AnSci1 Introduction To Animal Science Course Pack

INTRODUCTION TO
ANIMAL SCIENCE
Course Pack
Course Pack Writers

Team Leader : RICHARD C. MARAVILLAS
Members : Dr. Rudy Camay
Felix Sansaet, Jr
Reynan Maglimolo
Malou D. Sanchez
Course Title Introduction to Animal Science
Course Description This course equips the students with the knowledge and learning
efficiency on dealing with the concept, theories and principles on
animal production management and the underlying fields of study
that pertain to animal status and inventory, physiology, nutrition,
breeding and reproduction, processing and marketing of various
animal products to obtain the desired profit from the enterprise.
Units / Credit Equivalent 3 units
Course Outcomes On the completion of the course, student is expected to be

able to do the following:
1. Discuss the status, inventory, problems and
prospects of animal industry in the Philippines.
2. Familiarize and characterize the physiology of
farm animals.
3. Formulate ration for feeding farm animals
satisfying nutritional requirements of animals.
4. Demonstrate breeding and processing of various
animal products to obtain the desired profit from
the enterprise.
5. Apply the methodology on fundamental
procedures of slaughtering farm animals.
Learning Outcomes
The student has successfully and reliably demonstrated the ability to:
1. Discuss the status, inventory, problems and prospects of animal industry in the
Philippines.
2. Familiarize and characterize the physiology of farm animals.
3. Formulate ration for feeding farm animals satisfying nutritional requirements of
animals.
4. Demonstrate breeding and processing of various animal products to obtain the
desired profit from the enterprise.
5. Apply the methodology on fundamental procedures of slaughtering farm animals.
Course pack Structure
Module Lessons Writer

Module 1: Lesson 1. Definition and RICHARD C. MARAVILLAS
Animal Science importance of animal science; its
and its Interaction interaction with the environment.
with the
Environment: An
Overview
Lesson 2. Production constraints/
problems and future of animal
industry.
Module 2: Lesson 1: Overview of Anatomy Dr. Rudy Camay

Anatomy and and Physiology
Physiology of
Farm Animals Lesson 2: Skeletal System
Lesson 3: Muscular System
Lesson 4: Nervous System
Lesson 5: Endocrine system
Lesson6: Cardiovascular System
Lesson7: Lymphatic System
Lesson 8: Respiratory System
Lesson 9: Reproductive system

Module 3: • Lesson 1: definition of Animal Malou D. Sanchez
Animal Nutrition Nutrition Terms
• Lesson 2: classes of nutrients,
functions and deficiency
symptom
• Lesson 3: digestive and
absorption and Metabolism
• Lesson 4: nutrient requirements
of farm animal
• Lesson 5: measuring the
nutritive value of feeds
feedstuff
Module 4: • Animal Genetics Felix Sansaet Jr.

• Animal Breeding and its
Animal Breeding
methods
and Genetics
Module 5: Lesson 1: Slaughtering & Reynan M. Maglimolo

Slaughtering, Fabrication of Farm Animals
Processing and
Marketing of Lesson 2: Processing and
Farm Animals Marketing of Farm Products

TEMPL
LATE 3: Module
M Tem
mplate
(Will bee used indivvidually durring the selff-paced writte shop)
Modulee No. & Titlle I- Priinciples of A
Animal Scieence
Modulee Overview
Hoooray! Welccome to modulem 1, you
y are aboout to engaage on the
interrelationsh hips of mann, animals annd their envvironment. TheT topics
undder this lesson will give g you thhe understaanding of how food
prooduction afffects consuumption paatterns. Mayy you deall with the
impportance off food: its quuality and availability
a aat all time. Keep
K your
atteention to thhis matter annd enjoy youur learning jjourney!
Modulee
Objectivves/Outcom
mes Takken from cllustered ILOOs
 Describee the whole animal induustry, its role in the socciety, the
ecology of animals and its relationship witth the changging
climate
Lessonss in the moddule For students too have an iddea, just sim
mply enumerate lessonss
conntained in a module.
Lesson 1: Intrroduction too Animal Sccience

Lesson 2: Ecoology of Aniimals
Lesson 3: Liveestock and Climate Chhange
LATE 4: The
TEMPL T Lesson Structure
(Will bee used indivvidually durring the selff-paced writte shop)
Modulee No. 1- INTRODU
UCTION
and Titlle
Lesson No. 1- Introductiion to Anim
mal Science
and Titlle
Learninng L 1.Describbe the wholle animal inndustry, andd its role.
LO
Outcommes
Time Frrame 1-Week
Introduction Hello, how are

H a you doinng? Are youu ready to start
s your leesson 1 in module
m 1? Iff
itt is yes, beegin to studdy your lesson in a minute
m becauuse this wiill give youu
suufficient innformation on the prinnciples of animal sciience, its role
r and itss
purpose. Maay you have the best tim me and you can start rigght here!
Underline thhe term/s commonly used

U u scientiifically in aanimal prodduction and
d
Activityy m
management t.
1

Domesticatio
on FEE
EDING Bre
eeding an art
MARKET cultivvation CARE AN INDUSTRY
NUTRITION JURIS
SDICTION MANAGEM
MENT TRA
ANSPIRATIO
ON
A
AS SCIENCE REPR
RODUCTION
N GERMIN
NATION
GRAND TO
OTAL /10
Analysiis This is just an

T a ice break ker, will you
u able to ansswer the folllowing queestion based
d
on your own n perception n, experiencce and know wledge. Tryy to assess on the bestt
w you can
way n so that it will
w becomee easier for youy to deal with the veery situation n
given on thiss lesson.
1. Can you u explain the primary purpose
p of animal dommestication??
_______ ____________________ ____________________ __________ _
_______ ____________________ ____________________ __________ _
_______ ____________________ ____________________ ________.
2. What wiill happen to t you if theere are no animals
a in this planet??
Their role in our a.
a DIET b. ECCONOMY??
_______ ____________________ ____________________ __________ _
._______ __________ __________ ____________________ _________
_______ ____________________ ____________________ _________.
3. What do o you thinnk is the best consiideration in

n including
g
principlees of animal science as a course??
_______ ________________________________________ ___________
_______ ________________________________________ ___________
_______ ________________________________________ _________.
Abstracction
Man, Animals
A an
nd Ecosysteems
Man’s role in
M i relation to
t plants annd animals is beautifuully defined in Genesiss
1:28-29 of th
he Holy Bib
ble when Good said to Adam
A and Evve:
“BBe fertile an
nd multiplee, fill the earrth and subddue it. Hav
ve dominion n
over the fish h of the seaa, the birds of the air aand over alll the living
g
hings that move
th m on eaarth”. God also said, ““See, I givee you every y
seeed-bearingg plant all over
o the eaarth and eveery tree thaat has seed--
bearing fruitt on it to be your food; and to all tthe animals of the land,
all the birds of the air and
a all the living creattures that crawl on thee
ground,
g I giv
ve all the grreen plants for
f food”.
In th
he beginnin
ng, man did not havee to cultivaate the lan
nd nor herd d
nimals for his food. Fruits on the trees, eggs in thee nests weere plentifull
an
2

waiting only
w y to be gath
hered. Aniimals are on n the rangee and fishess are in thee
w
water waitin
ng to be cauught. But in the courrse of his exxistence, man
m felt thatt
n
nature’s bouunty was noot enough too satisfy him
m. He deccided that so omehow hee
h to have animals, fo
had or his food. But even n as he worrked hard ono the land,
faamine cam me. Peoplee went hun ngry and many
m perishhed. As part
p of thee
eccological milieu,
m man and
a animalss had much to do with it.
In an m the continuued growth of plants an

n ecosystem nd animals depends onn
m
maintenancee of the balance betweeen the food
d producerss (plants) an
nd the food
d
co
onsumers (aanimals and
d man).
Plantts, through their photoosynthetic activity

a convvert energy
y of the sunn
innto carbohyydrates. Theey also fix nitrogen fro om atmosphhere and, toogether withh
thhe other eleements of thhe air, waterr and soil, convert
c them
m into proteeins. Plantss
arre thereforee, producers of energy y and proteein foods. Animals, on o the otherr
h
hand, directtly or indirrectly conssume plantts for theirr energy, growth
g andd
reeproduction n. As consu umers, somme animals feed only oon plants (h herbivores),
soome feed on n other anim
mals only (ccarnivores) and some ffeed on both h plants andd
annimals (ommnivores). Man
M is omniivorous.
Whille animals return

r part of
o the nutrieents that theey consume back to thee
oil and eveentually to the plants, the amou
so unt is muchh less than n what they y
w
withdraw froom the plan nts. Much of the enerrgy taken inn by animaals from thee
plants is disssipated to th
he atmospheere during respiration.
r Thus, for a given land
d
arrea, the groowth of an nimal popullation could d introducee an imbalaance in thee
eccosystem inn a way thatt could depllete the vegeetation.
Inn a system
m where anim mals are prroduced in a pastoral system and d where thee
reegrowth of vegetation is left entirrely to natu
ure, the landd could be easily
e over--
grazed to thee extent thaat, while annimals contiinue to reprroduce and increase inn
n
number, veg
getation is not
n given th he opportunnity to recovver its norm
mal growth.
Inndeed in maany parts off the world what
w used to t be areas oof lush vegeetation havee
become deseerts.
Asidee from plan nts, animals are also sources of food energ gy for man.
But because of the dissipation of energy
B e in th
he process oof conversio
on of plantss
an
nd other feeedstuffs into
o animal pro
oducts, anim
mals are pooor producerrs of food.
A
Animal and Its Econom
mic Utility
Notwwithstandingg the relativ

ve inefficien
ncy of animaals in the prroduction off
foood, they are
a importaant compon nents of thhe food prooduction sy ystem. Forr
exxample, an nimals havee the follow wing distinnctive attrib
butes that enhance
e thee
abbility of an agriculturall system to produce foood for man:
 Anim
mals can feeed on and
d convert plants
p and other materials which
h
3

woulld have otheerwise gonee to waste, in

nto rich hum
man food; and
a
 Anim
mal productts have chhemical com mposition that closely y resemblee
man’s dietary reequirement and
a thereforre more diggestible and nutritious.
In crrop producction, only a fraction n of biomaass is fit for human n

onsumption
co n. In rice production,
p , for examp
ple, only abbout half of the entiree
h
harvested biomass is grrains. The rest are hiighly cellullosic strawss which can
n
only be conssumed as feeed by ruminnant animals like cattlee and carabaaos.
Evenn in the proccessing of riice grains in

nto polishedd rice, by-prroducts likee
riice bran caannot be eaaten by maan but coulld be a palatably rich h source off
n
nutrients for animals. Animals
A likee the ruminaants could feed
f on biommass wastess
suuch as strawws, stoverss, hays, graasses and leeaves of otther crops anda convertt
thhem into hig
ghly concen ntrated proteein foods (llike milk an
nd meat) thaat are highlyy
d
digestible an
nd nutritiouss to man.
Food
d from plantts may conttain protein but their chhemical commposition iss
quite different from thaat of man. Plant
q P proteiins are of loower quality
y comparedd
too that of an
nimals. While
W some people hav ve succeedeed in adoptting strictlyy
vegetarian diet,
d humann beings haave learned to like thee distinctiv ve flavor off
annimal foodd products. Many hav ve tried butt none succceeded in synthesizing
s g
plant proteinns into food
d products tthat have th
he distinctivve flavor an
nd aroma off
m
meat, milk or
o eggs. An nimal food products will
w always be prime food fo item in n
thhe human diet.
While food is the most importantt contributio

W on of anim
mals to humman welfare,
annimals have been dom mesticated by
b man also to provid de him with h skins andd
h
hairs for cloothing and shelter, annimal poweer for transpport and trraction, andd
beauty, graace subservient tem mperament for mann’s amuseement and d
coompanionsh hip. Certain animal products
p an
nd by-produucts are alsso used forr
foood produccts such as glue from m horns, ferrtilizer and feed from bones and d
offals, insulaated clothing
g from feath
hers, etc.
T
Table 1. Farm
m animal sp
pecies domessticated by man
m for agrricultural va
alue/ uses
__________
__ __________
___________________________________________________
S
SPECIES SCIENTIFIC NAME
N MAIIN USES
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________
Mammals
M
Horse Equuus caballoss Tractionn,transport aand amusem ment
Ass Equuus asinus Tracttion and traansport
Mulee (Hybrid of
o male ass and mare) Tracttion and traansport
Cameel Camelus
C droomedarius Transport
Cattle (no (Meat, milk,
m hide traaction and
mp)
hum Boos Taurus t
transport)
Buffaalo Bubbalus buballis M
Meat, milk, traction andd transport
4

Sheepp Ovis ariees Meat, miilk, and hairr (wool)

Goat Capra
C hircuss Meatt and milk
Pigs Sus
S scrofa Meatt
Rabbbit Oryctolagus
O cuniculus Meatt and skin
B
Birds
ken
Chick Gallus galllus Meatt, eggs and amusementt
Duckk (Mallard) Anas latyrhhnchos Meatt and eggs
(
(Muscovy) Cairina moschata Meatt and eggs
Goosse Anser
A domessticus Meatt and eggs
Turkey Meleagris
M gaallopavo Meatt and eggs
on
Pigeo Columba
C livia Meatt and amuseement
Quail Coturnix
C cotturnix Meatt and eggs
nea fowl Numida
Guin N meleeagris Meatt
=
=========
========= ========= ========= =========
========= ========
A
Animal Agriiculture andd the Popullation Probblem
FAO and otherr institution ns suggest that

t global meat prod duction and
d
coonsumption n will rise from
f 233 million
m tonn
nes (2000) to 300 milllion tonness
(22020), and milk from 568 to 700 0 million to
onnes over the same period.
p Egg
g
production will
w also inccrease by 30 0 percent. These
T prediictions show
w a massivee
inncrease in animal
a proteein demand d, needed too satisfy thee growth in
n the human
n
population, and
a the incrreasing affluuence of thhe emergingg economiess. However,
m
much of thee growth has
h been tak king place in a relativvely small number off
coountries, inncluding soome of thee most pop pulous ones, e.g. Chiina, Brazil.
Inncluding th hese two countries,
c the per caapita meat consumpttion in thee
d
developing c
countries went from 11 1 to 23 kg in
n the 2 decades to the mid-1990s.
E
Excluding th
hese two couuntries, it w
went from 111 kg to onlyy 15 kg.
Withh the everr-increasing g human populationn and thee attendantt

coontraction of
o load for agriculturaal production, the challlenge to pro
oduce moree
annimal food products iss becoming more and more
m severe. In recennt years, thee
raate of increease of Fillipinos is already
a oveertaking thee growth ini livestockk
population inn the Philipp
pines
Inn demograp
phics, the world
w populaation is the total numbeer of human
ns currently
y
5

liiving, and was

w estimatted to havee reached 7,,800,000,0000 people as a of March h
2020.
In otther developping countrries where resources are still ab bundant, thee
potential fo or supplyin ng the aniimal proteiin requirem ment of itts growing g
population still exists. In the Phillippines, forr example, it is estimaated that thee
present grasssland resouurces can su upport moree than twicee the presen nt cattle and d
caarabao popu ulation. Thhe by-produucts of our staple
s and inndustrial crrops such ass
riice and canne tops, if fully
f utilizeed, could sttill support additional millions off
thhese ruminaants. Develoopment of pproduction systems
s thatt will efficieently utilizee
thhese resourrces and thee improvem ment in the socio-polittical condittions in thee
co ountryside are
a necessarry to attain this goal.
In hiighly develloped coun ntries such as those inn North America and d
Western Eurrope, tremeendous imp
W provement in i animal pproductivityy have been n
atttained becaause of the applicationn of modern n science aand technolo
ogy in theirr
production systems.
s Heence, in spiite of the po
opulation inncrease and contraction
n
of agriculturral land, theey have been n able to prroduce moree animal prroducts than
n
thhey required
d.
A
Animal Scieence and thee Animal In
ndustry
Like all other prroductive seectors of thee economy, the continu

ued viability
y
annd progress of the an nimal indusstry depend ds on how it is able to respond d
suuccessfully well to th he changingg conditionss of the biological, ph hysical andd
soocio-econom mic and political envirronments. Advances iin animal sccience keep p
thhe industry responsivee to these en nvironmenttal changes.. The deveelopment off
m
more efficien
nt and prodductive breeds and varieeties of anim
mals througgh breeding,
of cheaper an nd more nu utritious feed
d materials for animal feed, of new
w drugs and d
feeed additiv ves of new w systems of housin ng and maanagement that moree
ecconomically y improve the
t health an nd performaance of animmals.
T
Table 2. An
nimal Inven
ntory as of January 01, 2020
Speciees Popullation Back
kyard Commercial
C
Cattle 2..54M with + .003% Growth 94.11% 5.9%
Carabao 2,, 865.72 Thouusand -3%
% 99.66% 0.4%
Chicken 1885.58M + .4%
%
N
Native/Improvved 44.3%
Broiler 33.4%
Layer 22.3%
D
Duck 111.79M + 1.99% 65.99% 34.1%
D
Dairy Animalls 444, 434 Hds +66.34%
Cattle +8.95%
+
Carabao +
+2.91%
Goat +
+6.75%
Goat 3..81 M + 1.5% 98.66% 1.4%
6

