgrade reaction (k) and resilient modulus (MR) is
necessary.

Relationship between MR and k

• AASHTO Theoretical Relationship

k (pci) = MR (psi) / 19.4 k (Mpa/m) = 2.028 MR (Mpa)

• MEPDG Relationship

k (Mpa/m) = 0.296 E (Mpa)

33
Topic : DCPT

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

The aim is to determine the effort required to force a point through the soil and so obtain resistance
value which corresponds to the mechanical properties of the soil. The preliminary use is in cohesionless
soils when static penetration test is difficult to perform or dynamic properties of the soil are of special
interest.

Procedure:

The test set up shown in fig. below The standard 60 0 cone is connected to the drilling rod. The driving
head with the guide rod is connected and properly fixed on the top of the drilled rods. This complete
assembly is kept in position with the cone resting vertically on the ground where the test is to be carried
out. For the circulation of the bentonite slurry the pumping unit of the bentonite slurry is properly
connected to the guide rod through flexible tube. The cone is driven into the soil by blows of 65 Kg
hammer falling from a height of 750mm. The blow count for every 30cm penetration is made to get a
continuous record of the variation of the soil consistency with depth. The sufficient circulation of the

34
bentonite slurry is necessary for elimination of the friction on the rods. Sometimes the bentonite slurry
is not used when the investigation is required up to a depth of 6m only.

Advantages :

 The test does not need a borehole.

 It can be done quickly to cover a large area economically.
 The test helps to identify variability of subsoil profile and to locate soft pockets such as
filled up ponds.
 When DCPT is carried out close to a few boreholes, suitable corrections may be
obtained for a particular site and the number of bore holes can be reduced.

Disadvantages :

 The test is normally not suitable for cohesive soils or very loose cohesionless soils.
 It is normally not possible to evaluate the mechanical properties of the soil at great
depths when the friction along the extension rod is significant.

The resistance is correlated quantitatively to the standard penetration test value (N) by C.B.R.I.
Roorkee as
Nc = 1.5N for depths upto 4m and,
Nc = 1.75N for depths 4 to 9m.

35
Fig: Set-up for DCPT

36
Topic :CBR
California Bearing Ratiotest :
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test The CBR test was originally developed by the California Division of
Highways in the 1930s, as part of a study of pavement failures. Its purpose was to provide an
assessment of the relative stability of fine crushed rock base materials. The test has been modified
since then and extended to subgrades. It is now widely used for evaluating the stability or strength of
subgrade soil and other flexible pavement materials for pavement design throughout the world. The
CBR values obtained from either laboratory tests or in-situ (field tests) have been correlated with
flexible pavement thickness requirements for highways and airfields.

In this test, a plunger is made to penetrate the soil, which is compacted to the prevalent dry density
and moisture content anticipated in the field (or to MDD and OMC as specified) in a standard mould
(CBR 73 mould) at a specified rate of penetration. The resulting load-penetration curve is compared
with that obtained for a standard crushed rock material, which is considered an excellent base course
material. Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions of the site, the compacted specimens are
immersed in water for four days before the penetration test.

37
The soaking process is to simulate the worst moisture condition of the soil that may occur in the field.
During this period, the sample is loaded with a surcharge load that simulates the estimated weight of
pavement layers over the material tested. Any swell due to soaking is also measured. The load is
applied by cylindrical metal plunger of 50 mm diameter, the standard penetration rate used is
1.27mm/minute and readings of the applied load are taken at appropriate intervals of penetration
(0.5mm, 1.27mm(0.5”)) up to a total penetration of usually not more than 7.5 mm-12.7mm. Typical
test results are illustrated in Error! Reference source not found. It sometimes happens that the plunger
is still not perfectly bedded in the specimen and, as a result of this and other factors, a load
penetration curve with a shape similar to that of curve for Test 2 in Error!
Reference source not found. It may be obtained instead of the more normal shaped curve illustrated
by the curve for Test 1.
When this happens the curve must be corrected by drawing a tangent at the point of greatest slope
and then transposing the axis of load so that zero penetration is taken as the point where the tangent
cuts the axis of penetration (as illustrated in Error! Reference source not found.).
38
The CBR is then determined by reading off from the curve the load that causes a penetration of 2.54
mm and dividing this value by the standard load (13.34kN) required to produce the same penetration
in the standard crushed stone as:

Similarly, the CBR at 5.08 mm penetration is obtained by dividing the load causing a penetration of
5.08 mm with the standard load of 20kN required to produce the same penetration in standard
crushed stone. The CBR corresponding to 2.54mm penetration is normally greater than that at 5.08mm
pen, and is accepted as the CBR of the soil (provided that it is greater than that obtained at 5.08mm
penetration). AASHTO T193 test procedure stipulates that, if the CBR at 5.08 mm pen. is greater than
that at 2.54mm pen., the entire test should be repeated on a fresh sample. If the 5.08 mm pen. CBR in
the repeat test is still greater, then it is accepted as the CBR of the soil.

39
Apparatus is also available to carry out in situ CBR tests in the field on exposed subgrades, subbases,
and bases. Such testes can be useful in investigating pavement failures and also in examining existing
roads in good condition. Accompanied by measurements of field densities and moisture conditions,
such testing provides a useful means of building up knowledge of appropriate pavement design criteria
for local soils under the locally prevailing climatic conditions.

40
Topic: Compaction & compaction control
Definition of CompactionCompaction is the process of increasing the Bulk Density of a soil or
aggregate by driving out air. For any soil, at a given compactive effort, the density obtained depends
on the moisture content. An “Optimum Moisture Content” exists at which it will achieve a maximum
density. Compaction is the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil. The densification of
soil is achieved by reducing air void space. During compaction, air content reduces, but not water
content It is not possible to compact saturated soil. It should be noted that higher the density of soil
mass, stronger, stiffer, more durable will be the soil mass.

Hence, Compaction
1) Increases density
2) Increases strength characteristics
3) Increases load-bearing capacity
4) Decreases undesirable settlement
5) Increases stability of slopes and embankments
6) Decreases permeability
7) Reduces water seepage
8) Reduces Swelling & Shrinkage
9) Reduces frost damage

Field Compaction Control

It is extremely important to understand the factors affecting compaction in the field and to
estimate the correlation between laboratory and field compaction.
Field compaction control depends on:
(i) Placement water content
(ii) Type of equipment for compaction
(iii) Lift thickness
(iv) Number of passes based on soil type & degree of compaction desired

Placement water content is the water content at which the ground is compacted in the field. It
is desirable to compact at or close to optimum moisture content achieved in laboratory so as

41
 to increase the efficiency of compaction. However, in certain jobs the compaction is done at
lower than or higher OMC.

Compaction control in fieldthere are many variables which control the vibratory compaction or
densification of soils.
Characteristics of the compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequency and frequency range
Characteristics of the soil:
(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and shape
(3) Water content
Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed Used for rapid determination of water content of soil in field.

42
Topic:Aggregate and its classification
Aggregate:
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime,
etc.) to form compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement
concrete). By volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous
concrete and about 70 to 80 percent of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for
base and sub-base courses for both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be
natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock
formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable
sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product of other
manufacturing industries.

Classification of aggregate
Aggregates can be divided into several categories according to different criteria.
a) In accordance with size: Coarse aggregate:
Aggregates predominately retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. For mass concrete, the
maximum size can be as large as 150 mm. Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing No.4 (4.75
mm) sieve and predominately retained on the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve.

b) In accordance with sources:

Natural aggregates: This kind of aggregate is taken from natural deposits without changing their
nature during the process of production such as crushing and grinding.
Some examples in this category are sand, crushed limestone, and gravel. Manufactured (synthetic)
aggregates: This is a kind of man-made materials produced as a main product or an industrial by-
product. Some examples are blast furnace slag, lightweight aggregate (e.g. expanded perlite), and
heavy weight aggregates (e.g. iron ore or crushed steel).

c) In accordance with unit weight Light weight aggregate:

43
 The unit weight of aggregate is less than 1120 kg/m 3. The corresponding concrete has a bulk
density less than 1800 kg/m3. (Cinder, blast furnace slag, volcanic pumice).

 Normal weight aggregate: The aggregate has unit weight of 1520-1680 kg/m 3. The concrete
made with this type of aggregate has a bulk density of 2300-2400 kg/m 3.
 Heavy weight aggregate: The unit weight is greater than 2100 kg/m 3. The bulk density of the
corresponding concrete is greater than 3200 kg/m 3. A typical example is magnetite limonite, a
heavy iron ore. Heavy weight concrete is used in special structures such as radiation shields.

44
Topic: Properties of aggregate
Properties of aggregate
Moisture conditions
The moisture condition of aggregates refers to the presence of water in the pores and on the
surface of aggregates. There are four different moisture conditions:
a) Oven Dry (OD): This condition is obtained by keeping aggregates at temperature of 1100 C
for a period of time long enough to reach a constant weight.
b) Air Dry (AD): This condition is obtained by keeping aggregates under room temperature and
humidity. Pores inside the aggregate are partly filled with water.
c) Saturated Surface Dry (SSD): In this situation the pores of the aggregate are fully filled with
water and the surface is dry. This condition can be obtained by immersion in water for 24
hours following by drying of the surface with wet cloth.
d) Wet (W): The pores of the aggregate are fully filled with water and the surface of aggregate
is covered with a film of water.

45
Density and specific gravity
Definitions Density (D):
weight per unit volume (excluding the pores inside a single aggregate)
V=solid weight
D = Bulk density:
the volume includes the pores inside a single aggregate.

46
47
Unit weight:

48
49
 Topic: Blending of aggregate

Blending of Aggregates •

•Reasons for blending Reasons for blending

Obtain desirable gradation Obtain desirable gradation.

Single natural or quarried material not Single natural or quarried material not enough enough.

Economical to combine natural and Economical to combine natural and process materials.

Blending of Aggregates •

•Numerical method Numerical method

– –Trial and error Trial and error

– –Basic formula:

P = Aa Aa+ Bb + Cc + + Bb + Cc + … …. .

–Where:

• P = % of material passing a given sieve for the blended aggregates the blended aggregates.

• A, B, C, …= % material passing a given sieve for each aggregate sieve for each aggregate

•a, b, c, = Proportions (decimal fractions) of aggregates to be used in blend.

50
51
52
15: Proportioning of aggregate

Determining Combined Gradations:

Using Aggregate Proportioning Chart.

Enter on the Aggregate Proportioning Chart the average grading of the coarse and fine stockpiles, the
gradation limits and the percent proportions given by the contractor in the appropriate tables on the
right side of the form.

For aggregate A (coarse), use the percent scale shown on the left side of the chart to plot the percent
passing the 80 µm sieve.

3. For aggregate B (fine), plot on the right side of the chart the percent passing the 80 µm sieve. 4. Join
the two points with a straight line.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 above for each of the remaining sieves.

6. Plot the minimum and maximum aggregate gradation specifications on the corresponding sieve line.

7. Join the gradation specification limit points on the right side of the chart, This is usually the maximum
specification line.

8. Join the gradation specification limit points on the left side of the chart. This is usually the minimum
specification line.

9. Use the scale of the combined proportions shown at the bottom of the chart and draw a vertical line
through the chart at the given proportions.

10. Pick off the chart, the combined grading for each sieve size as follows: a) Proceed along the vertical
line to where it intercepts each sieve line. b) Then proceed horizontally to the edge of the chart and read
the combined percent passing for that sieve.