Swine 122.71 M -0.2% 62.33% 37.7%

S
Source:
Livestock
k and Poulttry Produccts
peer capita consump
ption for NCR per capita consumption for Davao Region
Chicken 14.51 kg. 9.07 kgg.
P
Pork 13.63 kg. 9.79 kgg.
Carabeef 14 g.
g .03 g.
B
Beef 1.30 kkg. 1.37 kgg.
Chicken Eggg 123 pieces 81 piecees
D
Duck Egg 1 pieece 2 piecess
F
Fresh/ Pasteuurized 0.65 L. .08 kg.. Duck meat
M
Milk
Crrops and Cereals
R
Rice 98.46 kg. 94.40 kgg.
Corn .46 kg
k 40.68 kgg.
Sweet Potatto 2.37 kg 3.46 kgg.
W
White Potatto 1.55 kg. 0.23 kgg.
1.71 kgg Cassava
0.61 kgg. Gaabi
Fish and Other Marrine Produccts
Tilapia 7.47 kg. 1.51 kgg
M
Milkfish 6.93 kg. 4.48 kgg.
R
Roundscad 5.29 kg 4.5 kg.
M
Mussels 0.79 kg. 0.89 kgg
D
Dalagang Bukid
B 1.02 kg. 0.47 kgg.
7.37 kgg. Tun
na
S
Source:PSA
A, 2018
Applicaation Finally, you are on thee stage of self-checking

F s g. Answer the activitiees providedd
below, and youy are rem minded to ffollow the instructions
i s carefully. Enjoy yourr
leearning appplication! Do
D your bestt and be honnest.
E
Exercise A.
Innstruction: Match coluumn A(speccies) and coolumn B (sscientific naame). Writee

thhe letter of the
t correct answer on the
t space prrovided beffore the nummber item.
Column A
C Coluumn B
___1. Gooat a. Oviss aries
_
___2. Pig b. Bos tauurus
___3.Qu uail c. Capraa hircus
___4. Caattle d. Sus scrrofa
__
___5. Rabbitt e. Coluumbia livia
7

___6. Chick
_ ken f. Coturnix coturnix
c
____7. Sheeep g Gallus ga
g. allus
__
___8. Turkeyy h. Oryctolaguus cuniculuss
__
___9. Camell i. Bubalus bubalis
__
___10. Pigeoon j. Camelus drromedariuss
k. Meleagrris gallopavvo
E
Exercise B.
Innstruction: Encircle
E thee letter of thhe correct answer.
a
1. These anim
mals are maainly used inn traction, except;
e
a. Ass b. Cattle c. Caamel d Horse
d.
2. The most populous

p am
mong animaal species iss;
a. Gallus gallus
g b.
b Ovis ariess c. Coturn nix coturnixx d. Capra
a hircus
3. Developedd countries attained imp

mprovement in animal pproductivityy is due to;
a. Prroduce moree animal pro oducts
b. Ap
pply modern n science annd technolog
gy
c. Impproved breeeding
d. Ad
dvances in animal
a scien
nce
4. The estimaated world population

p as of March
h 2020 is;
a. 7,8
800,000,0000 people
b. 7
7,800,000 p
people
c. 104,000,000 people
d. 1044,00,000,0000 people
onsumption of beef in Davao

5. It is the peer capita co D Regioon;
a. 9.0
07 kg. b.
b 9.79 kg. c. 0.3 kg
g. d. 1.337 kg.
Closuree Congratulatiions! You hu

C urdle lessonn 1 with so much ease. You may proceed
p to
y
your last task
k given belo
ow. Keep yo our enthusiaasm!
8

MODU
ULE ASSES
SSMENT
Prepare a case
c study ono food, an nimal and sppace sufficiiency on onne (1) amon
ng the farm
m
animalss’ species coovered by this
t lesson. Research hhow they ab ble to comppete with hu
umans in alll
aspects,, possible. Just followw the provid ded format (IBC) below and be jjudicious en nough. Youu
may usee a separatee sheet if thee space prov
vided is insu
ufficient. Good
G luck!
Rubriccs:
Requireed Elementss (Identificaation of the main issuess) - 40%
Analysiis and Evaluuation - 30%
Writing
g Mechanicss 0%
- 20
Creativity -10%
1000%
uction (3-5 sentences)
Introdu
Body (8
8-15 senten
nces)
Conclu
usion
9

MODU
ULE SUMM
MARY
The naturaal endowmeents of eartth are entru
usted to maan. To be tthe highest among thee
levels organism,
o hee has to maanage and conserve thee highly dim
minishing reesources to prolong thee
usage for
fo both needds and wantts.
Food is said to be the most physiiological neeeds that can n be producced out from m the plantss
and anim
mals that coontain viablle nutrients that supporrt metabolic activities to
o sustain liffe.
Animals’ role
r in hum
man diet can nnot be repplaced by any
a food m material in terms
t of itss
superiorr quality. T
Thus, producction and management
m t are among
g the top priiorities to d
deal with itss
suppresssive conseqquences justt meet both ends of hum
man existen
nce.
REFER
RENCES
Caballees, D.G., Fllorida, J.S. 2013. Biolo
ogical Sciennce. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. 105
Eng gineering R
Road, Araneeta Universitty Village, PPotrero, Maalabon City.
Davis, P.
P W., Soloomon, E.P.1
1979. The Worlds
W of Biiology. McG
Graw-Hill B
Book Company.
Hilllsborough Community
C y College.
Food an
nd Agricullture Organ nization of the United
d Nations Regional
R Offfice for Asiia and the
Paccific http://w
www.fao.orrg/3/x6552ee/X6552E044.htm
ALE Reviewer.
R

10
Module 2
Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals
Module Overview:
Animal Anatomy and Physiology is the scientific study of the life-supporting

properties, functions and processes of animals or their parts. . It is an experimental scientific
discipline and is of central importance in medicine and related health sciences. It provides a
thorough understanding of normal body function, enabling more effective treatment of
abnormal or disease states.
Module Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Define anatomy and physiology as branch of science,
 Identify and familiarize the parts, function and how they perform their tasks, and
 Describe the importance of the different body system of farms animals.
Lessons in the Module:
The following are the lessons for you to be discussed:

Lesson 1: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 2: Skeletal System
Lesson 3: Muscular System
Lesson 4: Nervous System
Lesson 5: Endocrine system
Lesson 6: Cardiovascular System
Lesson7: Lymphatic System
Lesson 8: Respiratory System
Lesson 9: Reproductive system
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Structure (anatomy) deals with the different parts of the animal body,
such as; cells, tissues, bone, and muscle. Function (physiology) covers the
different systems that are at work in animal body, such as; digestive, loco
motor, urinary, and reproductive systems. Anatomy & Physiology will give you
an insight into the complex nature of the human body and the countless
different systems that make it up. It's crucial for medicine, and through
studying and working in the field, you'll be helping to improve other people's
health and wellbeing.
Three types of Anatomy:
Gross anatomy – is the study of the forms and relations of the structure of the
body which can be seen with an unaided eye.
Comparative anatomy – is the study of the structure of various species of
animals with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in
classification.
Microscopic anatomy- is subdivided into cytology study of cells) and histology
study of tissues)
System Name of Study Chief Structure
Skeletal system Osteology Bones
Articular system Arthrology Joints
Muscular system Mycology Muscles
Digestive system Splanchnology Stomach and intestines
Respiratory system Lungs and air passages
Urinary system Kidneys and bladder
Reproductive system Splanchnology Ovaries and testes
Endocrine system Endocrinology Ductless gland
Nervous system Neurology Brain, spinal cord and
nerve
Circulatory system Angiology Heart, blood vessels
Integumentary system Dermatology Skin
Sensory system Esthesiology Eye and aer
Table 1. Nomenclature of Systematic Anatomy
Descriptive terms useful in the study of anatomy
 Cranial and anterior are directional terms meaning toward the head.
 Caudal and posterior mean toward the tail
 The median plane is an imaginary plane passing through the body
craniocaudally, which divides the body into equal right and left halves.
 A sagittal plane is any plane parallel to the median plane.
 A transverse plane is at right angles to the median plane and divides
the body into cranial and caudal segments.
 A frontal plane is at right angle to both the median plane and
transverse planes.
 The frontal plane divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral
(lower) segments.
 Medial is an adjective meaning close to or toward the median plane.
 Lateral is the antonym of medial; it means away from the median
plane.
 Dorsal is a directional term meaning toward or beyond the backbone or
vertebral column.
 Ventral means away from the vertebral column or toward the mid-
abdominal wall.
 Proximal means relatively close to a given part.
 Distal means relatively farther from the given part.
Prone- refers to a position in which the dorsal aspect or dorsum of the body or
any extremity is uppermost. Pronation refers to the act of turning toward a
prone position.
Supine -refers to the position in which the ventral aspect of the body is
uppermost. Supination refers to the act of turning toward a supine position.
I. External Anatomy of farm Animals
1. head- composed of sensory organs
2. trunk- composed of dorsal and ventral cavities, neck and appendages
3. Tail- begins at the caudal end of the digestive tract
II. Internal Anatomy of farm Animals
End of Lesson 1, Module 2
Keep up the good work!

Let’s review what you have understood.
Knowledge Check
1. In your own understanding, what are the differences of Anatomy from

Physiology?
2. How are you going to apply the concept of Anatomy and Physiology in raising
farm animals?
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeleton- framework of hard structures which support and protect the soft
tissues of the animal’s body.
Osteology- study of bones that makes up the skeleton.
Classification of Bones:
1. Long bones- elongated, cylindrical form with enlarge extremities.

Function: support and lever
Examples: Femur, humerus, radius, Ulna and tibia (longest bone)
2. Short bones- similar dimension in length, width and thickness.
Function: diffusing concussion (shock and injury)
Example: Carpus and Tarsus
3. Flat bones- expanded in two directions

Function: they cover to protect the organs
Example: bones of the skull, scapula and pelvic bone
4. Irregular bones- irregular in shapes

Function: not clearly stated
Example: vertebrae, caudal bones (bone of the tail), cervical (bones of
the neck)
Functions of the bones:
1. Protects vital organs
2. Provide rigidity and form of the body
3. Bones acts as lever
4. It store minerals
5. This is the sight of blood formation/synthesis.
Figure 2. Skeletal system of the chicken

Post test 1. Multiple Choice
Instruction: Encircle the letter of the answer describe in the questions above.
(5 min.)
1. This kind of bone has a similar dimension in length and thickness.

a. Long bones
b. short bones
c. Irregular bones
d. flat bones
2. It refers to the hard structure that protects the soft tissues of the animal’s body.
a. Skin
b. Claws
c. Skeleton
d. hair
3. The vertebrae belongs to what kind of bone?
a. Long bones
b. short bones
c. Irregular bones
d. flat bones
4. The bones of the skull belongs to what kind of bone?
a. Long bones
b. short bones
c. Irregular bones
d. flat bones
5. This refers to study of bones that makes up the skeleton.
a. Neurology
b. Osteology
c. Boneology
d. Skeletology
Post test 2. Discussion.
Instruction: Discuss comprehensively the provided questions below. (10min.)
1. What is the main function of the bone?

2. Why does the bones comes in different shapes and sizes?
3. Give at least 2 examples of irregular bones.
4. Give at least 2 examples of flat bones.
Lesson 3, Module 2
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Myology- is the study of muscles and their accessory organs
Kinds of muscle tissue:
 Voluntary Striated muscle
- Connected directly or indirectly to the skeleton ( skeletal muscle)
- Covers the greater part of the body
- Determines the form of the body
- Red in color with varying shades
- -some are attached to the skin (cutaneous muscles)
- Individual cells are striated (striped), multinuclear located near the surface
- Each muscle fiber is controlled by voluntary nerve (motor neuron) and is
under conscious condition.
 Involuntary striated muscle

- Known as Cardiac muscle (muscle in the heart)
- Cells are arranged in a network, striated and nuclei are centrally located
- Contraction requires no nerve stimulus (no conscious control)
 Smooth muscle
- Involuntary and unstriated muscle
- Found in the visceral organs, walls of the blood vessels, urogenitals and
respiratory organs
- Contraction requires no nerve stimulus
- Cells are spindle-shaped, arranged in sheets, bundles or network with
centrally-located nuclei
- Some cells are scattered throughout the tissue (e.g. skin muscle that
raises the hair)
Flexor muscle- muscles that causes the body parts to bend
Functions of the muscle:

1. Source of protein
2. It provides the power to move
3. Force out secretions of the organs, exept endocrine glands (involuntary
muscles)
4. Provide impetus for movement of ingesta
5. Responsible for uterine motility
6. Causes contraction of the heart and increase or decrease the diameter of
blood vessels (regulates blood flow)
7. Aid in expelling fetus at parturition

(5 min.)
1. This kind of muscle as known as Cardiac Muscle
a. Flexor muscle
b. Smooth muscle
c. Cardiac Muscle
d. Hard muscle
2. This muscle causes the body parts to bend.

a. Flexor muscle
b. Smooth muscle
c. Cardiac Muscle
d. Hard muscle
3. This muscle determines the form of the body
a. Involuntary Muscle
b. Smooth muscle
c. Voluntary muscle
d. Hard muscle
4. The function of the muscle are the following, except:

a. Aid in expelling fetus at parturition
b. Provide impetus for movement of ingesta
c. Causes contraction of the heart and increase or decrease the diameter of
blood vessels (regulates blood flow)
d. Source of nitrogen.
5. It is the study of muscles and its accessory organs.

a. Musculogy
b. Adrogenology
c. Myology
d. Osteology
Lesson 4, Module 2
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Importance:
1. Responsible for functional relation between the organism and its environment
2. Coordination of various parts of the body system
Nerves
- Nerve cells or neurons specialized I impulse conduction or the relay of the
message
Classifications of the neurons (depends of the direction of the impulses):
a. Afferent (sensory) neurons- transmit nerve impulses from effector
organ to the spinal cord or brain
b. Efferent (motor) neuron- transmits nerve impulses away from the brain
or spinal cord towards the muscles and glands
c. Interneurons – conduct impulses from an afferent neuron to an efferent
neuron within the central nervous system which is made up of brain
and the spinal cord.
Structure of neurons
Neurons consist of:
 Cell body
 Axon
 Dendrites
Axons and dendrites are often called as nerve fibers.
Receptors
- the distal end of the dendrites of sensory neuron
- They receive the stimuli that initiate the conduction of impulses to the cell
body of the neuron.
Axon
- is a single process that extends out from the cell body and may end up on a
synapse or on any effector organ.
Synapse
- the small gap in netween the nerve cells or neuron that cannot be contact
directly with each other.
A. Divisions of the Nervous system:

1. Brain
- Cerebrum (cells of cerebral cortex or gray matter). Aids in the highest type
of mental activities such as voluntary muscle control, interpretation of
sensations and reasoning
- Cerebellum (centrally-located or the white matter)
- Brain stem (medulla oblongata)
2. Spinal Cord
- Caudal continuation of the medulla oblongata
- Receives sensory fibers by way of the dorsal roots of the spinal nerve
- Gives off the motor (efferent) fibers to the ventral roots of the spinal nerve.
B. Peripheral Nervous system

Includes all the nervous structures outside the brain and spinal cord
 Spinal nerve- supply sensory and motor fibers. These appendages
are supplied by braidlike arrangements of nerves known as plexus.
 Brachial plexus- supplied to each forelimb
 Lumbo-sacral plexus- composed of right and left plexus
made up of ventral branches of the last few lumbar and first
1 or 2 sacral nerves.
C. Automatic nervous system

Parts of the peripheral nervous system that innervates smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles and glands subdivided into:
 Sympathetic nervous system

- Also know as the thoraco-lumbar portion because the sympathetic outflow
is mainly from the thoracic and lumbar spinal nerve
 Parasympathetic nervous system
- Made up of cranial and sacral portion.
Table 2.
Organs Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Eyes Dilation of pupil Constriction of pupil
Salivary glands Vasoconstriction Vasodilation
Lungs Relaxes muscles Contracts muscles
GI tract Inhibits motility and Excites motility,
constricts sphincters Relaxes sphincter
Urinary bladder relaxes contracts

(5 min.)
1. It is a single process that extends out from the cell body and may end up on a
synapse or on any effector organ.
a. Axon
b. Nerve
c. Dendrites
d. Receptors
2. This composed of right and left plexus made up of ventral branches of the last few
lumbar and first 1 or 2 sacral nerves.
a. Spinal nerve
b. Efferent
c. Lumbo sacral plexus
d. Bracial plexus
3. These are nerve cells specialized in impulse conduction or the relay of the message
a. Axon
b. Nerve
c. Dendrites
d. Receptors
4. It is the small gap between the nerve cells or neuron that cannot be contact directly
with each other.
a. Receptors
b. Dendrites
c. Synapse
d. Receptors
5. It refers to the gray part of the brain.
a. Caudal
b. Cerebrum
c. Cerebellum
d. Medulla oblongata
6. It is the distal end of the dendrites of the sensory neuron

a. Axon
b. Nerve
c. Dendrites
d. Receptors
Post Test 2. Discussion.
1. Compare and contrast the 3 Divisions of the Nervous System in a comprehensive

manner. (10 min.)

Lesson 5, Module 2
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine glands secretes chemical mediators called hormones that
regulates growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, stress response, body
and tissue fluid and electrolyte balance.
Endocrinology- branch of physiology that deals with the coordination of various body
tissues by chemical mediators.
Hormone- chemical substance produced by endocrine glands that are carried by the
circulation to the target organs.
Hormones may be classified as simple proteins, glycoproteins and steroid but they
all have common characteristics and functions:
 Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions
 Hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts
 Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates
 Hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect or
at some other glands and organs; and
 Hormones are transported through the circulatory system or blood stream
1. The Pituitary gland or Hypophysis

- Also known as hypophysis cerebri and is located at the base of the brain.
Consist of the following:
 Anterior Lobe (adenophypophysis)- it has a projections known as
pars tuberalis that extends along the front of the pituitary stalk to the
brain.
Adenophypophysis secretes the following hormones:
a. Somatotropic Hormone or Growth Hormone (STH/GH)- promotes growth of

the long bones before the epiphyseal-diaphyseal plate is fused together in
adulthood.
Gigantism- over secretion of STH that happens before adulthood
Acromegaly- when this happens after adulthood
Dwarfism- occurs when there is a deficiency of STH during growth
Development
b. Adrenocoticotropic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates the adrenal cortex to

produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, costisone and corticosterone.
c. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)- stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones
d. Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH)- stimulates milk secretion in lactating

mammary gland
e. Follicle- Stimulating Hormone (FSH)- stimulates the ovary to produce graafian

follicle, in the male it maintais the integrity or the seminiferous tubules of the
testis.
f. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)- stimulates ovulation in maturing graafian follicle

and the formation of corpus Luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the
production of progesterone by the corpus luteum. In the male, it stimulates the
cells of leydig or interstitial cells to produce testosterone , a male sex
hormone.
 Intermediate Lobe (pars intermedia)- this lobe produces

melanocytes
Melanocytes- a specialized skin cells that produces the protective

skin-darkening pigment melanin.
 Posterior lobe (pars nervosa or neuro- hypophysis)- are largely
made up of special neuroglial cells (Pituicytes) and nerves fibers
derived from nerve cells in hypothalamic nuclei.
Hormones:
a. Oxytocin- stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females
b. Vasopresin or Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)- this is important in
conserving body water by reducing urine formation.
2. Adrenals
- Also known as suprarenal glands in man
- It is located close to the kidney
- Each adrenal gland consists of:
Outer zone (the cortex)
Inner zone (the medulla)
Hormones of the Adrenal cortex:

Hormone Principal Action
Glucocorticoids Stimulate conversion of protein to carbohydrates
for
energy (Glucogenesis)
Mineralocorticoids Regulates Na-K metabolism; control electrolytes
and
Water
Hormones of Adrenal Medula:

Epinephrine Augment sympathetic nervous system
Norepinephrine Preparation for emergency; mobilization of energy
3. Thyroid
- This gland os located at the neck area just below the Larynx. There are
also 2 lobes of thyroid connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called
Isthmus.
- This maintains the level of metabolism in the tissues that is optimal for
their normal function.
Hormones of Thyroid:
Thyroxine (T4) Increases the basal metabolic rate of an individual
Calcitonin Regulates calcium metabolism
Lack of Thyroid Hormone (Hypothyroidism) causes:
1. Dwarfism condition (cretinism)
2. Delayed puberty
3. Irregular estrus
4. Decreased fertility in females
5. Decreased spermatogenesis, testicular growth and semen quality
Excess thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism) causes:
1. Increase metabolic rate
2. Loss of weight with normal or increased appetite
3. Irritability
4. Nervousness
5. Protussion of the eyeball (exophthalmos) in man
Goiter- enlargement of the thyroid gland due to a deficiency of iodine in the diet
and certain drugs such as sufonamides and vegetables containing compounds
called goitrogens or antithyroid compounds. Iodine is an important component of
thyroxine.
4. Parathyroid
- These are small nodules located within or near the thyroid gland
Hormones of Parathyroid:
Parathyroid hormone regulates metabolism of Ca and P
In young animals, demineralization of the bones results to Rickets but in
adults, it is known as Osteomalacia. In rickets or Osteomalacia, the amount of
mineral accretion in bone per unit of bone matrix, the condition is known as
Osteoporosis. Likewise, these bone disease will also manifest in severe vitamin D
deficiency.
Calcitonin also known as Thyrocalcitonin is a hormone that lowers calcium
level in the blood, thus, has an opposite effect to that of parathyroid hormone which
increases calcium level in the blood.
5. Pancreas
- This gland is located at the duodenal lope of the small intestine. It is both
an exocrine and endocrine gland. It functions as exocrine gland when its
acinar cells secrete pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. The
endocrine function is limited to the cells of the islets of langerhans which is
found throughout the pancreas.
Hormones of Pancreas:
Insulin prevents diabetes mellitus
Glucagon Increases sugar
Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells of
the tissues, thus, increasing glucose utilization by the cells. Insulin excess
causes hypoglycaemia, which leads to convulsions and coma. Insulin
deficiency either absolute or relative, causes Diabetes Mellitus, a complex
and debilitating disease that if untreated is eventually fatal. Glucagon
deficiency can cause hypoglycaemia and glucagon excess makes
diabetes worse.
6. Gonads
- These are sex glands/organs (ovaries and testes)
Hormones of Gonads:
Estrogen regulates female secondary sexual

characters
and sexual behaviour
Progesterone Maintains pregnancy and prepares
mammary
gland for lactation
Androgen regulates male secondary sexual characters
and sexual behaviour
Chorionic gonadotropin Maintains normal pregnancy
Post Test 1. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of correct answer.
1. This hormone is important in conserving water by reduction of the urine

formation of the body
a. Oxytocin
b. Vasopressin
c. Posterior lobe
d. Intermediate lobe
2. It refers to the hormones that stimulates milk secretion in lactating mammary
gland
a. Prolactin
b. Follicle Stimulating Hormone
c. Luteinizing Hormone
d. None of the above
3. This is also known as suprarenal gland
a. Oxytocin
b. Vasopressin
c. Adrenals
d. Intermediate lobe
4. This hormones promotes growth of long bones before the epiphyseal-

diaphyseal plate that is fused together during adulthood
a. Somatotropic Hormone
b. Adrenocoticotropic hormone
c. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
5. This lobe produces melanocytes.
a. Pars intermedia
b. Melanocytes
c. Follicle
d. Pars nervosa
6. This hormone regulates the calcium metabolism

a. Thyroxine
b. Epinephrine
c. Antidiuretic hormone
d. Calcitonin
7. This hormone that stimulates the ovary to produce graafian follicle, in the
male it maintais the integrity or the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
a. Prolactin
b. Follicle Stimulating Hormone
c. Luteinizing Hormone
8. It refers to the branch of physiology that deals with the coordination of various
body tissues by chemical mediators.
a. Endocriminology
b. Hormonology
c. Endocrinology
d. Neurology
9. These are the functions of the hormones, except:

a. Hormones are transported through the circulatory system or blood stream
b. Hormones are secreted in uniform rates
c. Hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts
d. Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions
10. This are chemical mediators secreted by the endocrine galns which regulates
growth and development, etc.
a. Glycoproteins
b. Hypophysis
c. Hormones
d. Cerebri
Post Test 2. Discussion
1. What is the relationship between pancreas and the blood sugar level?
2. Differentiate Estrogen and Androgen
Lesson 6, Module 2
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The Cardiovascular System includes the heart, the blood and the blood
vessels through which the blood flows in circulation. The CVS has the
following functions:
 To convey nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues

 To carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from
the Tissues to the lungs
 To remove the waste products of metabolism and take them to the
excretory organs for disposal
 To transport hormones from one part of the body to another
 To help maintaining the water equilibrium of the body
 To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body
 To assist in overcomin
ng disease antibodies contained
e by the a d in the
b
blood
1. Heart
-It is located d at the middle
m of the media astinal spaace. It is enclosed with a
pericarrdium or pericardial
p sac. The mammalia an heart has
h 4 cha ambers: 2 upper
chamb ber (atria), and the 2 lower chammber (venttricle). Sep
ptum separrates the Left
L and
the right side of the heart. But, they are still frree in commmunicatioon in betwe
een the
atrium and ventricle in the same
s side..
Parts of
o the Hearrt
1. Atrio-ventrrical valve--prevents the backflow of bloo od from the ventricle
e to the
atrium, during the ve entricular systole.
s
2. Tricuspid valve-
v valvve on the riight side.
3. Bicuspid valve
v (mitra
al valve) - valve
v on th
he left side.
Layerss of the Hea
art
1. Epicardium
m- the oute
er protectivve layer of the heart
2. Myocardiuum- muscuular middle layer wall of the hea art.
3. Endocardium- the inner layer ofo the hearrt.
Valvess of the hea

art
1. Atrio-ventrricular Valvve (A-V)- separated
s by
b sepum
1.1. Bicuspid Valvve- left
1.2. Triccuspid valvve- right
2. Semilunarr (S-L) valvves- preven

nt blood fro
om returnin
ng into the ventricles
2.1. Aorrtic S-L valve
2.2. Pulmonary S--L valve
Systolic- contracttion of the heart

Diastolic- relaxation of the heart
The Heat sound
Two sound are normally heard through a stethoscope; a low slightly “lubb”
sound. It is caused by the closing of mitral valve and tricuspid. A shorter high
pitched “dubb” sound is caused by the closure of the aortic valve and
pulmonary valve just after the end of the ventricular systole.
The blood then forced into the aorta during systole not only moves the
blood in the vessels forward but also sets up a pressure wave which travels
down the arteries. The pressure wave expands the arterial wall as it travels
and the expansion is palpable as the pulse. Pulse is a wave of dilation of an
artery originating from the aorta as the blood flows into it from the heart. The
rate of heartbeat is usually measured by determining the pulse rate.
Pulse rate per minute in different classes of animals:
Elephant 30-45 pulse rate/minute

Horses 38 pulse rate/minute
Carabao and cattle 54 pulse rate/minute
Goat 78 pulse rate/minute
Chicken 200-400 pulse rate/minute
Mouse 600 pulse rate/minute
Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on the following animals:
Horse- external maxillary artery or about the middle of the lower jaw
Cattle and carabao- similar location as in the horse but slightly on the outer
surface; coccygeal artery at the base of the underneath of the tail
Sheep, Goat, dog and Cat- femoral artery (Inner thigh)
Pigs and others- auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or
chest region
Factors affecting pulse rate:

1. Age
2. Excitement
3. Muscular exercise
4. high environmental temperature
5. Digestion of food
6. Sleep
7. Disease/illness
Trachycardia- considerable increase in pulse rate/ heart rate.

Bradycardia- considerable decrease in pulse rate/heart rate.
The Blood Vessels
Artery- the blood vessels that carries the blood away from the heart.
- The blood that is running in the artery is an oxygenated blood
Vein- blood vessels that carries the blood back to the heart.
- Blood runs in the vein is unoxygenated blood.
The only exemptions to this principles are the Pulmonary Arteries which
carries unoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs; and the
pulmonary veins which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium of the heart.
Aorta- carries the blood from the left ventricle to the different systemic
circulations, such as head, neck, trunk, limb and visceral organs.
The Blood Circulation

Venous blood coming from the different parts of the body is returned
back to the heart via Vena Cava to the right atrium. From the right atrium it
goes to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. Then it passes through
the pulmonary valve and goes to the artery which carries the blood to the
lungs (pulmonary circulation). In the lungs, exchange of gases takes place:
Carbon dioxide is given off and oxygen is taken in by the circulating blood.
The oxygenated blood is returned back to the heart by the pulmonary veins
which enter the heart at the left atrium. From the left atrium, blood goes to the
left ventricle through the mitral of bicuspid valve. Then it goes through the
aortic valve to the aorta which carries the blood to the different systemic
circulations. In systemic circulation, the oxygen is taken in by the tissues and
carbon dioxide is given off by the tissues to the circulating blood. These
cellular exchange of gases take place at the different capillary beds. Then all
the venous blood from the systemic circulations are returned back to the heart
via Vena cava.
The systematic circulation includes the following special systems of

blood circulations:
1. The coronary circulation- supplies blood to the heart itself
2. Hepatic circulation- supplies blood to the liver.
3. Cerebral circulation- supplies arterial blood to the brain.
4. Renal circulation- supplies arterial blood to the kidney
5. Splanchnic circulation- supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract.
The Blood
Blood is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of
electrolytes and some non-electrolytes by centrifugation.
2 categories of blood.
1. Plasma- fluid portion of the blood.
2. Corpuscles- the red and white blood cells
 Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
- Non-nucleated
- Biconcave circular disk
- Contains haemoglobin for transport of oxygen and red color
 White blood cells
- Nucleated
- Independent movement
- Classified as:
Granolucytes- neutropils
-Eosinophils
-Basophils
Agranulocytes- Monocytes
-Lymphocytes
Functions of the Blood:

1. Conveys nutrients to the tissues
2. Carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from
the tissues to the lungs
3. Carries wastes products to the excretory organs
4. Transports hormones to target organs
5. Helps control body temperature
6. Helps maintain water balance
7. Helps maintain constant pH in tissues/fluids
8. Aids in overcoming diseases.
The Lymphatic System
The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are related to the body fluid
compartments. The animal body is made up of 60-70% of water. This is distributed
as Intracellular fluid (ICF) and the Extracellular Fluid ( ECF). The ICF is about 40-
50% of the body weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
The Lymphatic system is composed of:
1. Lymph nodes-small bodies of lymphoid tissues which are ovoid or bean
shaped and located in strategic points of the body through which the lymph
passes on its way to the blood stream.
2. Lymph vessel- Lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of the body
tissues via a system of vessels that ends in the venous system.
3. Lymph- The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the capillaries,
the intracellular fluid, and the lymph capillaries.
Function of lymphatic system:
1. For draining tissue fluids
2. Assists in the control of interstitial fluid pressure
3. Acts as defense mechanism against noxious materials.
Post Test 1. Multiple Choice. Encircle the

letter of correct answer.
1. The term used during the contraction of the heart

a. Bicuspid
b. Diastolic
c. Systolic
d. Aortic
2. This layer of the heart is the outer protective layer.

a. Myocardium
b. Endocardium
c. Epicardium
d. Exocardium
3. The functions of cardiovascular are the following, exept:

a. To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body
b. To remove the waste products of metabolism and take them to the excretory
organs for disposal
c. To carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the
Tissues to the lungs
d. To help maintaining the oxygen equilibrium of the body
4. The cardiovascular system include the following exept:

a. the heart, the blood and the blood vessels
b. the heart, the blood and the nerves
c. the brain, the blood and the blood vessels
d. the heart, the spine and the blood vessels
5. The blood vessels that carries the blood away from the heart.
a. Artery
b. Vein
c. Trachycardia
d. Bradycardia
6. The pulse rate of cattle may be taken by feeling the artery on:
a. Maxillary artery
b. Femoral artery
c. Cardiac region
7. This part of the heart prevents the backflow of blood from the ventricle to the
atrium, during the ventricular systole
a. Bicuspid valve
b. Atrio-ventrical valve
c. Tricuspid valve
8. The following are the functions of the blood, exept :

a. Helps maintain water balance
b. Carries water to the excretory organs
c. Transports hormones to target organs
d. Aids in overcoming diseases.
9. It is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of

electrolytes and some non-electrolytes by centrifugation
a. Plasma
b. Blood
c. Corpuscles
d. Haemoglobin
10. Fluid portion of the blood

a. Plasma
b. Blood
c. Corpuscles
d. Haemoglobin
Lesson 7, Module 2.
The Respiratory System
Importance:
1. Involves exchange of gases between the blood and the external environment.
2. Animals may survive for days without food but only minutes without oxygen.
Respiratory organs/apparatus
1. Nostril/ nares- external openings for air passages
2. Nasal cavity-opens externally at nostrils and communicates with pharynx
thru posterior nares.
- divided into right and left by cartilaginous nasal septum
3. Pharynx- a common passage for air and food
4. Larynx or voice box- Consists of five cartilages:
a. cricoids
b. arytenoids (2)
c. thyroid
d. epiglottis
5. Trachea or windpipe- connects larynx with lungs
- divides into bronchi which form smaller branches
(bronchioles)
6. Lungs – cone-shaped structure with base resting against the cranial side
of the diaphragm and the apex within or close to thoracic inlet.
Divided into two lobes:
a. Apical (crainial)
b. Cardiac ( middle)
c. Diaphragmatic ( caudal)
d. Intermediate lobe ( right lung)
( Note: Lungs of horses have no subdivisions, except for intermediate lobe)
Regulation of Respiratory Center Activity

Respiration would increase whenever cells of the body need more O2 or form
more CO2 and would decrease whenever they need less O2 or form less CO2.
There are many sensory receptors, in many locations which can influence respiration
rate; appropriate electrical stimulation of almost any sensory nerve and of many
parts of the brain can affect respiration.
Mechanism of Inspiration
Inspiration- is an active process when the contraction of the diaphragm
increases the longitudinal diameter of the chest.
- Taking in O2 into the lungs
- Accomplished by enlargement of the thorax ( contraction of the diaphragm
and the movement of the ribs)
Mechanism of Expiration
Expiration- following the inspiration, the enlarged thorax may return to its
resting position by purely passive forces, that is, without muscular effort.
- Accomplished by the passive return of lungs and thorax to normal position.
Forms of respiration:
1. Apnea- no respiration
2. Eupnea- normal quiet respiration
3. Dyspnea- difficult respiration
4. Hyperpnea- increased depth or rate of breathing or both
5. Polypnea- rapid, shallow breathing
6. Costal/ Thoracic breathing- considerable movement of the ribs
7. Abdominal/Diaphragmatic breathing- visible movement of the abdomen.