11. Record the combined grading for each sieve in the appropriate table on the right side of the chart.

Calculation Method: The gradation of the combined aggregate can also be calculated using the known
percent proportions and the average grading of the fine and coarse stockpiles. The procedure is as
follows:

1. Obtain average gradation of the fine and the coarse stockpiles using the sieve analysis results
obtained during splitting and crushing operations.

53
2. Obtain from the crushing contractor the percent split, that is, the proportion of aggregate crushed for
each pile in relation to the total material produced in both piles. ie. Total aggregate crushed = 60 000
tonnes Weight of coarse aggregate = 33 000 tonnes Weight of fine aggregate = 27 000 tonnesThe
proportions of each aggregate is calculated as follows:

6. Compare the combined gradation for each sieve size to the gradation specification limits to verify
if the combined gradation is acceptable.

54
 UNI II

16: Bitumen sources andmanufacturing

Bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be

found in natural deposits or may be a refined product; it is a substance classed as a pitch. Until
the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used. 

The primary use (70%) of asphalt/bitumen is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or
binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are
for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat
roofs.

The terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and

manufactured forms of the substance. InAmerican English, asphalt (or asphalt cement) is the
carefully refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the United
States, the product is often called bitumen. Geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common
usage often refers to various forms of asphalt/bitumen as "tar", such as at the La Brea Tar Pits.
Another archaic term for asphalt/bitumen is "pitch".

Composition

Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its
viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses, while the material obtained from the fractional
distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C (977 °F) is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen".
The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, covering
142,000 square kilometers (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England.

The components of asphalt are classified into four classes of compounds:

 saturates, saturated hydrocarbons, the % saturates correlates with softening point of the

material
 Naphthene aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic
compounds.
 Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids
 Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds
55
The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components.
Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in an overall
sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of
some petroleum.

The substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid,

with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase and "it is almost
impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of
molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large".

Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with "coal tar", which is a visually similar black,
thermoplastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-
20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and
extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of tar to macadam roads led to
the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials.
However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt/bitumen has completely
overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include
the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen
rather than tar. Pitch is another term sometimes used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen, as
in Pitch Lake.
The great majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large
amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of
asphalt/bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other
once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake
where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth,
the remains were transformed into materials such as asphalt/bitumen, kerosene, or petroleum.
Natural deposits of asphalt/bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago
and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps of asphalt/bitumen occur in the La Brea Tar
Pits and in the Dead Sea.
Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta,
Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of
the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering 142,000 square
kilometres (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England or New York State. These bituminous
sands contain 166 billion barrels (26.4×109 m3) of commercially established oil reserves, giving
Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. and produce over 2.3 million barrels per day
56
(370×103 m3/d) of heavy and synthetic crude oil. Although historically it was used without
refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used asraw material for oil refineries in
Canada and the United States.
The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands is located in
the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and
is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies attribute
the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations
occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the
Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta bitumen deposits, only parts of the Athabasca
oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced
by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage.
Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah, US. The Tar
Sand Triangle deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.
Asphalt/bitumen occurs in hydrothermal veins. An example of this is within the Unita Basin of
Utah, in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a
solid hydrocarbon termed Gilsonite. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification
of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the Green River
Formation during burial and digenesis.
Asphalt/bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites. However, detailed
studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are
believed to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly algae that
died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud,
buried deeply over the eons, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of 50
to 150 °C (120 to 300 °F). Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in south-
western Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres
into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus
forming the oil sands.

57
17: Chemistry of bitumen, bitumen structure
Chemical Components in bitumen are:

1. Asphaltenes
2. Resinous components (polar aromatics)
3. Non-polar aromatics (naphtene aromatics) and
4. Saturates

Asphaltenes are molecular substances that are found in crude oil, along with resins, aromatic
hydrocarbons, and saturates (i.e. saturated hydrocarbons such as alkanes). The word "asphaltene"
was coined by Boussingault in 1837 when he noticed that the distillationresidue of
some bitumens had asphalt-like properties. Asphaltenes in the form of asphalt or bitumen
products from oil refineries are used as paving materials on roads, shingles for roofs, and
waterproof coatings on building foundations.

Asphaltenes consist primarily of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, as well as trace

amounts of vanadium and nickel. The C:H ratio is approximately 1:1.2, depending on the
asphaltene source. Asphaltenes are defined operationally as the n-heptane (C7H16)
insoluble, toluene (C6H5CH3)soluble component of a carbonaceousmaterial such as crude
oil, bitumen, or coal. Asphaltenes have been shown to have a distribution of molecular masses in
the range of 400 u to 1500 u, but the average and maximum values are difficult to determine due
to aggregation of the molecules in solution.

Asphaltenes are today widely recognised as dispersed, chemically altered fragments of kerogen,
which migrated out of the source rock for the oil, during oil catagenesis. Asphaltenes had been
thought to be held in solution in oil by resins (similar structure and chemistry, but smaller), but
recent data shows that this is incorrect. Indeed, it has recently been suggested that asphaltenes
are nanocolloidally suspended in crude oil and in toluene solutions of sufficient concentrations.
In any event, for low surface tension liquids, such as alkanes and toluene, surfactants are not
necessary to maintain nanocolloidal suspensions of asphaltenes.

The nickel to vanadium contents of asphaltenes reflect the pH and Eh conditions of the paleo-

depositional environment of the source rock for oil, and this ratio is, therefore, in use in the
petroleum industry for oil-oil correlation and for identification of potential source rocks for oil
(oil exploration).

Resinous components (polar aromatics)

58
In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a "solid or highly viscous substance," which
are typically convertible into polymers. Such viscous substances can be plant-derived or synthetic
in origin. They are often mixtures of organic compounds.

Resins

The resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. The most
common terpenes in resin are the bicyclic terpenes alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, delta-3 carene,
and sabinene, the monocyclic terpenes limonene and terpinolene, and smaller amounts of the
tricyclic sesquiterpenes, longifolene, caryophyllene and delta-cadinene. Some resins also contain
a high proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated
by fractional distillation. Rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of
diterpenes.

Notable examples of plant resins include amber, Balm of Gilead, balsam, Canada

balsam, Boswellia, copal from trees of Protium copal and Hymenaeacourbaril, dammar
gum from trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae, Dragon's blood from the dragon trees
(Dracaena species), elemi, frankincense from Boswellia
sacra, galbanum from Ferula gummosa, gum guaiacum from the lignum vitae trees of the
genus Guaiacum, kauri gum from trees of Agathisaustralis, labdanum from mediterranean
species of Cistus, mastic (plant resin) from the mastic tree Pistacialentiscus, myrrh from shrubs
of Commiphora, sandarac resin from Tetraclinisarticulata, the national tree of
Malta, styrax (a Benzoin resin from various Styrax species), Spinifex resin from
Australian Spinifex grasses, and turpentine, distilled from pine resin. Amber is fossil resin (also
called resinite) from coniferous and other tree species. Copal, kauri gum, dammar and other
resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from
genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such
as acetone or chloroform is placed on it.

59
18: Structure of Bitumen

60
61
19: Rheology of Bitumen

The effects of temperature, pressure, dissolved carbon dioxide and shear rate on the rheological
response of bitumen are investigated by using the reduced variable method at the temperature
range of −10 °C to 180 °C and pressures up to 15 MPa. A state of the art pressure cell set-up was
utilized with a stress/strain controlled rheometer (Anton–Paar, MCR-501) to collect the
experimental data on the Athabasca bitumen–CO2mixture. The double-log model is found to be
the most accurate equation in describing the effect of temperature on the viscosity of bitumen
over a wide range of temperature while the Barus model with the temperature-dependent
parameter is found to be the most appropriate correlation to represent the effect of pressure.
Excluding the effect of overhead pressure, the Fujita–Kishimato equation, resulting from the free
volume concept modelling, is employed to account for the effect of dissolved CO 2 on the
viscosity of the bitumen–CO2 mixture more precisely. Moreover, a psuedoplastic model with a
zero-shear viscosity is more rational to consider the effect of shear rate on the flow properties of
the bituminous mixtures. The experimental conditions are carefully considered to avoid
introducing flow instabilities into the mixture. It is demonstrated that the rheological properties
of bitumen are more sensitive to the variables at lower temperatures.

The viscosity of a liquid is the property that retards flow, so when a force is applied to a liquid,
the higher the viscosity, the slower will be its movement. The viscosity of bitumen is dependent
upon both its chemical make-up and its structure. In sol-type bitumens, the asphaltene micelles
are well dispersed within the maltenes continuum. The viscosity depends on the relative amounts
of asphaltenes and maltenes, decreasing as the asphaltene content reduces. In gel-type bitumens,
where the asphaltene micelles have aggregated, the viscosity is higher and dependent upon the
extent of aggregation. The degree of dispersion of the asphaltenes is controlled by the relative
amounts of resins, aromatics and saturated oils. If there are sufficient aromatics they form a
stabilising layer around the asphaltene micelles, promoting the dispersion. However, if they are
not present in sufficient quantity the micelles will tend to join together. In practice most
bitumens are somewhere between these two states. The maltenes continuum is influenced by the
saturated oils, which have low molecular weight and consequently a low viscosity. These
saturates have little solvent power in relation to the asphaltenes, so that as the saturate fraction
increases, there is a greater tendency for the asphaltenes to aggregate to form a gel structure.
Thus a high proportion of saturates on the one hand tends to reduce viscosity because of their

62
low molecular weight, but on the other hand encourages aggregation of the asphaltene micelles,
which increases viscosity. The relative importance of these two opposing effects depends on the
stabilising influence on the asphaltenes of the aromatics.

63
20: Elastic Modulus
Elastic modulus is sometimes called Young’s modulus after Thomas Young who published the
concept back in 1807. An elastic modulus (E) can be determined for any solid material and
represents a constant ratio of stress and strain (a stiffness):

A material is elastic if it is able to return to its original shape or size immediately after being
stretched or squeezed. Almost all materials are elastic to some degree as long as the applied load
does not cause it to deform permanently. Thus, the “flexibility” of any object or structure
depends on its elastic modulus and geometric shape.

The modulus of elasticity for a material is basically the slope of its stress-strain plot within the
elastic range (as shown in Figure 1). Figure 2 shows a stress versus strain curve for steel. The
initial straight-line portion of the curve is the elastic range for the steel. If the material is loaded
to any value of stress in this part of the curve, it will return to its original shape. Thus, the
modulus of elasticity is the slope of this part of the curve and is equal to about 207,000 MPa
(30,000,000 psi) for steel. It is important to remember that a measure of a material’s modulus of
elasticity is not a measure of strength. Strength is the stress needed to break or rupture a material,
whereas elasticity is a measure of how well a material returns to its original shape and size.

64
 Nomenclature and Symbols
The nomenclature and symbols from the 1993 AASHTO Guide is generally used in referring to
pavement moduli. For example:
 EAC = asphalt concrete elastic modulus
 E BS = base course resilient modulus
 ESB = subbase course resilient modulus
 MR (or ESG) = roadbed soil (subgrade) resilient modulus (used interchangeably)

Stress Sensitivity of Moduli

Changes in stress can have a large impact on resilient modulus.