1. It’s the connection between the larynx and lungs
a. Lungs
b. Trachea
c. Nasal
d. Nostril
2. The heartbeat rate is usually measure by ___

a. Determining the wave
b. Counting of blood cells
c. Determining the oxygen being carried to the heart
d. Determining the pulse rate
3. A systemic circulation that supplies blood to the kidney

a. Renal
b. Hepatic
c. Coronary
d. Cerebral
4. Fluid portion of the blood

a. Plasma
b. Phlegm
c. Sweat
d. Urine
5. It is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of
electrolytes and some non-electrolytes by centrifugation.
a. Plasma
b. Phlegm
c. Sweat
d. Urine
6. It is where the air and food passes through.

a. Nasal cavity
b. Lungs
c. Pharynx
d. Larynx
7. A cone- shaped structure with base resting against the cranial side of the
diaphragm and the apex within or close to thoracic inlet.
a. Trachea
b. Larynx
c. Lungs
d. Nasal cavity
Lesson 8, Module 2
Urinary System
Primary functions of the Urinary system:
1. Excretion of waste products of metabolism
2. Maintenance of a constant extracellular environment through conservation
and excretion of water and electrolytes
3. Production of the hormone erythropoietin, which regulates hematopoiesis
4. Metabolism of vitamin D to its active form
Organs of Urination
A. Kidney- These are paired organs which reside in the dorsal abdomen. One on
the left and one in the right. Their role is to filter the blood through the
glomerulus to form what is known as the filtrate.
A labelled saggital section of the lamb
Common Anatomy
 The kidney is the part of the urinary tract where blood is filtered and urine is
produced.
 The kidneys are paired and lie in a retroperitoneal position.
 They are positioned in the caudo-dorsal abdomen.
 They lie within a splitting of the sublumbar fascia. This also often contains a large
quantity of fat to cushion and protect the kidneys from the pressure of other
organs
 The right kidney is most cranial in all species except the pig and grasscutter.
 In species where the right kidney is most cranial it lies in a small fossa of the
caudate liver lobe.
 However the left kidney is the most mobile.
 During development all species begin with a multi-lobed structure but a varying
degree of fusion occurs between the species giving rise to the various different
characteristics seen.
The Basic Components of the Kidney

Outer fibrous capsule
A tough outer capsule surrounds the parenchyma and this prevents the kidney
expanding. It is easily stripped away from a healthy kidney but adheres where
pathology has occured.
Nephro
on- millionss of nephrrons comp
poses each
h pf the kid
dney. Nep
phrons consists of
severa
al parts:
1. Glomerulu us- filters plasma
p to produce glomerular
g filtrate, whhich passe es down
the length of the nep phron tubule to form urine.
u
2. Proximal Tubule-
T a segment of o the neph hron in kidneys which begins frrom the
renal pole
e . It is ressponsible for
f the elim mination ofo urea, exxcess meta abolites
and toxic substances
s s.
3. Loop of Henle-
H a lo
ong, U-sha aped portio on of the tubule tha at conductts urine
within eacch nephron n of the kid
dney. The function of o loop of h henle is too be the
recovery of
o water an nd sodium chloride fro om the urin ne.
4. Distal tubuule- Once the filtratte passes through th he thick a ascending limb of
Henle, it enters th he distal convolute
c ed tubule,, which iss a duct of the
renal tubuule locatedd in the kid dney's corrtex that reabsorbs
r calcium, sodium,
s
and chloridde and reg gulates thee pH of urin
ne by secre eting proto ons and absorbing
bicarbonatte.
5. Collecting ducts- Th he last parrt of a long, twisting tube
t that ccollects urin
ne from
the nephroons (cellulaar structures in the kidney
k thatt filter blood and form m urine)
and movves it into the renal pelvis p an
nd ureterrs. Also called
renal colle
ecting tubu ule.
Urine formation
f
The kid
dneys filterr unwantedd substancces from th
he blood and producee urine to excrete
them. There arre Three main ste eps of urrine forma ation: glom
merular filtration,
reabso
orption, and d secretion. These processes s ensure th
hat only w
waste and excess
water are
a remove ed from thee body.
1. The Glomerulu
us Filters Water
W and Other Sub
bstances fro
om the Blo
oodstream
Each kidney
k con d nephron
ntains overr 1 million tiny structures called ns. Each nephron
n
has a glomerulu us, the siite of bloood filtration. The gllomerulus is a netw work of
capillarries surrou
unded by a cuplike structure,
s the
t glomerrular capsuule (or Bow
wman’s
capsule e). As bloood flows th
hrough the e glomerulu us, blood pressure
p p
pushes waater and
solutes from the capillaries into the capsule through a filtration membrane. This
glomerular filtration begins the urine formation process.
2. The Filtration Membrane Keeps Blood Cells and Large Proteins in the
Bloodstream
Inside the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes fluid from capillaries into the
glomerular capsule through a specialized layer of cells. This layer, the filtration
membrane, allows water and small solutes to pass but blocks blood cells and large
proteins. Those components remain in the bloodstream. The filtrate (the fluid that
has passed through the membrane) flows from the glomerular capsule further into
the nephron.
3. Reabsorption Moves Nutrients and Water Back into the Bloodstream
The glomerulus filters water and small solutes out of the bloodstream. The resulting
filtrate contains waste, but also other substances the body needs: essential ions,
glucose, amino acids, and smaller proteins. When the filtrate exits the glomerulus, it
flows into a duct in the nephron called the renal tubule. As it moves, the needed
substances and some water are reabsorbed through the tube wall into adjacent
capillaries. This reabsorption of vital nutrients from the filtrate is the second step in
urine creation.
4. Waste Ions and Hydrogen Ions Secreted from the Blood Complete the Formation
of Urine
The filtrate absorbed in the glomerulus flows through the renal tubule, where
nutrients and water are reabsorbed into capillaries. At the same time, waste ions and
hydrogen ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule. This process is
called secretion. The secreted ions combine with the remaining filtrate and become
urine. The urine flows out of the nephron tubule into a collecting duct. It passes out
of the kidney through the renal pelvis, into the ureter, and down to the bladder.
Urine Composition
The nephrons of the kidneys process

blood and create urine through a
process of filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion. Urine is about 95% water and
5% waste products. Nitrogenous wastes
excreted in urine include urea,
creatinine, ammonia, and uric acid. Ions
such as sodium, potassium, hydrogen,
and calcium are also excreted.
The role of Anti-Diuretic Hormone in water conservation:
Vasopresin or ADH conserves body water by the following actions:
1. Since ADH is a vasoconstrictor, it reduces medullary and papillary blood flow
in the renal interstitium, thus, increasing tissue hypertonicity or the
interstitium. This would increase the concentration gradient of tge solute
between thr interstitium snd the fluid in the lumen of the kidney tubules, thus,
the reabsorption of water by osmosis would increase.
2. ADH may stimulate the “sodium pump” of the ascending loop of henle, thus,
increasing both the rate of sodium transport from the tubule lumen to the
interstitium and concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium and
the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
3. ADH may dilate the “pores” of the collecting duct, thus facilitates water
reabsorption
1. It refers to the long, U-shaped portion of the tubule that conducts urine
within each nephron of the kidney
a. Loop of Henle
b. Collecting ducts
c. Glomerulus
d. Distal tubule
2. It filters plasma to produce glomerular filtrate, which passes down the

length of the nephron tubule to form urine.
a. Loop of Henle
b. Proximal Tubule
c. Glomerulus
d. Distal tubule
3. This filters water and small solutes out of the bloodstream

a. filtration membrane
b. renal tubule
c. glomerulus
d. nephrons
4. The following are the function of Urinary system, exept:
a. Metabolism of vitamin D to its active form
b. Production of the hormone erythropoietin, which regulates hematopoiesis
c. Excretion of waste products of catabolism
d. Maintenance of a constant extracellular environment through conservation
and excretion of water and electrolytes
5. The last part of a long, twisting tube that collects urine from the nephrons
(cellular structures in the kidney that filter blood and form urine)
a. Loop of Henle
b. Collecting ducts
c. Glomerulus
d. Distal tubule
6. This refers to the duct in the nephron

b. renal tubule
c. glomerulus
d. nephrons
7. Urine is about how many % of water and waste?
a. 90% water and 10% waste

b. 93% water and 7% waste
c. 95% water and 5% waste
d. 96% water and 4% waste
8. The layer that allows water and small solutes to pass but blocks blood
cells and large proteins
b. renal tubule
c. glomerulus
d. nephrons
9. This stimulate the “sodium pump” of the ascending loop of henle, thus,
increasing both the rate of sodium transport from the tubule lumen to the
interstitium and concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium
and the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
a. ADH
b. Hypertonicity
c. Fluid of the lumen
d. pores
10. Their role is to filter the blood through the glomerulus to form what is
known as the filtrate.
a. Liver
b. Kidney
c. Bladder
d. Pancreas
Lesson 9, Module 2.
Reproductive System
Types of reproduction
There are two major forms of reproduction: sexual and asexual.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Each parent contributes a gamete - a sex
cell that has half of the normal DNA of a regular body cell. In males, the gametes are
sperm and in females, the gametes are eggs.When these two gamete combine
during fertilization, the result is a zygote, which then continues to develop into an
embryo.This is the usual form of reproduction in form of reproduction very fulfilling to
both sexes such that the process of perpetuating the species becomes a very
pleasant experience.
Asexual reproduction
-Asexual reproduction does not require the sex organ to facilitate the perpetuation of
the species.
- it is very common in unicellular organisms as well as in some species of plants.
Unicellular organisms may divide into two individual cells. In certain plants,
propagation may be achieved by using cuttings as planting materials or by budding,
marcotting or by propagating plant cell in culture media (Tissue Culture Techniques).
All these forms of reproduction do not use sex organs in the process of propagation,
thus, they are asexual.
The female Reproductive System
The principal sex organs of the female are the ovaries. The
ovaries have two main function: 1. The production of sex cells or ovum; and 2, the
production of female sex hormone-estrogen. The female reproductive system
includes the pair or ovaries and the accessory reproductive tract.
The Ovaries
Females are typically bron with two ovaries stemming from the
uterus. Before puberty, ovaries are just bundles of tissue. As the female matures, so
do the ovaries. Ovaries are almond-shaped hodies attached by the broad ligament to
the dorsal wall in the sublumbar region of the body cavity. The outer layer (cortex) of
the ovary is made up of germinal epithelium with a very large number of primary
follicles each of which contains a potential ovum. The inner layer (medulla) contains
blood vessels, nerves bd ganglion cells, stroma and embryonic vestiges.
The accessory reproductive tract

Infundibulum- is a funnel-shaped structure which picks up the egg when
released by the ovary. The “picking up” of the egg is believed to evolve the active
participation of the cilia-like structurs at the rim of the infundibular funnel which
attract the eggs into the infundibulum.
Oviduct
It is a tubular structure connecting the infundibulum to the horn of the uterus. It
serves as the passage way of the egg on its way to the uterus. It is the site of
fertilization and the beginning of embryonic development after fertilization
Horn of the Uterus

It is the organ which serves as the site of implantation for the fertilized egg. This is
where the fetus would develop during the stage of pregnancy in gestating animals.
The body of the uterus unites the two horns of the uterus and connects them to the
cervix.
Cervix
This is sometimes considered as the neck of the uterus.
Vagina
It is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the receptacle of the sperm cells in
many species. It also comprises a part of the birth canal of the animal at parturition.
Vulva
It is a common passage way for the products of reproduction and for urine. The vuvla
of mammals is comoarable to the ventral portion of the cloaca or birds. It is also
homologous with the scrotum of the male. Since both are derived from the same
embryological structure.
Clitoris
It is a rudimentary organ located in the ventral commissure of the vulva in mammals.
It is homologous to the glans penis of the male.
Figure ___. Schematic diagram of a cow’s reproductive system
The Male Reproductive System
The main sex organ of the male is the testis. In birds, the two testes are located
within the body cavity in the dorsolumbar region. In farm animals, the testes are
located outside the body cavity within the scrotum. The scrotum is the cutaneous sac
that serves as the external covering of the testes. It protects the testes from direct
mechanical injuries and provides an environment which is a few egrees (6-8 degree
Fahrenheit) cooler than the body temperature which is required for normal
spermatogenesis. The thermoregulatory muscles of the testes are the cremaster
muscle and the dartos muscle.
During the fetal development, the initial development of the testes starts inside the
body cavity. As the fetus grows, the testes start to descend to the scrotum through
the inguinal canal. In certain instances, when both testes failed to descend to the
scrotal sacs, the individual is said to be a bilateral cryptorchid, hence is sterile. If only
one of the testes failed to descend to the scrotal sac, the individual is said to be a
Unilateral cryptorchid, but capable of fertilization. However, cryptorchid animals
should be culled and not allowed to mate because this condition is heritable.
Main functions of the Testes:

1. Production of sperm cells
2. Production of sex hormones testosterone.
Testosterone- is the male sex hormones responsible for the development of

the secondary sex characters. Male characteristics such as muscular
development at the rear quarters and shoulders, aggressiveness and libido
when confronted with an in heat female animal of the same species are
governed or influenced by this hormone.
Seminiferous tubules
Seat of the production of spermatozoa (sperm cells). It joins together to form

the rete testis and come out of the testis as vasa efferentia. The vasa
efferentia converged to form the head of the epididymis, then the body and
tail of the epididymis.The convoluted epididymis straightes up to form the vas
deferens which then enters the inguinal canal of the urethra of the penis.
Penis
It is the primary sex organ for copulation and serves to introduce the
spermatozoa into the female reproductive tract.
Figure ___. The male reproductive system
The Accessory Organs

It contributes to the bulk of the semen ejaculate, these are:
1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate glands
3. Cowper’s gland/ bulbo-urethral gland
Semen- consists of sperm cells plus the secretions of the 3 accessory organs. In
vasectomised animals, the vas deferens are severed, thus, the ejaculate consists
only of the secretions f the accessory organs making the vasectomised male sterile
but without losing libido. On the other hand, in castrated animals both testes are
removed, thus, rendering the male sterile with loss of sex drive.
The secretions of the accessory organs serves as the vehicle for the transport of the
spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also spermatozoa activity
and served as the lubricating substance during the copulation particularly the
secretions of bulbo-urethral gland. The seat of spermatogenesis is the seminiferous
tubules. The FSH stimulates the germinal epithelium lining the seminiferous tubules
to initiate spermatogenesis up to the secondary spermatocytes stage. On the other
hand, Luteinizing Hormone stimulates the interstitial cells or the cells of leydig to
secrete testosterone; and testosterone is required for the final maturation of the
spermatozoa. Therefore, both FSH and LH are required for normal spermatogenesis.
FSH has a direct influence on spermatogenesis, whereas, the influence of LH on
testosterone secretion, which is required for the final circulation also served as the
negative feedback in the controlling LH production by the anterior pituitary.
Testicular and epididymal sperm cells are non-motile. They become motile only
when they are suspended in a fluid and this occurs when they come in contact with
the secretions of the accessory glands.
The normal spermatozoa consists of a head, neck or midpiece and a tail.
1. The head is covered by a protoplasmic cap (galea capitis) and the shape is
flattened ovoid in bull, ram, boar and rabbit and rounded in man. It varies with
species like rat, rooster and salamander.
2. Mid-piece and the tail are composed of several strands or fibrils which are
covered by a sheath. At the tip of the tail, theses fibrils flare out into a naked
brush.
The common abnormalities encountered in a semen sample are:
 Sperm cells with protoplasmic droplets at the mid-piece;
 Headless or tailless,
 Giant and miniature heads;
 Bent , coiled and shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells.
When sperm abnormality in a semen ejaculate are about 50% of the total sperm cell
counts, the male is usually sterile. Abnormal sperms are often, seen in males
suffering from fever, males used too frequently for breeding, or too young males. In
the same manner, if the number of dead sperms in a semen ejaculate, as
determined by a dead-alive staining technique is 50% or more, the male has
impaired fertility if not sterile.
The lifespan of the ejaculated spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract is about
24 hrs. (20-30 hrs.) in most mammals and about 14 days in chickens. Of so many
sperms per ejaculate; only few thousand reach the oviduct and few dozen actually
reach the vicinity of the ovum. Several may penetrate the zona pellucida, but only
one sperm cell enters the ovum proper and accomplishes fertilization.
1. Mucle of the testes

a. Cremator
b. Cresmater
c. Cremaster
2. Primary sex organs of the female

a. Vagina
b. Clitoris
c. Ovary
d. Uterus
3. The result of the combination of two gametes
a. Fetus
b. Zygote
c. Gamete
d. Embryo
4. This type of reproduction does not require the sex organ to facilitate the
perpetuation of the species.
a. .Sexual reproduction
b. Unisexual reproduction
c. Bisexual reproduction
d. Asexual reproduction
5. It is a tubular structure connecting the infundibulum to the horn of the

uterus.
a. Ovary
b. Oviduct
c. Fallopian tube
d. Infundibulum
6. These are almond-shaped hodies attached by the broad ligament to the

dorsal wall in the sublumbar region of the body cavity.
a. Vagina
b. Clitoris
c. Ovary
d. Uterus
7. This type of reproduction requires two parents that contributes twos sex
cell
a. Sexual reproduction
b. Unisexual reproduction
c. Bisexual reproduction
d. Asexual reproduction
8. This is sometimes considered as the neck of the uterus.

a. Cervix
b. Vagina
c. Vulva
d. Anus
9. It is the Seat of the production of spermatozoa.

a. Penis
b. Scrotum
c. Seminiferous tubule
d. Scrotal sac
10. These are the common abnormalities encountered in a semen sample,

except:
a. Giant and miniature heads;

b. Bent , coiled and shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells.
c. Consist of head, neck and tail
d. Sperm cells with protoplasmic droplets at the mid-piece;
11. It is the male sex hormones responsible for the development of the
secondary sex characters.
a. Progesterone
b. Androgen
c. Estrogen
d. Testosterone
12. It consists of sperm cells plus the secretions of the 3 accessory organs
a. Semen
b. Ejaculants
c. Secretions
d. spermatocytes
13. It is the primary sex organ for copulation and serves to introduce the
spermatozoa into the female reproductive tract.
e. Penis
f. Scrotum
g. Seminiferous tubule
h. Scrotal sac
14. The lifespan of an ejaculated sperm in the female reproductive tract.

a. 20 hrs
b. 12 hrs
c. 3 hrs.
d. 24 hrs.
15. It refers to the funnel-shaped structure which picks up the egg when
released by the ovary.
a. Ovary
b. Oviduct
c. Fallopian tube
d. Infundibulum

MODULE 3
AS 121
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
LEMUEL D. ANTIPORDA, LAgri.

Lecturer
MODULE 3: ANIMAL NUTRITION
Welcome to Module 3. let’s talk about Animal Nutrition!
OBJECTIVE:
• Identify the basic nutrients, their sources and functions in animal nutrition.
• Differentiate the mechanism of digestion between the non- ruminants and ruminants.
• Describe the different metabolic reactions involved in nutrition and digestive function
• Compare the nutrient required of farm animals
• Compute a balance ration based on the requirements.
In this module we will going to discuss the following lessons:

Lesson 1: definition of Animal Nutrition Terms
Lesson 2: classes of nutrients, functions and deficiency symptom
Lesson 3: digestive and absorption and Metabolism
Lesson 5: nutrient requirements of farm animal
Lesson 6: measuring the nutritive value of feeds feedstuff
MODULE 3: ANIMAL NUTRITION

Lesson 1: definition of Animal Nutrition Terms
Terms
Nutrition - the series of processes by which an organism takes in and assimilates food for promoting
growth and replacing worn-out or injured tissues.
- encompasses several fields of discipline like biochemistry, chemistry, physiology, endocrinology,
microbiology, genetics
Nutrients - any feed constituent, or a group of feed constituents of the same general chemical
composition that aids in the support of life
- may include synthetically produced vitamins, chemically produced inorganic salts or biogenically
synthesized amino acids
Digestion - breakdown of feed particles into suitable products for absorption; may include: mechanical
forces, chemical action, enzyme activity
Absorption - transfer of substance from gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) to the circulatory (blood or lymph)
system.
Metabolism - combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions occurring in the body with the liberation
of energy.
Enzymes - a complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes in other substances within
the body without being changed itself (organic catalyst).
Lesson 2: classes of nutrients, functions and deficiency symptom
Yeheey! You are now in Lesson 2! Keep reading!
Abstraction
Nutrients
• Any feed that functions to support life
• Concentrates and roughages
– What are they?
– What are the differences nutritionally?
• Six basic classes
– Water
– Carbohydrates
– Fats
– Proteins
– Minerals
– Vitamins
WATER
A. General
– Cheapest and most abundant nutrient
– Makes up to 65-85% of animal body weight at birth and 45-60% of body weight at maturity
– Percentage of body water decreases with animal age and has an inverse relationship with
body fat
– Accounts for 90-95% of blood and many tissues contain 70-90% water
– Difference between water & moisture
– Most important nutrient!
- Found in the animal body as:

• 1. intracellular water - mainly muscles and skin
• 2. extracellular water - mainly interstitial fluids, blood plasma, lymph, synovial and
cerebrospinal fluids.
• 3. water present in urinary and gastro-intestinal tract.
B. Functions and Deficiencies

Functions
1. transport of nutrients and excretion
2. chemical reactions and solvent properties
3. body temperature regulation
4. maintain shape of body cells
5. lubricates and cushion joints and organs of the body Cavity
Deficiencies or restrictions
1. reduced feed intake and reduced palatability
2. weight loss due to dehydration
3. increased secretions of nitrogen and electrolytes such as Na and K
C. Sources of Water in the Animal
a. Drinking water - consumption affected by many factors
b. Water contained in or on feed - about 8 to 30% water
c. Metabolic - may account for 5-10% total water intake
D. Water Losses from the Animal Body
a. Urine
b. Feces
c. Vaporization from lungs
d. Sweat from the sweat glands
CARBOHYDRATES
A. General
- Made up of C (40%), H (7%) and O (53%) by % molecular weight
- Include sugar, starch, cellulose and gums
- Very little occurs as such in animal body
- CHO make up approximately 3/4 of plant dry weight and thus the largest part of animals food
supply
- Formed by photosynthesis in plants
B. Structure
- Structure consists of C atoms arranged in chains to which and O are attached.
- May contain an aldehyde or a ketone group in their structure
Classification
(based on number of sugar molecules)
a. Monosaccharides
1. hexoses - glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose
2. pentoses - arabinose, xylose, ribose
b. Disaccharides (two sugar molecules)
1. sucrose, maltose, xylose, ribose
c. Polysaccharides (many sugar molecules)

1. starch - amylose, amylopectins, glycogen
2. cellulose - glucose molecules in B-linkage
3. mixed polysaccharides - hemicellulose, pectins
4. lignin
C. Functions and Deficiencies

a. Functions in the animal body
1. source of energy
2. source of heat
3. building stores for other nutrients
4. stored in animal body by converting to fats
b. Deficiencies of abnormal metabolism
1. ketosis
2. diabetes m
FATS (LIPIDS OR ETHER EXTRACT)

A. General
- Made up (molecular weight) of C (77%), H (12%) and O (11%)
- Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
- Fat will yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins
B. Classification
a. Simple lipids
b. Compound lipids
1. phospholipids - contain phosphoric acid
and N. (i.e. lecithins, cephalins,sphingomyelin)
2. glycolipids
3. lipoproteins
c. Derived lipids
1. fatty acids
2. sterols
C. STRUCTURE OF FAT
a. Glycerol and fatty acids
b. Saturated fatty acids
c. Unsaturated fatty acids
D. Functions and Deficiencies
Functions
1. dietary supply
2. source of heat, insulation and protection for animal body
3. source of essential fatty acids - linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid
4. serve as a carrier for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
Deficiency and abnormal metabolism

1. skin lesions, hair loss and reduced growth rate
2. ketosis - catabolism of body fat
3. fatty liver - abnormal metabolism of liver
E. Location and Natural Sources of Fat

Animal body
1. Subcutaneous
2. Surrounding internal organs
3. Marbling and milk
Natural sources - most feeds have less than 10% fat except oil seeds of 20%
PROTEINS
A. General
- Made up (molecular weight) of C (53%), H (7%), O(23%), N (16%) and S (1%)
- Proteins are the principal constituents of the organ and soft structures of the animal body
- Dietary requirement (%) is highest in the young growing animals and decline gradually to maturity
- Proteins are basically large molecules
B. Structure of Proteins
- All proteins have one common property, their basic structure is made up of single unit, amino acids
- Twenty-two amino acids are commonly found in proteins, they are linked together by peptide bonds
- The arrangement of amino acids in the chain helps determine the composition of the protein
- The classification of amino acids depends on the number of acidic and basic group that are
present.
C. Protein Terminology
- True protein - composed of amino acids
- Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) - compounds that are not true protein in nature
- Crude protein - composed of true proteins and any nitrogenous products;
- crude protein = %N x 6.25
- Protein quality - refers to the amount and ratio of esential amino acids present in protein
D. Essential amino acids
- those amino acids which are essential to the animal and must be supplied in the diet because the
animal cannot synthesize them fast enough to meet its requirement:
1. phenylalanine 6. methionine
2. valine 7. histidine
3. threonine 8. arginine
4. tryptophan 9. leucine
5. isoleucine 10. lysine
E. Non-essential amino acids
- amino acids which are essential to the animal but are normally synthesized or sufficient in the diet
and need not be supplemented.
1. Alanine 7. Glutamine
2. Asparagines 8. Glycine
3. Aspartic Acid 9. Hydroxyproline
4. Cysteine 10. Proline
5. Cystine 11. Serine
6. Glutamic Acid 12. Tyrosine
F. Functions and Deficiencies

Functions
1. basic structural unit of the animal body, i.e. collagen, elastin, contractile protein, keratin
proteins, blood proteins
2. body metabolism - enzymes, hormones, immune antibodies, hereditary transmission
Deficiencies and Abnormalities

1. symptoms of protein deficiencies, reduced growth rate and feed efficiency, anorexia, infertility
2. amino acid deficiency - a lack of an important amino acid which result to deamination
MINERALS
A. General
- Inorganic solid, crystalline chemical elements
- The total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash
- Make up to 5% of animal body on dry weight basis
- Chemical elements other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
B. Classification
- Major minerals - normally present at greater level in animal body or needed in relatively large
amounts in the diet. Include Ca, P, Na, Cl, K, Mg, S.
- Trace minerals - normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in very small amount in
the diet. Include Cu, Zn, Co, F, I, Fe, Mn, Se and are toxic at large quantities
C. Functions
- Skeletal formation and maintenance - Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn
- Function in protein synthesis - P, S, Zn
- Oxygen transport - Fe, Cu
- Fluid balance (osmotic pressure) Na, Cl, K
- Regulaing acid-base balance of the entire systems - Na, Cl, K
- Activators and/or components of enzyme systems - Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn
- Mineral-vitamin relationship - Ca, P, Co, Se
Macrominerals – Na, K, Cl, Ca, P, S, Mg
▪ Required in larger amounts
▪ Important for several major bodily functions
1. Sodium and Chlorine

Functions:
1. formation of digestive juices
2. control of body fluid concentration
3. control of body fluid pH
4. nerve and muscle activity
Deficiency:
Under ordinary feedlot conditions, there are no specific deficiency symptoms - just unthrifty
appearance and impaired performance. With heavily perspiring animals, an acute salt
deficiency may develop resulting in disrupted nerve and muscle function and possible
nervous prostration.
2. Calcium
Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation - 99% of body calcium in the bones and teeth
2. Nerve and muscle function
3. Acid-base balance
4. Milk production - also egg production
Deficiency symptoms:
1. Rickets in young animals. Joints become enlarged. Bones become soft and deformed.
2. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals. Bones become porous and weak.
3. Phosphorus
Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation - about 80% of body phosphorus is in the bones and teeth.
2. As a component of protein in the soft tissues.
3. Milk production - also egg production
4. In various metabolic processes.
Deficiency:
1. Rickets in young animals similar to that of calcium deficiency
2. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals similar to calcium deficiency
3. Poor appetite, slow gain, lowered milk production, low blood and chew on nonfeed objects,
but this is not specific for phosphorus deficiency
4. Magnesium
Functions:
1. Necessary for many enzyme systems
2. Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism
3. Necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous system
Deficiency:
Hypermagnesemic tetany - hyperirritability of the neuromuscular system producing
hyperexcitability, incoordination
5.Potassium
Functions:
Required by livestock for a variety of body functions such as osmotic relations, acid- based
balance, rumen digestion, and the primary intracellular cation in neuromuscular activity
Deficiency:
Most unlikely under ordinary conditions. Symptoms of deficiency rather nonspecific such as
decreased feed consumption, lowered feed efficiency, slow growth, stiffness and emaciation.
6.Sulfur
Functions:
1. As a component of the amino acid cystine and methionine and the vitamins, biotin and thiamine
2. In the synthesis of sulfur containing amino acids in the rumen.
3. In the formation of various body compounds
Deficiency:
Seldom experienced under ordinary conditions. Deficiency will express itself as a protein deficiency -
a general unthrifty condition and poor performance
MICROMINERAL
▪ Trace minerals, required in small amounts
▪ Important for vitamins, hormone synthesis
o Usually work together w/ other nutrients
o Can be harmful in high levels
1. Iron
Functions:
1. Necessary for hemoglobin formation
2. Essential for the formation of certain enzyes related to oxygen transport and utilization
3. Enters into the formation of certain compounds which serve as iron stores in the body -
specially ferritin, found primarily in the liver and spleen and hemosiderin, found mainly in the
blood.
Deficiency
Most livestock rations are more than adequate in iron content, and an iron deficiency seldom
occurs with older animals.
Iron deficiency in the young pig is characterized by:
- low blood hemoglobin
- labored breathing
- listlessness
- pale eyelids, ears and nose
- flabby, wrinkled skin
- edema of head and shoulders
2. Iodine
Functions:
In the production of thyroxine by the thyroid gland.
Deficiency:
1. Goiter at birth or soon thereafter
2. Dead or weak at birth
3. Hairlessness at birth
4. Infected navels - especially in foals
3. Cobalt
Functions:
1. As a component of the vitamin B12 molecule
2. In the rumen synthesis of vitamin B12
Deficiency:
General malnutrition symptoms - poor appetite, unthriftiness, weakness, anemia,
decreased fertility, slow growth, and decreased milk and wool production.
4.Copper
Functions:
1. In iron absorption
2. In hemoglobin formation
3. In synthesis of keratin for hair and wool growth
4. In various enzyme systems
Deficiency:
Symptoms not specific and may include any of the following:
- low blood and liver copper
- bleaching of hair in cattle
- abnormal wool growth in sheep
- abnormal bone metabolism
- muscular incoordination
- weakness at birth
- anemia
5. Flourine
Functions:
1. Reduces incidence of dental caries in humans and possibly other animals
2. Possibly retards osteoporosis in mature animals
Deficiency:
In children - excessive dental caries
6.Manganese
Functions:
In enzyme systems influencing estrus, ovulation, fetal development, udder
development, milk production and growth and skeletal development.
Deficiency symptoms take the form of:
- delayed estrus
- reduced ovulation
- reduced fertility
- abortions
- resorptions
- deformed young
- poor growth
- lowered serum alkaline phosphatase
- lowered tissue manganese
- “knuckling over” in calves
7.Molybdenum
Functions:
1. As a component of enzyme xanthine oxidase - specially important to poultry for
uric acid formation
2. Stimulates action of rumen organism.
8.Selenium
Functions
1. In vitamin E absorption and utilization
2. Essential component of enzymes - glutathione peroxidase, which functions to
destroy toxic peroxides in the tissue thereby having a sparing effect in the vitamin E
requirement.
3. Other compound of selenium seem to work in concert with vitamin E in the
maintenance of normal cell functions and membrane health.
Deficiency:
The following selenium deficiency symptoms in many respects are similar to those of
vitamin E deficiency:
Nutritional muscular dystrophy (white muscle disease) in lambs and calves
- retained placenta in cows - low fertility
- heart failure - liver necrosis
- paralysis - pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
- poor growth
9. Zinc
Functions:
1. Prevents parakeratosis
2. Promotes general thriftiness and growth
3. Promotes would healing
4. Related to hair and wool growth and health
5. Deficiency impairs testicular growth and function
Deficiency:
Seldom occurs in cattle and sheep in normal rations. Frequently experienced in growing and
fattening swine being fed on concrete with rations containing recommended levels of calcium.
Deficiency symptoms include:
- parakeratosis
- general unthriftiness
- poor growth
- unhealthy looking hair or wool
- slow wound healing
VITAMIN
A. General
- Organic components of natural food but distinct from carbohydrates, fat, protein, and water
- Present in foods in minute amounts and effective in the animal body in small amounts
- Essential for development of normal tissue necessary for metabolic activity but do not enter into
structural portion of body.
- When absent from the diet or not properly absorbed or utilized, results in a specific deficiency
disease or syndrome
- Cannot by synthesized by the animal
-
B. Related substances
- provitamins or precursors, i.e. carotenes
- antivitamins, vitamin antagonists or pseudovitamins
C. Classification and Structure
- Fat soluble - ADEK
- Water soluble vitamins - thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, panthothenic acid, biotin, choline,
folic acid
D. Functions and Deficiencies