65
Typical Values
Table shows typical values of modulus of elasticity for various materials.

Elastic Modulus
 Material
MPa Psi
Diamond 1,200,000 170,000,000
Steel 200,000 30,000,000
Aluminum 70,000 10,000,000
Wood 7,000-14,000 1,000,000-2,000,000
Crushed Stone 150-300 20,000-40,000
Silty Soils 35-150 5,000-20,000
Clay Soils 35-100 5,000-15,000
Rubber 7 1,000
Typical Modulus of Elasticity Values for Various Materials

66
21: Viscoelastic Properties

Viscoelastic properties of bituminous mixtures are investigated through creep and dynamic tests.
In creep tests a cylindrical specimen is submitted to tensile or shear stresses and the deformation
of the specimen is recorded by electronic devices previously calibrated. In dynamic tests two
types of vibrations are used-

1) Transversal vibrations in which a cantilever beam is submitted on its head to a

sinusoidal load
2) Longitudinal vibrations in which a cylindrical specimen is submitted to axial
sinusoidal load.

It is found that bituminous mixtures behave linearly for small deformations, in the range of linear
behavior bituminous mixes are thermorheologically simple. Master curves have been established
for creep and modulus functions with a shifting factor following the w.l.f. equation. The
relaxation distribution spectrum is consistent with rouses theory. A rheological model and
analytical equations are proposed to represent the viscoelastic properties of bituminous concrete
in creep and dynamic tests in the range of linear behavior. Reduced curves determined for
several bituminous mixtures are proposed to represent modulus, creep and relaxation v.s.
frequency or time of freshly laid bituminous concrete. Therefore viscoelastic properties of
bituminous mixes could be described through: the instantaneous modulus /function of void
content and type of bitumen/ and its thermal susceptibility defined by the shifting factor. Finally
in situ measurements are compared with those of laboratory tests and it was found that it is
possible to predict the performance in situ from laboratory experiments.

Creep Test

A creep-testing machine measures the Creep (the tendency of a material after being subjected to

high levels of stress, e.g. high temperatures, to change its form in relation to time) of an object. It
is a device that measures the alteration of a material after it has been put through different forms
of stress. Creep machines are important to see how much strain (load) an object can handle under
pressure, so engineers and researchers are able to determine what materials to use. The device
generates a creep time-dependent curve by calculating the steady rate of creep in reference to the
time it takes for the material to change. Creep machines are primarily used by engineers to
determine the stability of a material and its behavior when it is put through ordinary stresses.

67
The main type of creep testing machine that is most commonly used is a constant load creep
testing machine.The constant load creep machine consists of a loading platform, foundation,
fixture devices and furnace. The fixture devices are the grips and pull rods.

 Load platform or sometimes called load hanger is where the object will endure pressure
at a constant rate.
 Grips are used to hold the material you are testing in a certain position. Position is
important because if the alignment is off, the machine will deliver inaccurate readings of the
creep of the material.
 Dial Gauge is used to measure the strain. It is the object that captures the movement of
the object in the machine. The load beam transfers the movement from the grip to the dial
gauge.
 Heating Chamber is what surrounds the object and maintain the temperature that the
object is subjected to.

Creep testing has three different applications in the industry:

1. Displacement-Limited applications : the size must be precise and there must be little
errors or tendency to change.This is most commonly found in turbine rotors in jet
engines.
2. Rupture Limited applications: in this application the break cannot occur to the material
but there can be various dimensions as the material goes through creep. High pressure
tubes are examples of them.
3. Stress relaxation limited application : the tension at the beginning becomes more relaxed
and the tension will continue to relax as the time goes by, such as cable wires and bolts.

Fatigue Properties

68
Fracture of an aluminium crank arm. Dark area of striations: slow crack growth. Bright granular
area: sudden fracture.

 In metal alloys, when there are no macroscopic or microscopic discontinuities, the

process starts with dislocation movements, which eventually form persistent slip bands that
become the nucleus of short cracks.
 Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities as well as component design features which
cause stress concentrations (holes, keyways, sharp changes of direction etc.) are common
locations at which the fatigue process begins.
 Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomness ( stochastic), often showing
considerable scatter even in well controlled environments.
 Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses but fatigue cracks have been reported
due to compressive loads.
 The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life.
 Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives.
 Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.
 Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish,
metallurgical microstructure, presence of oxidizingor inert chemicals, residual stresses,
scuffing contact (fretting), etc.
 Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoretical fatigue
limit below which continued loading does not lead to fatigue failure.
 High cycle fatigue strength (about 104 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress-based
parameters. A load-controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with
frequencies of around 20–50 Hz. Other sorts of machines—like resonant magnetic machines
—can also be used, to achieve frequencies up to 250 Hz.
 Low cycle fatigue (loading that typically causes failure in less than 10 4 cycles) is
associated with localized plastic behavior in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be

69
used for fatigue life prediction in metals. Testing is conducted with constant strain
amplitudes typically at 0.01–5 Hz.

70
22: Stiffness modulus of bitumen mixes using shell nomographs.

Stiffness of the bitumen used in the mix is an important parameter that affects the stiffness of the
mix directly. Van Der Poel developed one of the first stiffness prediction models for asphalt
concrete.

It is one of the most commonly used models to predict the stiffness modulus of bitumen as a
function of time of loading, the penetration index, and the temperature at which the penetration
of the bitumen is 800.

Van Der Poel also developed the following equation in order to calculate the stiffness of the
bitumen.
71
72
23: Resilient, Diametral Resilient and Complex (Dynamic) Moduli of Bituminous Mixes

Resilient Modulus The AASHTO Pavement Design Guide (1993), in addition to other revisions,
incorporated the resilient modulus (MR) concept to characterize pavement materials subjected to
moving traffic loads. MR values may be estimated directly from laboratory testing, indirectly
through correlation with other laboratory/field tests, or back calculated from deflection
measurements. The testing procedure for the determination of MR consists of the application of a
repeated deviator stress (ζd), under a constant cell pressure and then measuring the resilient axial
strain. Under repeated load tests, it is observed that as the number of load cycles increases, the
secant modulus increases. After a number of load cycles, the modulus becomes nearly constant,
and the response can be presumed to be elastic. This steady value of modulus is defined as the
resilient modulus.

The actual resilient response of a material under repeated loading can be determined after a
certain number of load applications since there would be considerable permanent deformation
within the early stages. As the number of load applications increases, the plastic strains due to
load repetition decreases. Thus, the resilient modulus for a certain sequence is determined using
the last 5 measurements out of 100 readings. The resilient modulus is defined as the ratio of the
applied deviatoric stress to the recoverable elastic vertical strain. It can be observed from the
figure that the permanent deformation rate approaches to zero with the increasing number of load
repetitions.

The resilient modulus of HMA mixtures are used to estimate layer relative strength coefficient
(a) that is used for the calculation of SN number which allows for determining layer thicknesses.

73
74
Determination of Resilient

Modulus stiffness modulus of bituminous mixes can either be measured in the laboratory or
predicted from properties of mix components, namely, aggregate and bitumen. There are a
number of well known empirical models that were developed by various researchers and relate
resilient modulus to bituminous mix properties. Since, carrying out resilient modulus tests is
difficult and the devices are very expensive, generally empirical methods are used and published
in pavement design. Both of these methods will be evaluated in the following chapters.

The resilient modulus is the elastic modulus used in the layered elastic theory for pavement
design. Hot mix asphalt is known to be a viscoelastic material and, therefore, experiences
permanent deformation after each application of load cycle. However, if the load is small
compared to the strength of the material and after a relatively large number of repetitions (100 to
200 load repetitions), the deformation after the load application is almost completely recovered.
The deformation is proportional to the applied load and since it is nearly completely recovered it
can be considered as elastic.

The resilient modulus can be performed on laboratory prepared specimens or field cores. For
consistency in design, results obtained from laboratory prepared specimens should match with
results obtained from field cores.

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24: Complex (Dynamic) Moduli of Bituminus Mixes

Complex modulus testing for asphalt mixtures is not a new concept. In 1962, Papazian was one
of the first to describe viscoelastic tests performed on asphalt mixtures. He applied a sinusoidal
stress to a cylindrical specimen at a given frequency and measured a sinusoidal strain response at
the same frequency. Tests were conducted under controlled temperature conditions at varying
load amplitudes and frequencies. He concluded that viscoelastic concepts could be applied to
asphalt pavement design and performance. Forty years after these experiments, we still are using
these concepts to develop mix design criteria and evaluate the performance of the material on the
road. Work continued in the next decade that considered compression, tension, and
tensioncompression loading. A number of studies indicated differences in |E*| obtained from
different loading conditions. The differences affect especially the phase angle and tend to
become more significant at higher test temperatures. Witczak and Root indicate that the tension-
compression test may be more representative to field loading conditions. They performed
complex modulus tests under five different modes of loading and obtained different results,
especially at high temperatures. By using a bimodular analysis technique, including the modulus
found both in tension and compression, they were able to better predict asphalt concrete behavior
under field loading conditions. Bonnaure et al. determined the complex modulus from a bending
test. In this test a trapezoidal specimen fixed at the bottom is subjected to a sinusoidal load at the
free end. The deformation is measured, and the complex modulus is calculated from the results.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s the International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories
for Materials and Structures (RILEM) Technical Committee on Bitumen and Asphalt Testing
organized an international testing program. The goal of the program was to promote and develop
mix design methodologies and associated significant measuring methods for asphalt pavements.
Complex modulus tests were performed by 15 participating laboratories in countries throughout
Europe. Measurements were made at various temperatures and frequencies, and each laboratory
used different specimen shape, testing geometry, and loading conditions. Depending on the
facility, complex modulus and/or phase angle were reported. Results showed that bending tests
and indirect tension tests were in reasonable agreement under certain conditions. The
laboratories were able to reproduce the phase angle φ much better than the modulus absolute
value |E*|. Work continued in the 1990s with the construction of Mn/ROAD. The study revealed
mixed results, showing that tests on the same material with the two different setups sometimes
yielded different results for the dynamic modulus and phase angle. The phase angle was
especially variable in both test setups. The study included a comprehensive discussion of
diametral loading, which documented the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt concrete under
haversine loading. The most comprehensive research effort started in the mid-1990s as part of
the NCHRP projects mentioned above. This research proposed new guidelines for the proper

76
specimen geometry and size, specimen preparation, testing procedure, loading pattern, and
empirical modeling. In these two projects the terminology was changed to dynamic complex
modulus. Superpave Shear Tester In addition to the traditional means of complex modulus
testing mentioned above, the modulus also can be obtained from the Superpave Shear Tester
(SST), a device used for the Repeated Shear at Constant Height Test (RSCH). The SST is a
servo-hydraulic machine capable of applying controlled vertical and horizontal loads to a
specimen 150 mm in diameter and 50 mm tall. The RSCH test (AASHTO TP7-94) consists of
applying 5,000 cycles of a 0.1-second shear load pulse followed by a 0.6-second rest period. The
axial load is varied automatically to maintain a constant specimen height. The permanent shear
deformation of the specimen after 5,000 load cycles is recorded and used in performance
predictions. Results from the Superpave Shear Tester have been shown to relate to rutting
performance. Therefore, the SST is considered a candidate for the Simple Performance Test
being developed under NCHRP Projects 9-19 and 9-29. One major drawback of this test method
is that data from RSCH tests are highly variable. Even the generally accepted sample air void
range of ± 0.5 percent may need to be reduced to lower the variation. Several steps have been
taken to attempt to minimize testing variation, such as increasing the number of samples, using
additional LVDTs, and various statistical analysis procedures.