- Play role as regulators of metabolism; necessary for growth ad maintenance
- Vitamin requirement may also increase in old age due to difficulties in absorption and utilization
Vitamins in Animal Nutrition
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
1. Vitamin A (Retinol)
Abbreviation: A
Modes of Action: Promotes the development of visual pigments. Indispensable for
the formation and protection of epithelial tissues. Improves resistance to infections.
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:
Feed: only as provitamin A in green crops, fish liver oil
Food: liver, egg-yolk, milk, dairy products
2. Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Abbreviation: D
Modes of Action: Regulates the incorporation of Ca and P into the bone matrix and
Ca absorption from the intestinal lumen
Feed: sun-dried green forage, fish liver oil
Food: eggs, milk, dairy products
3. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Abbreviation: E
Modes of Action: Works as a biological antioxidant, as a detoxifying agent and
participates as a component of the respiratory chain. Functions in nucleic acid
metabolism and in endocrine glands.
Feed: green crops, cereal germs, milling by-products
Food: leafy vegetables, some animal organs, milk butter
4. Vitamin K (Menadione)
Abbreviation: K
Modes of Action: Functions in the blood coagulation system. Acts in the maturation
of the bone structure
Feed: green forage, liver oils
Food: green vegetables, potatoes, fruits (tomatoes and strawberries)
Water Soluble Vitamins
1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Abbreviation: B1
Modes of Action: Participates in the process of carbohydrate metabolism
Feed: cereal germs, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, vegetables, potatoes, fruits, animal organs, egg-yolk, milk
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Abbreviation: B2
Modes of Action: Acts in the respiratory chain as a constituent of the flavin enzymes
concerned with hydrogen transfer.
Feed: some oil seeds, yeast, brewery by-products, vegetables, fish meal,
meat and bone meals, skimmed milk
Food: liver, kidney, eggs, milk dairy products
3. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Abbreviation: B6
Modes of Action: Active in amino acid metabolism as a coenzyme of several enzyme
systems
Feed: grains, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, green vegetables, red meat, liver, egg-yolk, milk
4. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Abbreviation: B12
Modes of Action: Essential in the reduction of one-carbon compounds in the fat and
protein metabolism
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food: Does not occur in plants
Feed: skimmed milk powder, fish and meat meals
Food: liver, kidney, egg yolk
5. Biotin (Vitamin H)
Abbreviation: H
Modes of Action: Necessary for gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis where it
acts in carboxylation reactions
Feed: occurs in feeds of vegetable and animal origin, but only in partly available form
Food: vegetables, yeast, mushrooms, liver, kidney, meat, egg-yolk, milk
6. Folic Acid
Abbreviation: Fol.
Modes of Action: Acts in the one-carbon metabolism where it is indispensable in the
formation of amino acid and nucleic acids
Feed: Lucerne meal, extracted soybean meal, fish meal
Food: dark leafy vegetables, liver, kidney, muscle, milk dairy products
7. Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)
Abbreviation: PP
Modes of Action: Acts as an active group of different coenzymes which are related
to the citric acid cycle
Feed: brans, dried green crops, yeasts, vegetable and animal proteins
Food: liver and meat of hoofed animals
8. Pantothenic Acid
Abbreviation: Pant.
Modes of Action: Part of coenzyme A, which occupies a cental position in the
intermediary metabolism by activating weakly active acids.
Feed: dried green crops, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, legumes, liver, kidney, egg-yolk, milk products
9. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Abbreviation: C
Modes of Action: Essential in the formation and maintenance of skeletal tissues;
participates as an oxidation - reduction system in cellular oxidation processes.
Involved in defensive mechanisms.
Feed: beef, green plants, skimmed milk powder
Food: potatoes, cabbage, lettuce (and other vegetables), citrus, tomatoes (and other
fresh fruits).
Activity:
1. What is the importance of animal nutrition?
2. What are the essential requirements for animal nutrition?
3. What are seven major classes of nutrients?
4. What are the Essential amino acids?
5. What are the Non- Essential amino acids?
6. What are the micronutrients?
7. Enumerate what are the Water-Soluble Vitamins
1. Which essential nutrient helps form, build, and repair muscles?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Minerals
C. Protein
D. Vitamins
2. Which essential nutrient STORES energy?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Fat
C. Protein
D. Minerals
3. Which essential nutrient is an organic substance that is naturally occurring?
A. Fat
B. Minerals
C. Vitamins
F. Protein
4. Which essential nutrient makes up 70% of an animal’s body?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Water
C. Protein
D. Mineral
5. Which is not a material that provides nutrients?
A. fats
B. vitamins
C. water
D. air
6. Which is not an antioxidant?
A. Vitamin e
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin C
D. Calcium
7. Which of the feed additives is responsible for a growing current medical crisis?
A. wormers
B. Vitamin C
C. antioxidants
D. antibiotics
8. Nutrition is a
A. Buzz word
B. Science
C. Art
D. Theory
Lesson 3: digestive and absorption and Metabolism
Welcome to lesson 3! Keep reading!
Abstraction
Digestion
involves the processes used to prepare food for absorption. Absorption includes the processes that
move small molecules through membranes of the gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract) into blood so the
molecules may be used for their specific function.
Processes involved:
Mechanical forces - include chewing (mastication) and muscular contractions of the GI tract.
Chemical processes - action of acids produced in the GI tract, and enzymatic activity from
enzymes produced in the GI tract or enzymes produced by microorganisms located in various
parts of the GI tract.
Nutrient Digestion
NUTRIENT BASIC UNIT
Protein amino acid
Starch glucose (non-ruminant)
volatile fatty acids and lactic acid

(ruminant)
Cellulose volatile fatty acids
Sucrose glucose and fructose
Lactose glucose and galactose
Lipids fatty acids and glycerol
Minerals any soluble form
Vitamins any soluble form

Enzymes are organic catalysts which produce changes in the structure of nutrients which result in the reduction
Site of production End-products of the key enzymes
Saliva Salivary amylase - starch to maltose
Rumen Microbial cellulase - cellulose to volatile fatty acids
Microbial amylase - starch to volatile fatty acids and lactic acid
Microbial proteases - protein to amino acids and NH3
Microbial urease - urea to CO2 and NH3
Stomach, Abomasum and

Pepsin - protein to polypeptides
Proventriculus
Pancreas - Trypsin - protein to peptides and amino acids
- Chymotrypsin - protein to peptides and amino acids
- Carboxypeptidase - protein to peptides and amino acids
Absorption
- Absorption occurs primarily in the small intestine and large intestine. The villi (very small
projections which line the small intestine) are essential for absorption. A large amount of
absorption of volatile fatty acids occurs in the rumen and depends greatly on many healthy
papillae (projections which line the rumen).
- In general, absorption occurs as the result of diffusion or active transport. Diffusion
involves the movement of the basic units from areas of high concentration (the GI tract) to
area of lower concentration (the blood).
Metabolism
- Metabolism can occur only after the basic units of the nutrients have been absorbed into
the blood. Metabolism involved all the chemical reactions performed by the cells to use the
basic units of the nutrients for their specific functions i.e., glucose for energy or amino
acids for protein synthesis. Generally, the reactions function in series and are described
as pathways or cycles i.e., the Embden-Meyerhof pathway or glucose metabolism the
Krebs cycle.
Digestive tract of the pig as an example of the digestive tract of a monogastric animal
TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A.) NON-RUMINANTS
Examples: dogs, pigs, rabbits, cats, humans, monkeys.
Parts and functions of the Non-ruminant digestive system: 
1. Mouth – is composed of 3 accessory organs:
i. Tongue – grasping food
ii. Teeth – mastication of food
iii. Salivary glands – produce saliva which contains:
1. bicarbonate salts buffer regulates Ph)
2. salivary amylase to start carbohydrate digestion
3. water to moisten food
4. mucin to lubricate the food for easy swallowing
2. Esophagus – a muscular tube that allows passage of food from the mouth to the stomach
3. Stomach – a muscular digestive organ that has 3 major functions:
a. storage of ingested food
b. mechanical breakdown
c. production of HCL, enzymes and mucus
d.
Regions of the Stomach:
a) cardiac – cells produce mucus that protects stomach lining
b) pectic – gland region in which cells produce HCL, pepsin (proteolytic
enzymes), and mucus
c) primarily mucus producing cells
4. Small intestine – has 3 segments/divisions:

i. duodenum – an active site of digestion the receives secretions from the
pancreas, liver and intestinal wall
ii. jejunum – middle section that is involved in nutrient absorption
iii. ileum – last section, also involved in nutrient absorption
5. Large intestine – has 3 sections/segments:
i. cecum – first section which is relatively large. In horses this section
contains bacteria which produce enzymes that digest fiber.
ii. colon – middle section which is involved in the re-absorption of water
iii. rectum – last section
6. Anus
B. RUMINANTS
Examples: cattle, carabao, goat, goat, sheep
Parts and functions of ruminant digestive system:
1. Mouth
2. Esophagus.
3. Stomach – has 4 compartments:
a. RUMEN – large muscular compartment which fills the left side of the body
cavity
- covered with projections called papillae which are required for absorption of nutrients
- storage
- soaking
- physical mixing and breakdown
- provide favorable environment for protozoa and bacteria.
- These bacteria are responsible for the significant pregastric fermentation which produces:
▪ enzymes that breakdown fiber as well as, starch and protein
▪ water soluble vitamins and vitamin K
▪ bacterial synthesis of amino acids
▪ and protein
Favorable condition which are provided in the rumen:
*anaerobic environment *constant food supply
*constant warm temperature *mixing
*moisture *removal of toxic end product
b. RETICULUM- has 2 functions:

1.) move food into the rumen or omasum
2.) collection of dense particles of food and in regurgitation of
ingesta during rumination
c. OMASUM- a round muscular organ which contains many muscular laminae
(many plies)
-- functions not clearly understood
d. ABOMASUM- very similar/identical to the gastric gland of the non- ruminant
e. Small and Large intestine – very similar in functions as in non-ruminant
f. Anus
C. AVIAN/POULTRY/BIRDS
Examples: chicken, ducks
I. Mouth - does not contain teeth, but the beak is used to collect particles of feed and to
break some large particles into smaller pieces
- tongue and salivary glands are present, and the saliva does contain salivary amylase
II. Esophagus – the esophagus of most birds includes an area called the Crop. Crop
functions as:
a. temporary storage and moistening of food
b. a place for salivary amylase to work; and
c. for microbial fermentation in some species
III. Proventriculus – corresponds to true stomach as described for non-ruminant and
abomasum for the ruminant
IV. Ventriculus – commonly called the gizzard
V. Small intestine – similar to the small intestine of the non-ruminant and ruminant
VI. Large Intestine – similar to non- ruminants and ruminants in form and function
VII. Cloaca/Vent
Post- test
1. An animal with a four-chambered stomach that consumes large quantities of plant material (cattle, sheep,
goats)
a. Ruminant
b. Avian
c. Monogastric
2. Single - stomached animals (pigs, horses)
a. Ruminant
b. Monogastric
c. Avian
3. These animals have three separate stomachs, and use rocks to grind their food. (another word for birds)
a. Ruminant
b. Avian
c. Mongastric
4. Largest part of the ruminant digestive system. Solid material is fermented by bacteria
a. Rumen
b. Reticulum
c. Omasum
d. Abomasum
5. This ruminant organ adds water and saliva until food is the right consistency. Catches non-digestibles.
a. rumen
b. reticulum
c. omasum
d. abomasum
6. This ruminant organ grinds, squeezes, and sorts food. It is full of folds of muscle, like the pages of a book.
a. rumen
b. reticulum
c. omasum
d. abomasum
7. The true stomach of a ruminant animal, majority of digestion occurs here
a. Rumen
b. Reticulum
c. Omasum
d. Abomasum
8. This organ is found in horses and rabbits, and this is where bacterial digestion occurs here before food
moves to the small intestine.
a. cecum
b. stomach
c. proventriculus
d. Omasum
9. This is the true stomach of the avian digestive system: food is mixed, broken down, and absorbed
a. proventriculus
b. gizzard
c. crop
10. This part of the avian digestive system is very muscular and uses rocks and grit to grind and crush feed.
a. proventriculus
b. crop
c. gizzard
11. This part of the avian digestive system holds and soaks food before it moves through the rest of the
digestive system.
a. proventriculus
b. gizzard
c. crop
12. The process of chewing food
a. Mastication
b. Prehension
c. Metabolism
d. Absorption
13. The method or way food is delivered to the mouth is called...
a. Digestion
b. Prehension
c. Absorption
d. Metabolism
14. Reducing feed into simple substances that can be absorbed by the body is...
a. Digestion
b. Mastication
c. Prehension
d. Absorption
15. The tube-like passage from mouth to stomach
a. Esophagus
b. Stomach
c. Small Intestine
d. Large Intestine
16. Bringing digested food and nutrients into the bloodstream is...
a. Absorption
b. Mastication
c. Prehension
17. This part of the digestive system absorbs nutrients from digested food.
a. Small Intestine
b. Stomach
c. Large Intestine
d. Mouth
18. This part of the digestive system absorbs water from digested food
a. Large Intestine
b. Small Intestine
c. Stomach
d. Esophagus
9. The point where food enters the body is...
a. Mouth
b. Rectum
c. Stomach
d. Small Intestine
20. This organ of digestion uses chemicals and muscular movements to break down food.
a. Stomach
b. Esophagus
c. Small Intestine
d. Mouth
Lesson 5: Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animal
Abstraction
Maintenance, Growth, Reproduction, Milk Production and Egg Production
Maintenance
- 1. Each animal has a maintenance requirement for feed/ration on the various nutrients for
the following purposes.
o To maintain body weight or size (no gain or loss)
o To support the essential life processes, i.e., respiration, circulation, normal
muscular activity, etc.
o To maintain body temperature
o To maintain the different body secretions
- 2. Basal metabolism or Fasting Catabolism - refers to the minimum energy expenditure
to maintain essential life processes. It is the starting point in determining the maintenance
requirement for energy of an animal. Basal metabolism (BM) is measured in kilocalories and
can be estimated using the following formula derived from experimental data.
- BM
(kilocalories) = 70 Wkg0.75
Where, Wkg = is the animal's body weight in kg
Wkg0.75 is the body weight raised to the 3/4 power
It has been established that each animal has a fairly constant BM per unit metabolic body
size (M.B.S.) which is equal to 70 kcal.
Portion of body weights and corresponding MBS (Maynard et al. 1979)
Wkg M.B.S.
1.0 1.0
50.0 18.80
100.0 31.62
150.0 42.86
200.0 53.18
300.0 72.08
400.0 89.44
500.0 105.74
1000.0 177.83
- 3. Energy requirement for maintenance is related to the body surface area or metabolic
body size, i.e. 3/4 power of the liveweight. It is made up of the net energy (for Basal
metabolism) and a so-called “activity increment”. The “activity increment” refers to the
energy expenditure due to normal body movements and associated activities, e.g. for
chickens, +50%, cattle and swine, +20-30%, grazing cattle, another +40%.
- 4. Protein requirement for maintenance is made up of two portions:

Endogenous urinary nitrogen (EUN) = the normal wear and tear of the body organs and
tissues. On an energy - adequate, N-free diet, EUN is about 2 mg N per basal kilocalorie.
The “adult growth” functions - i.e. feathers, hairs, hoofs, nails, etc.
GROWTH
- 1. Growth is the correlated increase of body mass to reach the size at maturity fixed by
heredity.
o In practical terms, growth is reflected in increased weight and size. It is
characterized by:
• increase in the number of cells
• increase in size of cells. It consists primarily of the build-up of skeletal
structure, the muscles and organs, and fat tissue.
o Nutritionally, it means largely increase in minerals (mainly Ca and P) and protein.
- 2. Protein requirement for growth
o High protein level and good protein quality (essential amino acid make-up) are
both needed for optimum growth. These may gradually be lowered with age. For
example, broiler starter and pig starter mashes may require more than 20%
protein (with good quality protein feeds like fish meal, meat meal, soybean meal,
skimmilk powder etc.) whereas the hog/finisher mash may contain only 14%
protein (with little amount of the good quality protein feeds).
- 3. Energy requirement for growth
o Energy (coming mainly from carbohydrates, provided also by fats and proteins) is
the driving force for tissue synthesis or anabolism. Even with adequate amino
acids, minerals and vitamins, growth cannot take place at the optimal rate without
sufficient energy (measured either as kilocalories of gross energy, digestible
energy, metabolizable energy or net energy; or as TDN, total digestible nutrients).
- 4. Ways of energy restriction
• - to limit the energy intake of an animal, either or both of these ways may be
followed:
a. Limit the total feed intake
b. Lower the energy content or density of the ration - i.e., make
the ration bulky
• The first method would also lower the intake of the other nutrients relative to the
animal's requirements. In the second method, you may still enable the animal
to consume adequate levels of the other nutrients in spite of the energy
restriction up to a certain point.
• The energy: protein ratio is an important factor in the efficiency and economy of
growth
- 5. Growth rates and feed efficiency
o The practical measures of growth performance of farm animals are average daily
gain in weight (ADG) and feed efficiency (F/G). The values are greatly affected
by two major factors:
o hereditary (particularly the breed or strain of the animal)
o environment (particularly by the nutrition and management). Under Philippine
conditions, the following are the normal values for reasonably good rations:
Normal values for reasonably good rations
ADG (kg) F/G kg feed/kg liveweight

gain
Growing pigs (improved crossbreds 0.4 - 0.6 2.5 - 3.5
Growing cattle (native) 0.4 - 0.5 11.0 - 12.0
Growing cattle (native-Zebu grades) 0.5 - 0.7 10.0 - 11.0
Broilers (modern strains) 0.150 - 0.180 (6-7 weeks) 2.0 - 2.3
REPRODUCTION
- 1. The nutrient requirements for reproduction represent the additional amounts of the various
nutrients needed for:
a. the female's coming into estrus, subsequent conception and adequate development of
the fetus until birth;
b. the male's maintenance of the integrity of the reproductive organs and its sperm cells and
sex hormones.
- 2. The substantial requirement, especially of energy, protein, calcium and phosphorus, is for the
development of the fetus (this is technically “pre-natal growth” but considered part of reproduction
requirement of the dam) particularly during the last quarter of the gestation period.
- 3. Too severe nutrient deficiencies for a long period can lead to permanent sterility.
However, the usual cases are those of not too severe nutrient deficiencies giving rise to
low level of fertility manifested by the following symptoms:
o cessation of estrus
o resorption of fetus
o abortion
o birth of dead or weak young
1. MILK PRODUCTION
- 1. Lactation in any species requires substantial nutrients for synthesis of adequate amount
of milk to nourish the young. This additional requirement above those for maintenance and
possibly growth in the case of still growing breeding female is much more pronounced in
the dairy animal, especially dairy cow. Dairy type animals produce milk for human consumption
and relatively very much less for the nourishment of their young.
- 2. Good dairy cows in the temperate countries such as the US yield about 25-30 kg milk daily in a
305-day lactation period. Relatively good dairy cows in the Philippines and in most of the tropics
correspondingly yield only about 8-12 kg daily. Genetics and climate (direct and indirect effects)
have very much to do with this difference.
- 3. Commercial dairying would generally need intensive grazing management or intensive forage
production, compared with extensive pasture or range grazing in cattle ranching for beef
production. Dairy cows need improved forages for efficient and economical production.
- As much of good quality forage that a dairy cow can and should consume, would generally be able
to meet only the requirements for maintenance and the production of not more than 5 kg milk daily
in the Philippines.
- Energy rather than crude protein seems to be the more critical problem in meeting adequate needs
of the dairy cow in the Philippines. Concentrate would be needed to provide that energy deficit. A
common “rule of thumb” is to feed one kg of reasonably good concentrate mixture for every 2.5 kg
of milk in excess of 5 kg if the forage is of good quality.
Milk constituents and blood sources:
Milk Blood
Casein blood amino acids

Immune globulins blood globulins
Fat Fatty acids, acetate
Lactose glucose
Minerals minerals in blood
Vitamins vitamins in blood
2. EGG PRODUCTION
- 1. The major factors affecting nutrient requirements are:
a. Rate of egg production
b. Egg size or weight
c. Egg shell thickness
d. Body size of layer
- 2. The principal factor affecting egg shell quality is dietary calcium. Egg shell quality can be
measured by specific gravity of eeg, shell thickness, shell smoothness, breaking strength,
percentage of cracks or shell appearance.
- Low dietary calcium levels, less than 2.0 %, decrease egg shell quality in chickens.
Analysis
1. What are the factors that affect the nutrient requirements of animals?
2. What factors do energy and nutrient requirements depend on?
3. What is animal nutrition in agriculture?
4. How do different animals digest needed nutrients?
5. What are the necessary nutrients animals require?

Lesson 6: measuring the nutritive value of feeds feedstuff
Abstraction
Feed evaluation
is the testing of feed quality, providing information on the composition of feed or feed
ingredients as well as their suitability for poultry. Poultry feed is made up of many ingredients,
which are broadly grouped into providers of energy (fats, oils and carbohydrates), protein
(amino acids), vitamins, minerals and product quality enhancement
Feed evaluation is a key process in the poultry industry. Feed ingredients need to be tested
in order to formulate the complete diet, and diets have to be evaluated to determine their
suitability for poultry. Evaluation provides different types of information, as required by
nutritionists and farmers. In general, the range of tests that can now be performed is wide and
it is now possible to obtain results rapidly.
Measures of feed quality
Feed quality is measured by chemically breaking up the food into the components mentioned
above. In the industry, it is sometimes necessary to break down these large components into
smaller analytical fractions. Thus, values of starch and the non-starch component (called
fibre) of carbohydrates may be provided. Proteins are made of amino acids, 10 of which must
be present in poultry diets, so their amounts should be indicated during feed evaluation.
Importance of feed evaluation
Feed evaluation is important because ingredients that belong to the same class contain
different nutrients; for example, maize provides more energy than wheat while soybeans
contain more proteins than lupins and canola.
The same ingredient varies from one supplier to the other, and between years. In drought years,
cereals fill poorly and are therefore lower in quality. Most importantly, if feeds are not evaluated,
it is not possible to tell if the material will be suitable for feeding poultry.
Feeding standards have already been set for different types of poultry, so the requirements for
different nutrients must be met precisely. It is possible, with the current state of knowledge, to
predict poultry growth or egg production by modelling feed quality, type of housing, class of
poultry and duration of feeding. The central key issue in these models is feed quality, which
can only be obtained through feed evaluation.
Different Classification of Feedstuffs
a. Roughages
b. Concentrates
c. Supplements
A. Roughages
- Feed materials containing more than 18% crude fiber and are generally low in
energy
- Ex. Grasses & legumes
B. Concentrates
- Feeds that are high in energy (NFE and TDN) and low in crude fiber (less than 18%)
- Two Types of Concentrates:
● Basal or Energy Feeds
● Protein Feeds
I. Basal or Energy Feeds / Bulk Feeds
● generally characterized by high in energy (TDN,ME)
● low in fiber (less than 18%)
● low in protein (less than 20%) – protein quality is
variable and generally quite low
● ex. Cereal grains (corn, sorghum, feed wheat)
Mill by-products (rice bran, wheat pollard, corn
bran, corn gluten feed, dried whey, molasses)
Fats/oils (vegetable oils & animal fats)
II. Protein Feeds
● contain more than 20% protein
● have two origins:
→ Animal/Marine Origin
→ Plant Origin
RATION FORMULATION
Ration Formulation
• Pointers in Feed Formulation
• Methods of Compounding Ration
→ Trial and Error Method
→ Pearson Square Method
Methods of Compounding Ration
Trial & Error Method
– Although time consuming, consideration is given to all nutrients
Pearson Square Method
– Simple & easy method of determining the correct proportion of two feed ingredients
or two feed groups to obtain a desired level of protein
– However, only the protein content of the ration is given major consideration
Sample Problem (Pearson Square)
1. A farmer wishes to mix a ration containing 14% Crude Protein (CP). He decided to use
yellow corn with 8.5% CP and fish meal with 65% CP. How much of each of the feed
ingredients should be used?
2. A farmer wishes to mix a ration containing 22% Crude Protein (CP). He decided to
use yellow corn with 8.9% CP and fish meal with 65% CP. How much of each of
the feed ingredients should be used?
POST-TEST
1. Why is the use of the Pearson Square method an important tool for animal producers
when determining rations?
2. Explain how the Pearson Square might be used in a ration that involves more than
two feedstuffs.
3. What nutritional problem do you foresee using only the Pearson Square in order to
balance a ration? Explain your reasoning.
ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS
Module 2
Introduction:
Welcome to the Module 4 of the course Principles of Animal Science. In this

module, you are going to navigate the world of genetics and breeding of Farm
Animals and the role of technology in the success of the animal production. Animal
breeding, genetics, and genomics is the branch of science concerned with
maximizing desirable genetic traits, such as producing animals that have leaner
meat. Animal geneticists have identified elements within genes that can
enhance animal growth, health, and ability to utilize nutrients.
Objectives:
 Understand the role of good genetics in animal productivity;
 Identify the selection factors for efficient animal production;
 Familiarize with the breeding system , their advantages and constraints;
 Know the recent technologies in animal reproduction; and
 Compare and contrast the different breeding systems .
Learning Outcomes:
Lesson 1: Animal Genetics

Lesson 2: Animal Breeding
ANIMAL GENETICS
Lesson 1
Overview:
Animal genetics is one of the pillars of livestock development
(alongside animal health, animal nutrition and husbandry issues such as housing). It is
a broad field, ranging from characterization to conservation to genetic improvement,
and involves actions at local, national, regional and global scales.
Time Frame: 1 Week
Learning Outcome:
 Understand the role of good genetics in animal productivity;

 Identify the selection factors for efficient animal production;
 Characterize the different breeds of farm animals;

Activity:
Lets try to crack what on your head before heading to our first lesson. Please answer
the following questions below.
1. What are genes?
2. Is it necessary? Why?

Historical development of Animal Breeding and Genetics
 Before the acceptance and rediscovery of Gregor Johann Mendel’s work,

everyone believed that the characteristics of the offsprings is due to the
blending of the parents’ blood. Mendel did his work on pea plant in 1865 but
this was not recognized so it just gathered dust in the shelves.
 1901, De Vries, Correns and Von Tschermark independently rediscovered
Mendel’s work after which this was accepted by the scientific community.
 1906, Bateson (English naturalist) studied the plumage characteristics of
chickens.
 1909, Johannsen (Dutch biologist) coined the word “gene” referring to the
particulate matter which Mendel used in his treatise.
 1956, Watson and Crick discovered that the DNA has a double helix structure
and that there is such a thing as a genetic code in the DNA.
Genes and Their Role in Animal Productivity
Genes and Their Functions:

The gene is the biological unit of inheritance and it is through this that the parents
are able to transmit their characteristics to their offsprings. The biological nature and
function of the gene however was hypothesized by James Watson and Francis Crick
(1956) which is now universally accepted.
The gene is a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which determines

the base sequence of the nucleotides in the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) that
makes up the code for certain biological functions.
The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides

called polynucleotides. Each nucleotide consist of a phosphate (P), a sugar (S) and a
Base (B). The coding system of the gene is based on the arrangement of the four
bases: Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
DNA RNA
Contains A,G,C and T Contains A,C,G and U (uracil)
Contains deoxyribose Contains ribose
Double strand Single strand
Store genetic information Expression of genetic information
Functions of Genes
 Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parent to
offspring
 Copy and replicate itself with great consistency and precision
 Undergo mutation or error in copying of the genetic code which would be
subsequently copied and replicated.
The manner by which the genetic information is transmitted from cell to cell is
through mitosis (multiplicative cell division) while from parent to offspring
is made possible through the reduction cell division (meiosis) in the
germinal cells (gametes) and the subsequent union of the haploid sperm
and egg cells during fertilization.
The consistency in copying the genes during mitosis is made possible by the
gene structure itself. The DNA segment consist of two strands of the chain of bases.
These 2 strands are linked together at each other at the base so that it forms a twisted
ladder or helical shape (double helix). The nature of the gene is such that each base in
one strand can only pair with a specific base
 Adenine (A) is always opposite to Thymine (T) forming an A-T base pair
 Guanine (G) opposite cytosine (C) - forming a G-C base pair.
Errors/mutation may happen in the copying of genes although occurs very rarely .
If mutation occurs in the somatic cells then it will be transmitted from cell to cell.
However, if it occurs in the germinal cells, it may be transmitted to the next
generation.
The genetic information that is stored must be such that it can be decoded and
translated into action in the developing individual.
Protein is a basic nutrient of growth, maintenance and reproduction of all

organisms. The orderly synthesis of proteins in the body is made possible by genes.
Genes provide the code for the synthesis of proteins thru the process of transcription
and translation involving the ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the ribosome in the cells In
the nucleus, the RNA transcribes the sequence of the bases in the DNA and then
carries the information to the cytoplasm in the cells. The ribosomes attached to the
mRNA and read the message according to 3 bases at a time. Each string of 3 bases
codes for a certain amino acid. As each string of 3 bases is read, the corresponding
free amino acid in the cytoplasm is picked and assembled into a string. When enough
of the specific amino acids are in the string now, it forms a protein molecule.
Phenotypes, Genotypes
Genotype refers to the specific combination of genes associated with
particular characteristics of the individual, this is otherwise known as the genetic
material. The expression of the genotype however depend greatly on the environment
such that in favorable environments, the genetic material will be expressed but if
otherwise, then it will not manifest in the individual’s phenotype.
The phenotype is the manifestation of the genotype with the environment as
another factor that determines whether the phenotype is a true reflection of the genetic
make up. As always we look back to the equation:
P = G + E where: P = phenotype, G = genotype, E = Environment.
Gene Action and Types
 Additive – The addition of one gene to the allele results to a different phenotype
as in the Skin Color theory of Davenport (AABB = black, aabb = white, AaBb=
mulatto)
 Non – Additive – there are two subtypes of this gene action and these are:
Epistasis – the masking on a gene in one locus by another gene in another locus,
this is non predictable
Dominance – complete dominance (polled-horned character in cattle), co
dominance/incomplete dominance (red-white-roan coat color of Shorthorn breed
of cattle) and over dominance (antigen production of rats)
Mechanism of Inheritance
The flow of genetic material from generation to generation is made possible by

reproduction which in animals, involves two processes which are:
 Gametogenesis – process of producing the gametes (spermatogenesis in male,

oogenesis in the female)
 Fertilization – process of the union of the sperm and the egg cells at the
fallopian tube. The resulting zygote carrying half of the characteristics of both
the dam and the sire will eventually develop into an embryo and implant at the
uterine wall to develop into a fetus.
Mendelian Inheritance and Probability
Mendel’s work was with pea plants specifically on the seed coat characteristics (
rough and smooth seed coats) Using parent pea plants with rough and smooth
seed coats however yielded offsprings, some of which have wrinkled seed coat
aside from the rough and smooth ones. Mendel then theorized that there are
particulate matters from the parents that are passed on to its offspring. From this
work, Mendel also developed two laws which are:
 Law of Independent Segregation – characters are determined by particulate
matters and that these occur in pairs. In the formation of gametes, these
are segregated randomly so that only one pair is transmitted by a particular
gamete.
 Law of Independent Recombination – The paired particulate matters will
recombine independently and randomly to compose the genetic character
of an individual.
One of the most important implications of Mendel’s finding is that the process of
segregation and recombination of genes is governed purely by chance and that the
occurrence of each new combination may be predicted according to the rules of
probability.
Non Mendelian Inheritance
There are inheritances that do not follow the Mendelian laws and these are the
following:
 Sex Linkage (Sex linked traits): Generally sex linked traits are carried in the
sex chromosomes. There are autosomes (body chromosomes) and a pair of sex
chromosomes in animal which makes up the totality of its diploid
chromosome number of a species.
For mammals, the XX sex chromosomes are with the females and the XY is
with the males. In birds or avian species however, it is the male which has the
homogametic sex chromosome that is ZZ while the female carries the ZW.
The Y and the W chromosomes are smaller in size than the X and the Z
chromosomes thus genes carried in the X and Z chromosomes that are
recessive will be manifested in the individual which has inherited that
character. An example of a sex-linked character is hemophilia which is
normally manifested in the phenotype of male persons.
 Autosomal linkage : Chromosomes are occupied by genes in specific

locus(loci). With autosomal linkage, there is a greater chance of genes that are
occupying nearby locus to be inherited together than those that are located
farther. This particularly happens during the prophase stage of meiosis where
the chromosomes double and segments of homologous chromosomes cross
over and exchange segments.
 Non-nuclear Inheritance: This is more commonly seen in plants where

chlorophyll-bearing plants are carried in the cytoplasm. In animals, this is a
very rare occurrence although there are some evidences that cytoplasmic
genetic material affecting milk production may be present in cattle. Females
therefore have a larger role than males in influencing the characteristics of the
offspring since the sperm cell has very little cytoplasmic material.
 Maternal Influence: Other than the genetic material in the chromosomes and
the possibility that there may be genetic material in the cytoplasm, the mother
could further influence the characteristics of her offspring because of the
maternal care she provided to her young. An example is that of the incidence
of mammary cancer in the progenies of white mice.
Maternal effects forms part of the total environment of the individual and
should not be mistaken as genetics.
Genes in Populations
Population is a group of individuals which share a common gene pool. Gene