Wave Methods Another approach to obtaining the dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures involves
the use of wave propagation techniques. Blaine and Burlot made measurements on a test
pavement with the light Goodman vibrator. This method consisted of a rod that vibrated at
frequencies between 20 to 20,000 Hz and at temperatures between 0o and 40o C. Dispersion
curves were constructed, plotting the wave velocity vs. wavelength. The Rayleigh speed of the
asphalt mixture was obtained by extrapolating the curve to where the wavelength is equal to
zero. The Rayleigh wave speed then was related to the complex modulus of the material.
Poisson’s ratio of the material and the mixture temperature affected on the results of the complex
modulus testing in this fashion. Dos Reis et al. have presented a modified version of the impulse-
echo method as a means to non-destructively estimate the dynamic complex modulus and other
material characteristics. By using principles of statistical energy analyses, they proposed a
method based on the energy-density decay function of a diffuse wave field to determine an
“optimum microstructure” for asphalt concrete. Hochuli et al. also used wave methods to
determine the complex modulus of asphalt mixtures. Their research involved generating flexural
waves in an asphalt concrete rod to determine |E*| for various frequencies. They recognize the
complexity of using wave propagation because of the inhomogeneities and extreme temperature
dependence of asphalt. Wave propagation is described as a promising non-destructive test
method with the potential of in situ measurements for the continuous determination of the
complex modulus of asphalt mixtures.

77
Linear Viscoelasticity Concepts The evaluation of complex modulus tests requires an
understanding of linear viscoelasticity concepts. Ferry describes the fundamental concepts of
linear viscoelasticity. For the one-dimensional case of a sinusoidal loading, the following
equation can represent the stress:

σ = σ o ⋅sin ω

In above equation σo is the stress amplitude and ω is the angular velocity, which is related to the
frequency f by:

ω = 2πf

The resulting steady state strain can be written as:

ε = ε ⋅ (ωt −δ ) o sin

in which εο is the strain amplitude and δ is the phase angle related to the time the strain lags the
stress, as shown in the above figure. Phase angle is an indicator of the viscous (or elastic)
properties of the material. For a pure elastic material, δ = 0º, and for a pure viscous material, δ =
90º.

78
25: Permanent Deformation parameters

Rutting is recognized to be the major distress mechanism in flexible pavements as a result of

increase in tire pressures and axle loads. Rutting is caused by the accumulation of permanent
deformation in all or some of the layers in the pavement structure. The accumulation of
permanent deformation in the asphalt surfacing layer is now recognized to be the major
component of rutting in flexible pavements. This is a consequence of increased tire pressures and
axle loads, which subjects the asphalt surfacing layer nearest to the tire-pavement contact area to
increased stresses. Thus the study of permanent deformation properties of asphalt mixtures has
become the focus of research, which aims to mitigate or reduce rutting in flexible pavements.

The research work reported in this thesis aims to contribute towards understanding of the
material properties and factors affecting permanent deformation in asphalt mixtures, mechanisms
of the permanent deformation, and methods of its prediction. The specific objectives of this
research work include; review and evaluation of available models for permanent deformation of
asphalt concrete mixtures, investigation of the effect of volumetric composition, loading and
temperature conditions on the permanent deformation of asphalt concrete, and the identification
and definition of simple measures of resistance to permanent deformation.

To meet the objectives of the study a laboratory investigation is conducted on several asphalt
concrete specimens with varying volumetric composition. Two testing procedures are adopted;
the repeated load triaxial and triaxial creep and recovery tests. The tests were conducted at two
temperature levels of 25 and 50oC under varying stress conditions. A review of literature on
factors affecting permanent deformation and available models for prediction of the permanent
deformation is also conducted. The literature review indicated that most of the research work
done so far concentrated on evaluation of the effect on permanent deformation response of
component material properties such as aggregate gradation, aggregate angularity and binder type
(or grade). Most of the studies conducted on permanent deformation properties of asphalt
mixtures were also found to be based on different testing procedures and methods of evaluation,
which makes it difficult to compare them and draw firm conclusions. The literature also
indicated that, as yet, there is no comprehensive model for deformation of asphalt concrete.
Results of tests conducted in this study are analyzed to investigate the effect of volumetric
composition, particularly binder content and void content, and loading conditions on the
permanent deformation response of the mixture. Both the binder content and void content are
found to significantly influence the permanent deformation characteristics.

The effect of loading conditions, i.e., the confining stress and the deviatory stress, is also found
to be significant. Throughout this study emphasis is placed on methods and parameters that are
79
used to evaluate mixtures for their resistance to permanent deformation. The traditionally used
parameters such as the slope and intercept of the power model are evaluated for their sensitivities
to changes in volumetric composition. This evaluation is based on the premises that any measure
of resistance to permanent deformation should be sensitive to changes in volumetric composition
to be good enough. It is found that most of these parameters are not sensitive to changes in
volumetric composition and therefore are not suitable for comparison of mixtures made from the
same materials but with varying proportion of the components. Permanent deformation in asphalt
concrete is caused by both densification and shear deformation.

The mode of deformation in asphalt concrete pavements, for greater part of their service life, is
considered to be the shear deformation. Therefore it is necessary to evaluate mixtures for their
susceptibility to shear deformation. The shear deformation manifests itself in the form of large
lateral deformation relative to axial deformation. It is found that one dimensional analysis, which
does not take the lateral deformation into account may lead to misleading results regarding the
resistance to permanent deformation of mixtures. Therefore parameters which include volumetric
and lateral strain are proposed for use in evaluation of mixtures. Substantial effort is put into
modelling the accumulation of permanent deformation under repeated loading.

For this purpose two approaches were selected: the cyclic hardening model based on bounding
surface plasticity concept and an elasto-viscoplastic model based on strain decomposition
approach. The bounding surface plasticity approach is found to be a convenient method to model
the accumulation of permanent deformation. It is demonstrated that deformations calculated
using cyclic hardening model based on bounding surface plasticity fits the measured deformation
quite well. The elasto-viscoplastic model, which is based on strain decomposition approach,
provides a suitable method for analysis of creep and recovery test results. Deformations
calculated using this model also fit the measured deformation quite well. Finally a new
composite measure of resistance to permanent deformation is developed. The resistance index is
based on strain decomposition approach and is simple to calculate. The index incorporates a
parameter related to shear susceptibility of mixtures and is sensitive to changes in volumetric
composition. It is believed that this index can be used to compare and select mixtures at mixture
design stage. If its applicability to other materials is proved by further research, it can also be
linked to performance related specifications, as a simple measure of performance with regard to
rutting.

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26: Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen

Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB) is hydrocarbon binder obtained through physical and
chemical interaction of crumb rubber (produced by recycling of used tyres) with bitumen and
some specific additives. The Flextal range of CRMB offers binders which are stable and easy to
handle with enhanced performances. 

CRMB is suitable for pavements submitted to all sorts of weather conditions, highways, traffic
denser roads, junctions, heavy duty and high traffic sea port roads etc. It is a durable and
economical solution for new construction and maintenance of wearing courses.

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen For Hot

CRMB 60 Climate Areas

Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen For

CRMB 55 Moderate Climate Areas

Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen For Cold

CRMB 50 Climate Areas

An immense problem affecting environmental pollution is the increase of waste tyre vehicles. In
an attempt to decrease the magnitude of this issue, crumb rubber modifier (CRM) obtained from
waste tyre rubber has gained interest in asphalt modification. Generally, the rheological and
performance properties of rubberised bitumen binder are influenced by blending conditions and
crumb rubber contents. Bitumen is a dark black semisolid material, obtained from the
atmospheric and vacuum distillation of crude oil during petroleum refining. Being a
thermoplastic visco-elastic adhesive, it is used for road and highway pavement engineering,
primarily because of its good cementing power and waterproof properties4.

Bitumen as a colloidal system consists of high molecular asphaltene/resin micelles diffused in an

oily medium of lower molecular weight, constituted by naphthenic aromatics and saturated
compounds. The micelles are mainly a composite of asphaltene and resins acting as stabilisers to
the mixture. The asphaltene and resins may be related in an open network yet they can be
disintegrated as discrete particles by varying the amounts of resin, asphaltene and oils in
percentages4.

81
Studies5 show that the rheological properties of the binder are strongly related to bitumen
colloidal behaviour. Also, bitumen binder possesses a strong temperature dependence on
rheological properties organised by the interaction of individual constitution (asphaltene, resins,
aromatics, saturates). Additionally, the study reported that an increase in one of these
constitutions would change the structure and rheological behaviour of bitumen. Thus, bitumen
with high asphaltene/resins ratio, led to a network structure with more rigidity and elasticity (low
in phase angle and high in complex shear modulus), unlike the case of bitumen with high
resins/asphaltene ratio which in contrast led to high viscous behaviour.

Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of materials. It is the science knowledge that is
related to all aspects of deformation of material under the influence of external stresses. Bitumen
behaves in a unique manner depending upon both the load applied and the rate of loading.
Temperature additionally is a factor that could be correlated with the rate of loading. At elevated
temperatures, or slow rates of loading, bitumen becomes a viscous material. At decreased
temperatures or higher rates of loading, bitumen becomes a highly elastic material. However, at
intermediate temperatures, bitumen has two different characteristics; i.e. an elastic solid and a
viscous fluid6. The study of bitumen rheology is an important phenomenon to characterise the
dynamic mechanical behaviour of binders. Previous research has shown that the major
mechanism of the bitumen – rubber interaction is the swelling of the rubber particles because of
the absorption of the light fractions oil into the rubber particles and stiffening of the residual
binder9-12.

According to a study, the higher the crumb rubber content is, the higher viscosity at 135 ºC could
improve the rutting properties. It was also observed that the increased crumb rubber amount
produced rubberised bitumen with higher viscosity and lower resilience. However, for optimum
crumb rubber content; crumb rubber size and asphalt binder need to be determined. It is believed
that a physic-chemical interaction occurs between the bitumen and the crumb rubber which alters
the effective size and physical properties of the rubber particle, thus influencing pavement
performance. Higher crumb rubber content also led to improved physical and rheological
properties of modified bitumen binder through better rutting resistance as well as increased its
elastic recovery.

Investigations which focused on the effect of crumb rubber concentration on physical and

mechanical properties of modified binder used rutting parameter (G*/sin (δ)), ductility and
elastic recovery to evaluate the modified binder properties. The results indicated that the higher
crumb rubber concentration has the potential to resist permanent deformation (rutting).

A research study, conducted on the effect of combination factors of CRM percentage and mixing
time on rheological properties of rubberised bitumen showed that the main factor that influenced
the elastic recovery of rubberised bitumen is the higher content of crumb rubber. The mixing
time did not show a significant effect on binder recovery after deformation. Various
investigations showed that the blending time has no significant effect on the selection of the
optimal binder content or on the compaction of the mixture.

According to another investigation conducted on the effect of blending conditions (time and

temperature) on penetration, softening point and resilience modulus; stated that there was no
82
significant effect using three different blending time (45, 60 and 90 minutes) on modified binder
properties although there was a tendency for blending time to become constant between 60 and
90 minutes. It is evident that relatively huge amounts of rubber are present in 30 and 45 minutes
of reaction time. In 60 and 90 minutes of reaction time, the bitumen-rubber structures showed
that the system is compatible. In 90 minutes of reaction time, the crumb rubber is fully
incorporated in the bitumen binder.

However, a study showed that longer blending time has a significant effect on the binder
properties, resulting in an increase in viscosity and rutting resistance. In recent years, researches
on applications of rubberised bitumen binders have reported many advantages. These advantages
include improved bitumen resistance to rutting due to high viscosity, high softening point, better
rutting resistance, improved bitumen resistance to surface initiated cracks and reduction of
fatigue cracking, reduction of temperature susceptibility and improved durability as well as
reduction in road pavement maintenance costs.

The current study aims to investigate the effect of adding crumb tyre rubber as an additive to
bitumen, using the wet process. Two laboratory tests were conducted to evaluate the
performance of physical-mechanical properties at high temperature of rubberised asphalt binder.
Tested results were compared and analysed statistically. The two way variance analysis
(ANOVA) was performed to determine the significance at a certain confidence limit. The
primary objective of this study was to investigate the influence of blending condition of (time
and temperature) and crumb rubber content on the rheological properties of rubberised bitumen.
The second objective was to determine the correlation between rheological parameters (G*, G',
G" and δ) and softening point in term of predicting physical-mechanical properties.

83
27: Natural rubber modified bitumen

Natural rubber modified bitumen is used for the prolongation of life of state roads. The need to
adopt rubber for the use of construction of the roads is mainly that it reduces the cost of
construction and also recycled rubber is used as it minimizes the environment pollution.

The utilization of recycled rubber in pavement construction sector can be a very promising and
environmentally friendly what to eliminate the nations stock of scrap. A steady stream of huge
volume of waste remnant or natural rubber is generated due to the continual increase in the
production of waste generated by the population. The availability of the Natural Rubber (Latex)
is enormous, as the rubber is a product obtained from Latex (e.g., mattresses, gloves, swim caps,
balloons) has become part of daily life. If it is not recycled, its present disposal is either by land
filling or by incineration. Both the processes have certain impact on the environment. Various
studies are being carried out to improve the quality of bitumen used in bituminous road
construction. One of the results of such studies is to use polymer-modified bitumen. Polymer
modified bitumen is emerging as one of the important construction materials for flexible
pavements.

Use of polymers in the construction of flexible pavement is gaining importance because of the
several reasons. The polymer modified bitumen show better properties for road construction and
plastics waste, otherwise considered to be a pollution menace, can find its use in this process and
this can help solving the problem of pollution. Bitumen is a useful binder for road construction.
Different grades of bitumen like 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100 are available on the basis of their
penetration values. The steady increase in high traffic intensity in terms of commercial vehicles
and the significant variation in daily and seasonal temperature demand improved road
characteristics. The studies on the thermal behavior and binding property of the Natural Rubber
promoted a study on the preparation of Natural Rubber-bitumen blend and its properties to find
the suitability of the blend for road construction. “The initial cost is higher by around 20 per
cent, but life-cycle cost is considerably lesser than roads surfaced using modified bitumen”.

Natural Rubber (Latex) Natural rubber is an elastomer that was originally derived from milky
latex found in the sap of some plants. The purified form of natural rubber is the chemical
polyisoprene, which can also be produced synthetically. Natural rubber is used extensively in
many applications and products, as is synthetic rubber. Natural rubber is an ideal polymer for
dynamic or static engineering applications.

84
Natural rubber features:

1) Excellent dynamic properties with a low hysteresis loss

2) Good low temperature properties
3) Strong bonding to metal parts
4) High resistance to tear and abrasion and ease of processing

Properties of Natural Rubber Natural rubber has been successfully used as an engineering
material for many years. The following range of properties shows just how versatile of a material
natural rubber has proven to be to engineers:

1) Natural rubber combines high tensile and tear strength with an outstanding resistance to
fatigue.Excellent green strength and tack — has the ability to stick to itself and other
materials, making bonded natural rubber products easier to fabricate.
2) Exhibits excellent dynamic properties with a low hysteresis which leads to low heat
generation.
3) Adjustable hardness from very soft to very hard (ebonite).
4) Appearance and color ranges from translucent (soft) to black (hard).
5) Compounded to meet nearly any mechanical requirement.
6) The ability to be electrically insulating or fully conductive.
7) Protect, insulate and sealing properties.
8) Absorb vibration and silence noise. • Available in any surface roughness and shape. To
achieve the specific properties required for a given product, raw natural rubber has to be
compounded using ingredients such as carbon black, anti-degrades, softeners and a
vulcanization system.

Poly Isoprene One of the most well-known natural polymers is polyisoprene, or natural rubber.
Polyisoprene is diene polymer, which is a polymer made from a monomer containing two carbon
double bonds. Like most diene polymers, it has a carbon-carbon double bond in its backbone
chain. Polyisoprene can also be made by Ziegler-Natta polymerization. This is a rare example of
a natural polymer that we can make almost as well as nature does.

Environmental Concerns Due to it being non-biodegradable rubber is very lethal to the

environment. It is one of the main contributions to land pollution. Besides plastic, glass, bottles,
cans and other forms of litter. Rubber release a lot of toxins that have even lead to severe skin
diseases, pollution of drinking water and fish being harmful to consume. If Rubber is burned it

85
gives off chemicals into the surrounding air and exhibit toxicity in the environment which has
several effects in life.

86
28: Polymer Modified Bitumen

Pavements designed and constructed for heavy duty traffic and extreme weather conditions
require specially designed engineered Bitumen Grades. By changing the characteristics of
normal bitumen with the addition of a polymer, either they are of elastomeric nature or
elastomeric, we succeed to obtain bitumen that allow the mixture to be more cohesive, with
much more strength and significant higher resistance to parameters like fatigue and permanent
deformations for road pavements.

(Typical viscosity of binder overlooking temperature)

PMB's qualities:

1) Greater Rigidity
2) Better resistance to permanent deformation
3) Higher Resistance to spreading cracks
4) Greater water resistance
5) Much higher durability

Bitumen is a by-product of the fractional distillation of crude oil, but is also found in natural
deposits. It has a unique combination of excellent water-proofing and adhesive properties which

87
have been used effectively for more than 5000 years. Bitumen is a low-cost thermoplastic
material which is widely used in roofing, road and pavement applications. However, it is brittle
in cold environments and softens readily in warm environments. One of the many methods
employed to toughen bitumen is to blend it with polymers, either virgin or scrap, to produce
polymer modified bitumen (PmB). In this chapter, an introduction to bitumen structure and
properties, and a short review of the published literature on PmB is provided.

Advances and challenges in the field of bitumen polymer modification for road construction
during the last 40 years are reviewed in this paper. The history of bitumen polymer modification
is described chronologically. Some popular plastomers and thermoplastic elastomers in bitumen
modification are discussed regarding their advantages and disadvantages, including polyethylene
(PE), polypropylene (PP), ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA), ethylene–butyl acrylate (EBA),
styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS), styrene–isoprene–styrene (SIS) and styrene–
ethylene/butylene–styrene (SEBS). Although these polymers all improve bitumen properties to
some extent, there are still some drawbacks limiting the future development of bitumen polymer
modification, such as high cost, low ageing resistance and poor storage stability of polymer
modified bitumen (PMB). Researchers attempted various ways to remove these drawbacks.
Some technical developments for removing drawbacks are reviewed in this paper, including
saturation, sulfur vulcanization, adding antioxidants, using hydrophobic clay minerals,
functionalization and application of reactive polymers. The future development of polymers for
bitumen modification is analyzed as well. Since it is currently challenging to perfectly achieve
all expected PMB properties at the same time, some compromised recommendations are given in
this paper, among which greatly enhancing the properties with an acceptably high cost,
significantly reducing the cost with relatively poor properties and their combinations.
Functionalization is emphasized as a promising way to enhance the properties of currently used
polymers and develop new-type polymer modifiers with much greater success in the future. It is
also recommended that future research on bitumen polymer modification focuses more on
function development towards enhancing: adhesion with aggregates, long-term performance and
recyclability.

88
29: Introduction to Emulsified bitumen and its characterization

Bitumen Emulsions have being developed and exponentially increased sinned they were created
in 1900. Estimated presently at 20% of the global bitumen use, bitumen emulsions are basically
an O/W – Oil on Water solution – A dispersion of bitumen particles on water, stabilized with the
addiction of surfactants – Surface active agents – or most commonly known as emulsifiers, that
will permit the bitumen to de diluted in water. They are primarily used for tack coats for use in
between hot mix asphalt layers and prime coats for thin hot mix surfacing layers or a chip seal
pavements.

Bitumen emulsions are divided into three categories:

3) Anionic with negatively charged globules

4) Cationic with positively charged globules
5) Non-ionic with neutral globules

The main grades for bitumen emulsions are classified as follows:

Cationic Emulsion
Anionic Emulsion Code Setting Type
Code
ARS CRS Rapid Setting
AMS CMS Medium Setting
ASS CSS Slow Setting

Bitumen Emulsion is an area where technological progress is still being made to meet the
requirements of pavement engineering. Anionic emulsions were first developed. They are
currently less favored than the cationic emulsions, as cationic emulsions coat the aggregates
more efficiently due to their positive load and have therefore better adhesion properties. Cationic
Emulsion is both more favored and more widely used. Emulsified Bitumen usually consists of
bitumen droplets suspended in water. This dispersion under normal circumstances would not
take place, since everyone knows that oil and water don’t mix, but if an emulsifying agent is
added to the water the asphalt will remain dispersed. Most emulsion are used for surface
treatments. Emulsions enable much lower application temperatures to be used. Application
temperatures range from 45°C to 70°C. This is much lower than the 150 to 190°C used for hot
mix asphalt cements. The lower application temperatures will not damage the asphalt and are
much safer for field personnel. In the production of bitumen emulsion, water is treated with an
emulsifying agent and other chemicals and is pumped to a colloid mill along with bitumen. The

89
colloid mill breaks the bitumen up into tiny droplets. The emulsifying agent migrates to the
asphalt-water interface and keeps the droplets from coalescing. The emulsion is then pumped to
a storage tank. Bitumen emulsions are complicated and good chemistry is required to reach
target desired emulsion properties. Variables in emulsion production include the base bitumen
and the type and amount of emulsifying agent. There are two basic classifications of emulsions
globally usually used, anionic bitumen emulsions and cationic bitumen emulsions. The type
(chemistry) of the emulsifying agent used, determines the designation. Emulsifying agents are
the chemicals used to stabilize the emulsion and keep the “billions and billions” of bitumen
drops separated from one another. These compounds are large organic molecules that have two
distinct parts to them. These parts are called the “head” and “tail.” The “head” portion consists of
a group of atoms that chemically have positive and negative charge areas. These two charged
areas give rise to the head being called polar (as in poles of a magnet). Because of this polarity,
and the nature of some of the atoms in this polar head, the head is soluble in water. The tail
consists of a long chain organic group that is not soluble in water, but is soluble in other organic
materials like oils (bitumen). Thus, an emulsifying agent is one molecule with both water-soluble
and oil soluble portions. This unique characteristic gives the chemical its emulsifying ability.

Anionic Emulsions

The term anionic is derived from the migration of particles of bitumen under an electric field.
The droplets migrate toward the anode (positive electrode), and hence the emulsion is called
anionic. In an anionic emulsion, there are “billions and billions” of bitumen droplets with
emulsifying agent at the water bitumen interface. The tail portion of the emulsifying agent aligns
itself in the bitumen while the positive portion of the head floats around in the water leaving the
rest of the head negatively charged and at the surface of the droplet. This imparts a negative
charge to all the droplets. Since negatives repel each other, all the droplets repel each other and
remain as distinct bitumen drops in suspension. A typical anionic emulsifying agent is shown
below along with a diagram showing the orientation of the agent at the bitumen-water interface
and the negative charge imparted to each drop.

Typical Emulsifying Anionic Agent

90
91
30: Cationic Emulsions

The term cationic is derived from the migration of particles of bitumen under an electric field
also. The droplets migrate toward the cathode (negative electrode), and hence the emulsion is
called cationic. The cationic emulsifying agent functions similarly to the anionic; the negative
portion of the head floats around in the water leaving a positively charged head. This imparts a
positive charge to all the droplets. Since positives repel each other, all the droplets repel each
other and remain as distinct bitumen drops in suspension. A typical cationic emulsifying agent is
shown below along with a diagram showing the orientation of the agent at the bitumen-water
interface and the positive charge imparted to each drop.

Typical Cationic Emulsifying Agent

92
Breaking Characteristics of Emulsions

Emulsions exist for ease of application. After application the water to should evaporate and leave
the asphalt cement. In a surface treatment, after emulsion and aggregate have been applied to the
road surface, the emulsion should “break” leaving the asphalt cement holding the aggregate. At
that point traffic may be allowed on the surface without loss of aggregate. The type of emulsion
used has a large effect on the speed of the “break” of an emulsion.

Almost all surfaces have a net negative charge. The strength or intensity of this negative charge
may be different from material to material. Because of this phenomenon, anionic and cationic
emulsions break in different ways.

In an application of anionic emulsion, negatively charged drops of asphalt are applied to a

negatively charged surface. All components repel each other. The only way the emulsion can
break is through the loss of water by evaporation. As more and more water is lost through
evaporation, the particles are forced closer and closer together until they can no longer be
separated by a film of water. At this point droplets coalesce into larger and larger drops and
ultimately a sheet of asphalt on the road. A depiction of the application is shown below:

In an application of cationic emulsion, we are applying positively charged drops of bitumen to a

negatively charged surface. The bitumen drops are immediately attracted to the surface and begin
to break. The emulsion also loses water by evaporation. Thus the cationic emulsion has two
breaking mechanisms at work and will break faster than a corresponding anionic emulsion. A
depiction of the application is shown below:

93
The object of a surface treatment is to seal the road from moisture intrusion and provide a new
skid resistant surface, but be open to traffic as soon as possible and retain aggregate. Due to the
chemistry of emulsions, they may react differently in specific weather and application
conditions. If you have problems in any of these areas, the problem could be because of the
weather, aggregate condition or emulsion used. In bitumen emulsions the basic bitumen has also
been diluted in order to facilitate application. Hot bitumen, water and emulsifier are processed in
a high-speed colloid mill that disperses the bitumen in the water. The emulsifier produces a
system in which fine droplets of bitumen, of between 30% and 80% of the volume, are held in
suspension. If they separate in storage, the emulsion can easily be restored by agitation. Bitumen
emulsions have a low viscosity and can be workable at ambient temperatures, which makes them
ideal for use in road pavements and surfacing. This application requires controlled breaking and
setting. The emulsion must not break before they are laid on the road surface but, once in place,
they should break quickly so that the road can be in service again without delay.

94
CEMENT
First, it is important to understand that cement is just one ingredient of concrete; these two terms
are not synonymous. Concrete is the mixture of water, some type of aggregate — such as
crushed rocks or sand — and cement, which acts as a binder to hold all the materials together
once hardened. Evidence suggests that the ancient Romans were the first to use the concrete
mixture in construction, and structures like the Pantheon stand as proof of the success of their
invention.

A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. The most important types of cement are used as a component in the
production of mortar in masonry, and of concrete- which is a combination of cement and
an aggregate to form a strong building material.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,
depending upon the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and non-
hydraulic lime plaster).
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after
setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical reaction
between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are
not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This
allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from
chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient Romans used
volcanic ash (activated aluminium silicates[citation needed]) with lime (calcium oxide).
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium, used to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt
lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt
lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment,
and cement.

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32 CEMENT MORTAR

MORTAR
Mortar, in its most general and basic form, is referred to as Portland, or Type One, cement and is
created by burning limestone with other materials at 2,642°F (1,450°C). The result is then
ground to produce a fine powder, which becomes one of the components of concrete. Altering
the amounts of the other materials in the burnt mixture yields several different types of Portland
cement, however, each type having unique properties and strengths. The type of mortar used in
building a structure should be chosen based on the structure’s purpose and environment.
Because structures have various chemical and physical requirements, eight different types are
manufactured. These types are simply referred to as Type One, Type Two, Type Three, Type
Four, Type Five, and Type One-A, Type Two-A, and Type Three-A. Types One through Five are
distinctly different, while Types One-A, Two-A, and Three-A are modified versions of their
counterparts.

Type One is suitable for most basic construction uses. Type Two is best for structures built in hot
environments, or in soil or water high in sulfate. For projects requiring strength at an early stage,
Type Three is ideal because it provides more strength within one week than the other types. Type
Four is useful in limiting heat caused by hydration and is therefore used in massive concrete
undertakings, such as dams. When soil or water is high in chemicals, Type Five should be used
because it is manufactured to resist chemical erosion.

The final three types of mortar are known as the air-entrained cements, because they have
microscopic air bubbles added to their mixtures to increase the durability of the concrete. Air-
entrained cements are especially useful in environments that have repetitive freezes. Types One-
A, Two-A, and Three-A are similar in properties to Types One, Two, and Three; the air-
entrained ones simply contain air bubbles.

There are also variations on these eight types that affect the color of the resulting concrete. For
instance, white can be made by leaving out raw materials such as iron and manganese, which
give concrete its traditional graycoloring.

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 33 CEMENT PRODUCTION AND TESTING

Cement Production:
 Cement kilns are used in the production of so-called
“hydraulic cements,” cements which are mixed with water to create a material which can be
used for binding.

 China, India, and the United States are the largest producers
of cement. Cement production begins in a quarry where stone containing calcium, silicon,
aluminum, and iron is mined.

Measuring Cement Quality

Testing of Cement quality by Purchasers:

To check the quality of cement during purchase we can check following things at shop and site
to ensure that the quality of cement is good.

At Shop:
1. Purchase the cement from authorized company counters only.
2. Check the stitching of cement bag and ensue the cement bag has not been re-stitched.
3. Check the week number and year of the manufacturing which is printed on the cement
bags. Please avoid purchasing cement bags manufactured 3 month before the purchased date.
4. ISI mark on the cement bags.
5. Condition of the bags should be good and stored at moisture free area in cement store.
 
At Site:
1. Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be any visible lumps.
The colour of the cement should normally in greenish grey.
2. Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must be giving you a cool feeling. There should
not be any lump inside.
3. Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a smooth and not a
gritty feeling.
4. Taka a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particle should float
for some time before they sink.
5. For any assistance you can call on the contact number printed on the cement bag, we will
be definitely assist you.

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34 & 35 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

 Compressive strength of concrete

Out of many test applied to the concrete, this is the utmost important which gives an idea about
all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been
done properly or not.

For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm

x 10 cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of
size 15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used.

This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered

properly so as not to have any voids. After 24 hours
these moulds are removed and test specimens are put
in water for curing. The top surface of these
specimen should be made even and smooth. This is
done by putting cement paste and spreading
smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens
fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

98
Following are the procedure for Compressive strength test of Concrete Cubes

APPARATUS

Compression testing machine

PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in
the field.

SPECIMEN

6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

MIXING

Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer

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HAND MIXING

(i)Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the mixture
is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color

(ii)Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate
is uniformly distributed throughout the batch

(iii)Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency

SAMPLING

(i) Clean the mounds and apply oil

(ii) Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick

(iii) Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)

(iv) Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

CURING

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.

PRECAUTIONS

The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the temperature of water must be at 27+-
2oC.

100
PROCEDURE

(I) Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water from
the surface.

(II) Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m

(III) Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine

(IV) Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.

(V) Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

(VI) Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.

(VII) Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140kg/cm2/minute
till the specimen fails

(VIII) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

NOTE

Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 per cent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rejected.
Average of there specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete. The strength requirements of
concrete.

CALCULATIONS

101
Size of the cube =15cm x15cm x15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225cm2

Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is …………………..

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=……………N/mm2

=……………………….N/mm2

REPORT

a) Identification mark

b) Date of test

c) Age of specimen

d) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen

f) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual

RESULT

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 days)

102
 Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. N/mm2 (at 28 days)

Percentage strength of concrete at various ages:

The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%

Compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 days

Grade of Minimum compressive strength Specified characteristic compressive strength

Concrete N/mm2 at 7 days (N/mm2) at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

At Laboratory: If you are bulk purchaser of cement; then laboratory testing is also convenient
and economical for you. You can test your cement sample in National test House or any

103
approved governed lab by the method of IS 4031 (Method of physical testing of hydraulic
cement Part1 to Part 15) and IS 4032 (Method of chemical testing of hydraulic cement)

  FLEXURAL STRENGTH

FLEXURAL STRENGTH
OBJECTIVE

To determine the Flexural Strength of Concrete, which comes into play when a road slab with
inadequate sub-grade support is subjected to wheel loads and / or there are volume changes due
to temperature / shrinking. 
REFERENCE STANDARDS

IS: 516-1959 – Methods of tests for strength of concrete

EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS

 Beam mould of size 15 x 15x 70 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 38 mm) or of
size 10 x 10 x 50 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 19 mm)

 Tamping bar (40 cm long, weighing 2 kg and tamping section having size of 25 mm x 25

mm)

 Flexural  test machine– The bed of the testing machine shall be provided with two steel
rollers, 38 mm in diameter, on which the specimen is to be supported, and these rollers shall
be so mounted that the distance from centre to centre is 60 cm for 15.0 cm specimens or 40
cm for 10.0 cm specimens. The load shall be applied through two similar rollers mounted at

104
 the third points of the supporting span that is, spaced at 20 or 13.3 cm centre to centre. The
load shall be divided equally between the two loading rollers, and all rollers shall be
mounted in such a manner that the load is applied axially and without subjecting the
specimen to any torsional stresses or restraints.

Flexural Strength Test Arrangement

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3 layers of
approximately equal thickness. Tamp each layer 35 times using the tamping bar as specified
above. Tamping should be distributed uniformly over the entire crossection of the beam
mould and throughout the depth of each layer.
2. Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers, and remove any loose
sand or other material from the surfaces of the specimen where they are to make contact
with the rollers.
3. Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with diameter 38 mm will
be used for providing support and loading points to the specimens. The length of the rollers
shall be at least 10 mm more than the width of the test specimen. A total of four rollers shall
be used, three out of which shall be capable of rotating along their own axes. The distance
between the outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance between the inner rollers

105
 shall be d. The inner rollers shall be equally spaced between the outer rollers, such that the
entire system is systematic.
4. The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from water; whilst
they are still wet. The test specimen shall be placed in the machine correctly centered with
the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to the rollers. For moulded specimens,
the mould filling direction shall be normal to the direction of loading.

5. The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0 cm specimens
and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

CALCULATION

The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by

fb = pl/bd2  (when a > 20.0cm for 15.0cm specimen or > 13.0cm for 10cm specimen)

or

fb = 3pa/bd2  (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm specimen or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0cm for
10.0cm specimen.)

Where,

a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the center line
of the tensile side of the specimen

b = width of specimen (cm)

d = failure point depth (cm)

l = supported length (cm)

p = max. Load (kg)

REPORTS

The Flexural strength of the concrete is reported to two significant figures. 

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS:

 Use hand gloves while, safety shoes at the time of test.

 After test switch off the machine.
 Keep all the exposed metal parts greased.
 Keep the guide rods firmly fixed to the base & top plate.
106
 Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing.

107
 38 & 39

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

AIM

To determine the modulus of elasticity of concrete.

SPECIMEN

Concrete calender 15 cm diameter and 30cm long

PROCDURE

Setting Up of Compressometer

(i) Assemble the top and bottom frame by keeping the spacers in position.

(ii) Keep the pivot rod on the screws and lock them in position.

108
(iii) Keep the tightening screws of the bottom and top frame unscrewed (but not completely).

(iv) Place the specimen on a level surface.

(v) Keep the compressometer centrally on the specimen so that the tightening screw of the

bottom and top frame are at equal distance from the two ends.

(vi) Tighten the screws so that the compressometer is held on the specimen.

(vii )Remove the spacers by unscrewing the spacer screws.

Testing

(I) Place the specimen with compressometer in the compression testing machine and center it.

(II) Apply load continuously without stock at a rate of 140 kg /cm²/minute until a stress of

(c+5)kg/cm² is reached where c is the one third of average compressive strength of cubes
calculated to the nearest 5kg /cm²(a load of 12.4T)

(III) Maintain the load at this stress for at least one minute and reduce gradually to an average
stress of 1.5 kg/ cm²(a load of 0.3 T)

(IV) Apply the load again at the same rate until an average stress of (c+ 1.5) kg/cm² is reached(a
load of 11.8T)

(V) Note the compressometer reading at this load.

(VI) Reduce the load gradually and take readings at an interval of 1T up to

0.3T(11.8T,10.8T,9.8T,8.8T,7.8T,…………,1.8T,0.3T)

109
(VII) Apply load third time and note the compressometer readings at an interval of 1T
(0.3T,1.8T,2.8T,………….11.8T).

NOTE

1. Readings should be taken without delay

2. If the overall strain observed on the second and third readings differ by more than 5%,the
loading shall be repeated until the difference in strain between consecutive readings of
(c+1.5)kg/sq.cm. (11.8T) does not exceed 5%.

3. To get the actual deformation, divide the observed readings of the dial gauge by 2.

GRAPH

A load – deflection graph is plotted for loading and nu loading conditions. Draw tangents at the
initial portion of the loading curve and at the load corresponding to the working stress of the mix.
Join the initial point and the point on the loading curve corresponding to working stress.

CALCULATION

Initial tangent modulus = stress/ strain

(Take load & deflection from the initial tangent )

Tangent modulus at working stress= stress/ strain

(Take load and deflection from the tangent drawn at working stress)

Secant modulus = stress/strain

(Take load and deflection from the line joining initial point and the point at working stresses)

110
REPORT

The following information shall be included in the report.

(i) Identification mark

(ii) Date of test

(iii) Age of specimen

(iv) Shape and nominal dimensions of the specimen

RESULT.

Initial tangent modulus of given concrete = ………………N / mm²

Tangent modulus at working stress =……………….N / mm²

Secant modulus (Modulus of elasticity of given concrete) = ………….. N / mm²

111
 -40

FATIGUE PROPERTIES
As structural design and analysis become more refined and as construction practices increase in
efficiency there is an increased need for fundamental information on the behavior of concrete
under loads other than static. Particularly there is a demand for more knowledge and
understanding of concrete fatigue, which refers to the phenomenon of rupture under repeated
loadings each of which is smaller than a single static load that exceeds the strength of the
material. Fatigue is exhibited when a material fails under stress applied by direct tension or
compression, torsion, bending or a combination of these actions. Metal fatigue has been under
investigation for more than a century and a considerable amount of knowledge about it has been
accumulated. But research on concrete fatigue is not only far less advanced, but also
considerably less conclusive. Fatigue investigations of concrete have sought to determine the
effect of repeated tensile, compressive and flexural loads on ultimate strength and strain or
deflection. It appears that stress repetition and not the rate of strain is the critical factor in
fatigue. Of particular interest to contractors, tests have shown that fatigue strength is vitally
affected by age and curing. Concrete that is carefully cured and aged displays greater resistance
to fatigue than concrete inadequately cured and aged. In addition, concrete of a rich mix and a
low water/cement ratio has a slightly higher fatigue strength. Recent experiments do appear
conclusive regarding the endurance limit of concrete. Many early tests assumed that the material
possessed an endurance limit similar to most metals. However it now appears that plain concrete
in flexure, given an acceptable level of stress, possesses no endurance limit at least with loads up
to 10,000,000 cycles.

112
41

SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete mixture that is able to consolidate

under its own weight. The highly fluid nature of SCC makes it suitable for placing in
difficult conditions and in sections with congested reinforcement. Use of SCC can also help
minimize hearing-related damages on the worksite that are induced by vibration of
concrete. Another advantage of SCC is that the time required to place large sections is
considerably reduced.

When the construction industry in Japan experienced a decline in the availability of skilled
labour in the 1980s, a need was felt for a concrete that could overcome the problems of
defective workmanship. This led to the development of self-compacting concrete, primarily
through the work by Okamura1. A committee was formed to study the properties of self-
compacting concrete, including a fundamental investigation on workability of concrete,
which was carried out by Ozawa et al2. at the University of Tokyo. The first usable version
of self-compacting concrete was completed in 1988 and was named “High Performance
Concrete”, and later proposed as “Self Compacting High Performance Concrete”.

In Japan, the volume of SCC in construction has risen steadily over the years 3. Data
indicate that the share of application of SCC in precast concrete industry is more than
three times higher than that in the ready-mixed concrete industry. This is attributable to
the higher cost of SCC. The estimated average price of SCC supplied by the RMC industry
in Japan was 1.5 times that of the conventional concrete in the year 2002. Research studies
in Japan are also promoting new types of applications with SCC, such as in lattice type
structures, casting without pump, and tunnel linings.

Since the development of SCC in Japan, many organizations across the world have carried
out research on properties of SCC. The Brite-Euram SCC project 4 was set up to promote
the use of SCC in some of the European countries. A state-of-the-art report on SCC was
compiled by Skarendahl and Petersson5 summarizing the conclusions from the research
studies sponsored by the Brite-Euram project on SCC. A recent initiative in Europe is the
formation of the project – Testing SCC 6– involving a number of institutes in research
studies on various test methods for SCC. In addition, an organization with the
participation from the speciality concrete product industry – EFNARC 7– has developed
specifications and guidelines for the use of SCC that covers a number of topics, ranging
from materials selection and mixture design to the significance of testing methods.

Current studies in SCC, which are being conducted in many countries, can be divided into
the following categories: (i) use of rheometers to obtain data about flow behaviour of
cement paste and concrete, (ii) mixture proportioning methods for SCC, (iii)
characterization of SCC using laboratory test methods, (iv) durability and hardened
properties of SCC and their comparison with normal concrete, and (v) construction issues
113
related to SCC. These will be relevant to the immediate needs. In addition, the following
questions also need particular attention, from a long-term perspective: (i) development of
mixture design guideline tables similar to those for normal concrete, (ii) a shift to more
‘normal’ powder contents in SCC, from the existing high powder mixtures, (iii) better
understanding of the problems of autogenous and plastic shrinkage in SCC, and (iv)
development of site quality control parameters such as in ‘all-in-one’, acceptance tests.

Materials for SCC

Mixture proportions for SCC differ from those of ordinary concrete, in that the former has
more powder content and less coarse aggregate. Moreover, SCC incorporates high range
water reducers (HRWR, superplasticisers) in larger amounts and frequently a viscosity
modifying agent (VMA) in small doses. The questions that dominate the selection of
materials for SCC are:

(i) limits on the amount of marginally unsuitable aggregates, that is, those
deviating from ideal shapes and sizes,

(ii) choice of HRWR,

(iii) choice of VMA, and

(iv) interaction and compatibility between cement, HRWR, and VMA. These
are discussed below.

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LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

It may be defined as the concrete of substantially lower unit weight than that made from gravel
or crushed stone.

Light Weight Concrete Wall Panels

Ordinary concrete is quite heavy and its density is 2300 kg/m3. It is not suitable for use in floor
filling as filler in general. If used, it adds considerably to the dead weight of the structure. By
using suitable aggregates the density of concrete can be reduced. This light weight concrete not
only results in reducing dead weights on structure, but also has a better insulation against heat
and sound. The strength of such concrete is however low. But it is of no consequence as this
concrete is not expected to bear any loads. Because of the light weight, this concrete is very
suitable for earthquake proof structures.
APPLICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Light weight concrete finds its use generally in situations like:

 Decks of long span bridges.

 Fire and corrosion protection.
 Covering for architectural purposes.
 Heat insulation on roofs.
 Insulation of water pipes.
 Filling for floor and roof slabs.
 Construction of partition walls and panel walls in framed structures.
 Production precast building blocks and low cost housing.

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 HISTORICAL OF LWC

 Generally, the properties of LWC can be indicated by doing laboratory testing, but the
overall performance of the material can only be demonstrated adequately by its
performance in the field by testing LWC structure under service. LWC has been
successfully used for marine applications and in shipbuilding. LWC ships were produced
in the USA during the 1914-1918 war, and their success led to the production of the USS
Selma (a war ship). In both 1953 and 1980 the Selma’s durability was assessed by taking
cored samples from the water line area. On both occasion little corrosion was noted.
 In 1984, Thomas A. Holm estimated that there were over 400 LWC bridges throughout
the world especially in USA and Canada. The research carried out by The Expanded Clay
and Slate Institute proves that most of the bridges appeared to be in good condition.
According to ACI Material Journal by Diona Marcia, AndrianLoani, MihaiFilip and Ian
Pepenar (1994), it was found that in Japan LWC had been used since 1964 as a railway
station platform. The study on durability was carried out in 1983 has proven that LWC
exhibited similar carbonation depths as normal concrete. Even though some cracks were
reported, but these posed no structure problems. A second structure comprising both
LWC and normal concrete which had been in sea water for 13 years was examined for
salt penetration

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 43

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC)
Rolled concrete is a special blend of concrete that has essentially the same ingredients as
conventional concrete but in different ratios, and increasingly with partial substitution
of fly ash for Portland cement.RCC is a mix of cement/fly ash, water, sand, aggregate and
common additives, but contains much less water. The produced mix is drier and
essentially has no slump. RCC is placed in a manner similar to paving; the material is
delivered by dump trucks or conveyors, spread by smallbulldozers or specially
modified asphalt pavers, and then compacted by vibratory rollers.
 In dam construction, roller-compacted concrete began its initial development with the
construction of the Alpa Gera Dam near Sondrio in North Italy between 1961 and 1964.
Concrete was laid in a similar form and method but not rolled. [3][4][5] RCC had been touted
in engineering journals during the 1970s as a revolutionary material suitable for, among
other things, dam construction.[6] Initially and generally, RCC was used for backfill, sub-
base and concrete pavement construction, but increasingly it has been used to build
concretegravity dams because the low cement content and use of fly ash cause less heat
to be generated while curing than do conventional mass concrete placements. Roller-
compacted concrete has many time and cost benefits over conventional mass concrete
dams; these include higher rates of concrete placement, lower material costs and lower
costs associated with post-cooling and formwork.

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ADMIXTURES

A material other than water, aggregates, or cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete or
mortar to control setting and early hardening, workability, or to provide additional cementing
properties.

Why is admixture used?

Over decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain desired characteristics
such as high compressive strength, high workability, and high performance and durability
parameters to meet the requirement of complexity of modern structures.

The properties commonly modified are the heat of hydration, accelerate or retard setting time,
workability, water reduction, dispersion and air-entrainment, impermeability and durability
factors.

Types of Admixtures

Chemical admixtures - Accelerators, Retarders, Water-reducing agents, Super plasticizers, Air

entraining agents etc.

Mineral admixtures - Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and Rice husk Ash etc

Chemical admixtures
1. Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:

These admixtures are used for following purposes:

1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water

cement ratio at the same workability as an admixture
free mix.

2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the

cement content so as to reduce the heat of hydration
in mass concrete.

3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in

accessible locations

4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%

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 5. The commonly used admixtures are Ligno-
sulphonates and hydrocarbolic acid salts.

6. Plasticizers
Actions involved: are usually based on lignosulphonate,

1. Dispersion:

Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on the
cement particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the particles.
Electrostatic forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water become available for
workability.

2. Lubrication:

As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction and
increasing the workability.

3. Retardation:

A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from hydration and increasing
the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give some retardation, 30–90 minutes

2. Super Plasticizers:

These are more recent and more effective type of water

reducing admixtures also known as high range water
reducer. The mainbenefits of super plasticizers can be
summarized as follows:

Increased fluidity:

 Flowing

 Self-leveling

 Self-compacting concrete

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  Penetration and compaction round dense reinforcement

Reduced W/C ratio:

 Very high early strength, >200% at 24 hours or earlier

 Very high later age strengths, >100 MPa or 15000 psi.

 Reduced shrinkage, especially if combined with reduced cement content.

 Improved durability by removing water to reduce permeability and diffusion.

The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:

 Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)

Give 16–25%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them very
effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical. However, at higher
temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally give a good finish and are
colorless, giving no staining in white concrete. They are therefore often used where appearance
is important.

 Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)

Typically give 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger,
unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects.
Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a very
cost-effective.

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  Polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers (PCE)

Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are very
powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.

In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and the
possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the surface
tension of the water.

3. Accelerators:

An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of hydration of
hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of hardening or
strength development.

Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and application:

1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,

Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state. Set accelerators
have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.

2. Hardening Accelerators,

Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least 130% at
48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early access
to pavements is required. They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer,
especially in cold conditions.

Calcium chloride is the most effective accelerator and gives both set and hardening
characteristics. However, is limited due to acceleration of corrosion of steel reinforcement and
decrease resistance of cement paste in a sulphate environment. For this reason, it should not be
used in concrete where any steel will be embedded but may be used in plain unreinforced
concrete. Chloride-free accelerators are typically based on salts of nitrate, nitrite, formate and
thiocyanate. Hardening accelerators are often based on high range water reducers, sometimes
blended with one of these salts. Accelerating admixtures have a relatively limited effect and are
usually only cost effective in specific cases where very early strength is needed for, say, access
reasons. They find most use at low temperatures where concrete strength gain may be very slow
so that the relative benefit of the admixture becomes more apparent.

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In summary, a hardening accelerator may be appropriate for strength gain up to 24 hours at low
temperature and up to 12 hours at ambient temperatures. Beyond these times, a high range water
reducer alone will usually be more cost-effective.

4. Set Retarders:

The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete. These
are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in placing the
concrete at high temperatures.

When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which there is
little formation of further hydrates for typically 2–3 hours. The exact time depends mainly on the
cement type and the temperature. This is called the dormant period when the concrete is plastic
and can be placed. At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of
calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to
the setting time of the concrete. Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and
the start of setting and hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability
retention. Used on their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the
formation of cold joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.

The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and molecules
are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further reactions between cement
and water i.e. retards setting. The commonly known retards are Calcium Ligno-
sulphonates and Carbohydrates derivatives used in fraction of percent by weight of cement.

5. Air Entrained Admixtures:

An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes air,
usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the concrete or
mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost resistance. Air-entraining
admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water. Traditionally, they were
based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely been replaced by synthetic
surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved stability and void characteristics to the
entrained air. Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the
hardened concrete. These include:

 Resistance to freeze – thaw action in the hardened concrete.

 Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic
concrete.
 Compaction of low workability mixes including semi - dry concrete.
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 Stability of extruded concrete.
 Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.

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Mineral Admixtures in Concrete
Types of Mineral Admixtures

1.  Cementitious

These have cementing properties themselves. For example:

 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)

2. Pozzolanic

A pozzolan is a material which, when combined with calcium hydroxide (lime), exhibits
cementitious properties. Pozzolans are commonly used as an addition (the technical term is
"cement extender") to Portland cement concrete mixtures to increase the long-term strength and
other material properties of Portland cement concrete and in some cases reduce the material cost
of concrete. Examples are:

 Fly ash

 Silica Fume

 Rice Husk Ash

 Metakaolin

Pozzolanic Action:

The additive act in three ways

1. Filler
2. Nucleating
3. Pozzolanic

1. Filler:

These additives/admixtures are finer than cement, so when added to concrete they occupy the
small pores previously left vacant.

2. Nucleating:

These fine particles accelerate the rate of hydration and precipitation starts.

3. Pozzolanic:

When cementing material reacts with water the following reaction take place:
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 C2S + H CSH + CH

C3S + H CSH + CH

CSH is responsible for strength while CH is a soluble material reacts and dissolves in water
leaving behind pores. So when admixture is added

SiO3 or Al2O3+ CH CSH

Thus, it reduces the amount of CH & increase CSH

Conditions to Declare a Material Pozzolan:

 Having silica + Alumina oxide+ ferrous oxide more than 70%.

 Surface area on normal admixture is more than 300m²/kg.

 Surface area should be more than cement used.

3. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when molten iron blast
furnace slag (a by-product of iron and steel making) is rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion
in water. It is a granular product, highly cementations in nature and, ground to cement fineness,
hydrates like Portland cement.

(Blast-Furnace Slag: A by-product of steel manufacture which is sometimes used as a substitute

for Portland cement. In steel industry when iron ore is molted, then in the molted state all the
impurities come at its surface which are removed called slag. It consists mainly of the silicates
and aluminosilicates of calcium, which are formed in the blast furnace in molten form
simultaneously with the metallic iron. Blast furnace slag is blended with Portland cement clinker
to form PORTLAND BLASTFURNACE SLAG CEMENT). GGBFS is used to make durable
concrete structures in combination with ordinary Portland cement and/or other pozzolanic
materials. GGBFS has been widely used in Europe, and increasingly in the United States and in
Asia (particularly in Japan and Singapore) for its superiority in concrete durability, extending the
lifespan of buildings from fifty years to a hundred years.

Concrete made with GGBFS cement sets more slowly than concrete made with ordinary
Portland cement, depending on the amount of GGBFS in the cementations material, but also
continues to gain strength over a longer period in production conditions. This results
in lower heat of hydration and lower temperature rises, and makes avoiding cold
joints easier, but may also affect construction schedules where quick setting is required.

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Use of GGBFS significantly reduces the risk of damages caused by alkali-silica reaction (ASR),
provides higher resistance to chloride ingress, reducing the risk of reinforcement corrosion, and
provides higher resistance to attacks by sulphate and other chemicals.

Benefits:

1. Durability

1. GGBFS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection against

both sulphate attack and chloride attack

2. GGBFS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large concrete pours.
The more gradual hydration of GGBFS cement generates both lower peak and
less total overall heat than Portland cement.
2. Appearance
1. In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near-
white color of GGBFS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter colour for
exposed fair-faced concrete finishes, at no extra cost.

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 3. Strength
1. Concrete containing GGBFS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete
made with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of the strength-enhancing
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) than concrete made with Portland cement only,
and a reduced content of free lime, which does not contribute to concrete strength.
Concrete made with GGBFS continues to gain strength over time, and has been
shown to double its 28 day strength over periods of 10 to 12 years.

4. Fly Ash:

The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal. Fly ash is
generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants; it has POZZOLANIC
properties, and is sometimes blended with cement for this reason.

Fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline)
and calcium oxide (CaO). Toxic constituents include arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and
vanadium.

Class F Fly Ash:

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash.
This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 10% lime (CaO). The glassy silica and
alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or
hydrated lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce cementations compounds.

Class C Fly Ash:

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in addition to
having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water,
Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more
than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an
activator. Alkali and sulphate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.

In addition to economic and ecological benefits, the use of fly ash in concrete improves its
workability, reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution and permeability, inhibits alkali-
aggregate reaction, and enhances sulphate resistance. Even though the use of fly ash in concrete
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has increased in the last 20 years, less than 20% of the fly ash collected was used in the cement
and concrete industries.

One of the most important fields of application for fly ash is PCC pavement, where a large
quantity of concrete is used and economy is an important factor in concrete pavement
construction.

5. Silica Fume

 By-product of semiconductor industry

The terms condensed silica fume, micro silica, silica fume and volatilized silica are often used to
describe the by-products extracted from the exhaust gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other metal
alloy furnaces. However, the terms micro silica and silica fume are used to describe those
condensed silica fumes that are of high quality, for use in the cement and concrete industry.

Silica fume was first ‘obtained’ in Norway, in 1947, when environmental restraints made the
filtering of the exhaust gases from the furnaces compulsory.

Silica Fume consists of very fine particles with a surface area ranging from 60,000 to 150,000
ft²/lb or 13,000 to 30,000 m²/kg, with particles approximately 100 times smaller than the average
cement particle. Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, Silica Fume is a highly
effective pozzolanic material. Silica Fume is used in concrete to improve its properties. It has
been found that Silica Fume improves compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion
resistance; reduces permeability of concrete to chloride ions; and therefore helps in protecting
reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments such as coastal
regions.

6. Rice Husk Ash:

This is a bio waste from the husk left from the grains of rice. It is used as a pozzolanic material
in cement to increase durability and strength.

The silica is absorbed from the ground and gathered in the husk where it makes a structure and is
filled with cellulose. When cellulose is burned, only silica is left which is grinded to fine powder
which is used as pozzolana.

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JOINT FILLERS

Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) uses contraction joints to control cracking and does not
use any reinforcing steel. Transverse joint spacing is selected such that temperature and moisture
stresses do not produce intermediate cracking between joints. This typically results in a spacing
no longer than about 6.1 m (20 ft.). Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist
in load transfer. Tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints.

Properties

Crack Control

Contraction joints, both transverse and longitudinal

Joint Spacing

Typically between 3.7 m (12 ft.) and 6.1 m (20 ft.). Due to the nature of concrete, slabs
longer than about 6.1 m (20 ft.) will usually crack in the middle. Depending upon
environment and materials slabs shorter than this may also crack in the middle.

Load Transfer

Aggregate interlock and dowel bars. For low-volume roads aggregate interlock is often

adequate. However, high-volume roads generally require dowel bars in each transverse
joint to prevent excessive faulting.

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