and genotypic frequencies quantify the genes and the genotypes in the
population. If we have genes A and a representing an allele in a population,
this population may be characterized as follows:
Genotype Gene
f (AA) = PP f(A) = P
f (Aa) = 2 Pq f(a) =q
f (aa) = qq
PP + 2Pq +qq = 1 P+q = 1
The discussions above are derived from the basic law of population genetics
which is otherwise known as the Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium. This
law although jointly proposed for by Hardy (English) and Weinberg (German)
in 1908, both of them were mathematicians.
The Hardy-Weinberg law states that in a large random mating population

where selection, migration, mutation and random genetic drift do not operate,
a.) the gene and the genotypic frequencies remain constant from one
generation to the next, and
b.) The genotypic frequency is derived from the gene frequency.
Forces That Change Gene Frequency
 Selection – is a process of preferring individual(s) over others in the herd for a
certain purpose. There are 2 types of selection which are natural (reproductive
abnormalities) and artificial ( man’s intervention). Selection generally increase
the frequency of the desired genes.
 Migration – the transfer of individual(s) from one population to another. The
difference in the genetic composition of the natives to that of the migrants and
their proportion will determine the rate of change of the gene and genotypic
frequencies after migration.
 Mutation – is an error in the copying of the genetic code. The importance of
mutation in changing gene frequency is that this is the only source of new
gene. Rate of occurrence of mutation however is low.
 Random genetic drift – the weakest force to change gene frequency. It
operates best with smaller population and low gene frequencies.
Non-Random Mating: occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of
mating with other individuals of the opposite sex. Forms of non-random mating are:
 Assortative – individuals which are phenotypically similar tend to mate more
often
 Disassortative- mating of individuals which are phenotypically less similar.
Congratulations! You have just finished the Lesson 1.
Knowledge Check!
Exercise 1. Identification. Provide what is ask and write on the space provided before
the number. No erasures.
___________________1. The addition of one gene to the allele results to a different

phenotype as in the Skin Color theory of Davenport.
___________________2. He coined the word “gene” referring to the particulate
matter which Mendel used in his treatise.
__________________3. It is a is a process of preferring individual(s) over others in
the herd for a certain purpose.
___________________4. It is the manifestation of the genotype with the
environment as another factor that determines whether the phenotype is a true
reflection of the genetic make up.
___________________5. Is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of
nucleotides called polynucleotides.
__________________6. XY chromosomes signifies ______.
___________________7. It is a basic nutrient of growth, maintenance and
reproduction of all organisms.
___________________8. It refers to the specific combination of genes associated
with particular characteristics of the individual, this is otherwise known as the genetic
material.
__________________9. The process of producing the gametes.
__________________10. The masking on a gene in one locus by another gene in
another locus, this is non predictable.
__________________11. It is an error in the copying of the genetic code.
__________________12. XX chromosomes signifies ____.
__________________13. The masking on a gene in one locus by another gene in
another locus, this is non predictable.
___________________14. The biological unit of inheritance and it is through this that
the parents are able to transmit their characteristics to their offsprings.
__________________15. It is the weakest force to change gene frequency.
Exercise II. Discussion.
1. What does dominant vs recessive mean?

2. Why can't animal genetic tests predict all diseases?
3. Who has stronger genes, the mother animal? Or the father animal?

Anim
mal Brreeding
Lesson 2
Overview:
Hurray! Welcomee to the 2nd n

lesson of
o the Toppic Animal Breeding and
genetics. Inn this lessoon we will beb nurturinng our know wledge withh some insiights
that wouldd harness our mentalitties and aw wareness onn how to improve an nimal
production in the cost of system, methods an nd technoloogy which iis actually very
important specially
s in our growing populatio on.
Simply, we are just talking about
a animaal breeding in the sensse that the only
purpose off this is to inntensify thee production of differeent animal pproducts to suit
the demannd of the increasing
i p
population. Animal breeding
b is the process of
selective mating
m of aniimals with desirable genetic
g traitts, to mainttain or enhance
these traitss in future generationss. For livesstock, this involves
i estimation off the
genetic valuue of individuals for trraits includ
ding growth rate and yiield of prod ducts
such as egggs, milk or meat.
m
Objectivess:
 Faamiliarize with
w the breeeding system m , their advvantages andd constraintts;
 Knnow the receent technoloogies in anim
mal reproduuction; and
 Coompare and contrast thee different breeding
b sysstems .
Animal Breeding
This is the art and science of genetic improvement of animals . The objectives of
animal breeding are:
 To improve the quantity of production of farm animals and their product
per unit time.
 To improve the efficiency of production and their products.
 To improve the quality of farm animals and their products, and
 To improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and its products.
Selection – The process of preferring some individuals over the rest of the population.
Basis of selection
 Individual’s phenotype: the individual’s performance is the only basis in selecting
the animal.
 Pedigree : this is a record of the ancestor’s performance.
 Progeny testing: a parent will be selected based on the performance of its
offsprings. This also establishes the breeding value of animals.
 Collateral relatives are those aside from the parents. These are the uncles, aunties,
cousins..
Methods of Selection
 Tandem method – considers one trait at a time

 Independent Culling method – two traits at a time
 Selection Index – evaluates the totality of an animal through the use of a score
card.
Systems of Breeding or Mating

 Outbreeding – mating of animals that are less closely related to one
another. Subsystems of outbreeding includes:
Crossbreeding : the mating of individuals from different breeds i.e. Brahman

x Holstein Friesian
Outcrossing – The mating of two individuals form the same breed but are not
related ex. Landrace A x Landrace B ; both have no common parent.
Upgrading – the mating between a native (mongrel) and a purebred or a grade

i.e. Phil Native carabao x Murrah Buffalo
Hybridization- Inter specific mating i.e. Horse x Donkey = Mule/Ass
 The general effect of outbreeding is to increase the heterozygosity of a

population. In doing so, there is an observed increase in the performance
of the offspring to that of its parents (heterosis/hybrid vigor)
 Inbreeding – The mating of individuals that are closely related to each
other (up to the third degree). Subsystems under inbreeding are:
Closebreeding : mating between a parent and its offspring like father x

daughter; mother x son
Linebreeding : the mating among the family line like uncle x niece; auntie x
nephew, cousin x cousin
 Prepotency is the phemonenon where the offsprings perform similarly to that

of the parents. This is readily seen in inbred animals. Generally, inbreeding
increases the homozygosity of the genes in a population. In doing so, there
will be recessive genes which will be expressed in the phenotype of an
individual.
Reproductive Biotechnology
Different species of farm animals have different cycles and rates of

reproduction. Modern day breeds of chickens could produce as much as 200 to 250
chicks per year as compared to cattle with only about one calf per cow in two years
time. Poultry species could lay eggs almost everyday in all months of the year
whether it is fertile or not. Fertile eggs could then be hatched in multiple depending
on the capacity of the incubators. Cattle on the other hand as well as mammals shed
eggs only once in every three weeks and when the egg is fertilized, embryonic
development happens in the uterus for several months until parturition. Table 1
below gives us an idea on reproduction specifics for some of the species.
Table 1. Frequency of ovulation ,length of embryonic development

And expected number of progeny/year/female in various farm
Animals
Species Estrus cycle (days) Incubation/Pregnancy Expected number
(days) of young per year
Quail 16-19 100-300
Pigeon 17 10-20
Chicken 21 50-300
Mallard Duck 28 50-100
Turkey 28 50-100
Geese 30 20-50
Muscovy duck 36 50-100
Rabbit 15-20 32 10-30
Swine 18-24 114 10-25
Sheep 17 147 1-3
goat 20-21 148 2.5
cattle 21 280 0.5
Water buffalo 22-24 316 0.5
Because of the lower rates of reproduction in some animals, reproductive

biotechnologies were brought forth in an effort to increase the number of young born
and these are:
Artificial Insemination (AI) – This is a process that extends the usefulness of the
male in the species by extending the collected semen and introducing into the female
tract artificially using an AI gun. Instead of one ejaculate servicing one female, it
could instead as much as 100 cows if we talk about cattle.
Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET) - This biotechnology extends

the usefulness of the female. There will be donor and recipient females both of them
are synchronized (estrus) simultaneously. The donor female will be the source of
matured egg cells that will be fertilized in vitro and implanted into the uterus of the
recipients.
Sperm Cell sexing and In vitro Fertilization - Sperm cells are sexed in the lab
(whether carrying the X or the Y) chromosome and eventually used to fertilized the
collected matured egg cell which if fertilized and develops as an embryo, will be
implanted in females of the species.
Nuclear Cloning – This process exploits the continuous splitting of embryos like that
of twins.
Table 2. Chromosome numbers in selected animals
Common/Scientific name Diploid Number (2n) Haploid Number (n)
Man (Homo sapiens) 46 23
Horse (Equus caballus) 64 38
Ass (Equus astrus) 62 36
European cattle (Bos 60 30
taurus)
American bison (Bison 60 30
bison)
Water buffalo (Bubalus 50 25
bubalis),riverine
Water buffalo (Bubalus 48 24
bubalis), swamp
Reindeer (Cervus cervus) 70 35
Sheep (Ovis aries) 54 28
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 30
Swine (Sus domesticus) 38 19
Dog(Canis familiaris) 78 39
Cat (Felis catus) 38 19
Rabbit 44 22
Mouse 40 20
Rat 42 21
‘
Knowledge Check!
Exercise I. Select on the box the answer of the questions below. Write the answer on
the space before the number.
Animal Breeding selection Outcrossing Tandem method
Selection Index Hybridization Upgrading Independent
Culling method Prepotency Pedigree
increase the heterozygosity of a population Line Breeding
Closebreeding Progeny testing Individual’s phenotype
increases the homozygosity of the genes in a population
___________________1. The mating of individuals that are closely related to each

other (up to the third degree).
___________________2. Mating of animals that are less closely related to one
another.
___________________3. is the phemonenon where the offsprings perform similarly
to that of the parents.
____________________4. Method of selection which considers one trait at a time
____________________5. the mating among the family line like uncle x niece; auntie
x nephew, cousin x cousin
___________________6. Selection of two traits at a time.
___________________7. Basis of selection wherein a parent will be selected based
on the performance of its offsprings. This also establishes the breeding value of
animals.
___________________8. The process of preferring some individuals over the rest of
the population.
___________________9. The general effect of outbreeding.
___________________10. the mating between a native (mongrel) and a purebred or a
grade.
___________________11. mating between a parent and its offspring like father x
daughter; mother x son
____________________12. The mating of two individuals form the same breed but
are not related
___________________13. This is the art and science of genetic improvement of
animals .
___________________14. Inter specific mating.
____________________15. This method evaluates the totality of an animal through
the use of a score card.
Exercise II.
1. Research on the google the Advantages and Disadvantage of the following
reproductive biotechnologies:
a. AI
b. MOET
c. Sperm cell sexing and In vitro fertilization
d. Nuclear cloning
Note: Attach Sample pictures on the different techniques.

2. Give your own thoughts:
From where are you going to stand, Technology and alterations from its
natural being to help mitigate food scarcity as a quick solution but has a bad effect on
our health? Or let us leave this to God who is the source of everything, slow in
progress but has a safe assurance to our health?
Modulee No. 5-Slaughter, Processing
g and Markeeting of Farm
m Animals
and Titlle
Lesson No. 1- Slaughteriing and Fabbrication
and Titlle
Learninng LO 1.Discusss the differeence in prinnciples of sllaughtering and meat faabrication
L
Outcommes L 2. Explaiin the importance of annte-mortem activities
LO
Time Frrame 1-Week
Introduction Hello, how are

H a you doinng? Are youu ready to start
s your first
fi lesson 5 in modulee
1? If it is yes, beginn to study your lessoon this willl give youu sufficientt
innformation on the prin nciples of sslaughter annd fabricatioon, its impo
ortance and d
purposeconccerned with humane prractices andd the attainm ment of a good
g qualityy
product whicch is safe and
a wholesoome for huuman use. M May you haave the bestt
tiime and youu can start riight here!
Activityy Id
dentify the domestic animal
a slaug
ghtered fit for
f human consumptio
on. Tick the
e
blank provided where th
hey belong.
Species FIT UN
NFIT
1. Goat
2. Sheep
3. Duck
4
4. Dog
5. Carabao
o
6.Cat
7. Hogs
8.Cattle
9. Snake
10. Chicken
n
T
TOTAL
GRAND TO OTAL /10
Analysiis Will you ablle to answer the follow

W wing questioon based onn your own perception,
exxperience and
a knowleddge. Try to assess on thhe best wayy you can soo that it willl
become easieer for you too deal with the every situation givven.
1. Can you exp plain why arre animals being killedd? And the purpose off
dooingso?
____________________________________________________ _________
____________________________________________________ _________..
2. In a situation
n where aniimals are slaaughter, how
w do you feeel about it??
_
__________ ________________________________________ _________
_
__________ ________________________________________ _________.
3. Describe
D a good and healthy animal.
_
__________ ________________________________________ _________
_
__________ ________________________________________ _________.
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4. W
What do yo ou think will
w happen if the anim mals are not
n properly y
h
handled p
prior to slaughter??
_
__________ __________ __________ ____________________ _________
_
__________ __________ __________ ____________________ ________.
5. Describe
D thee appearancce of your highly favoored meat available
a in
n
y
your locaal market.
_
__________ __________ __________ ____________________ _________
_
__________ __________ __________ ____________________ ________.
Abstracction
BASIC PRINCIPL
P LES OF SELECTIN
S NG
ANIMAALS FOR SLAUGH
S HTER
Primary conssideration in
P n slaughteriing and fabrrication:
 Purpo ose of the meat-
m fabricaation and paarts identification for different
d
cooking purposees.
 Cost of the end product-
p noot all parts of the carcasss commend ds the same
valuee
 Characteristics ofo the meat-- its suitability for comm minuted prooducts
 Tradiitional prefeerence- you unger animaals are prohiibited for so ome culture Slaughterr
(tabo
ooed from diets) is definne
 Food d preparationn practices and eating habits-
h the pproperty of which as the a
toughh muscle fib
bres are desired than tender meat. of killiin
the animm
to obta ai
carcass
C
Criteria for Selection
such a
meat fit fo
f
Some guidellines are co
S onsidered inn selecting livestock
l foor slaughterr in order to
o human
acchieve the maximum m utilizationn and savee labor. For the pro oduction off consump pt
w
wholesome a good qu
and uality meat, physical quality
q and hhealth cond dition of thee on comiin
annimals must first be observed so that it will becom me safe and d sound to o from fo oo
coonsume. To o qualify thee animals inn accordancce to the leggislations go
overning thee animals;
free fro om
saafety of thee consumer and the weelfare the animals
a prioor and durin ng handling g
disease o
sttages. These consideraations appeaar to be the general quualification in selecting g defect.
annimals to sllaughter, naamely: Should b
duly
 Sex consideratio
c ons inspected
d
The physiologiccal differennce of malee and femaale animals sometimess and passse
lead to differed d compariso on on the quality of produce an nd its totall by mee
inspectorrs
accepptability succh as the booar taint ap
pparent to m
males this stinky
s odorss
affect the overaall quality of o the meaat. It is saidd that castrrated maless
deposit more adiipose tissuee (fat) than females.
f Buull has 38% less fat andd
8% more
m fat thann its counteerpart.
 Age consideratio
c ons
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The maturity
m off an animal indicated byb its full developmen
d nt, and doess
not necessarily
n very old. Some speccification provided
p baased on thee
primee ages of chhoice for thee animals baased on the species. Frrom place too
placee butchers look
l into th
he full grow
wn weight as determiined by thee
markket as well as
a the confirrmation on the
t build annd shape of the species.
This is to assesss the quality y of the meeat and the quality of the
t carcass.
Old animals
a hav
ve the higheer tendency to producee darker, tou ugher, fatterr
and considered
c p
poorer in quality
q than coming froom the youn ng animals.
The meat
m from old o animals sometimess preferred ddue to its strrong flavor,
high water hold ding capaciity, high em mulsion cappacity, juicy and high h
degreee of marblling that aree necessary for a speciific purposee. The ideall
age ofo animals to slaughteer are 6-12 months forr swine, 2--3 years forr
cattlee and carabaao and 1 yeaar old for go
oats.
.
 Classs considerattions
Barroows and giilts (swine) and steers and heiferrs (carabao and cattle))
posseess similar meat charaacteristics.B
Beef/ Carabbeef-heifers and steers,
cowss, bulls, and
d bullocks. Meats from m cows and d stag meats have highh
water holding caapacity.
 Size consideratioon
The advantages
a of slaughteering large animals
a are seemed so possible to o
produ uce meaty and bigger cut. Thiss means siize matters where thee
recovvery of morre lean meaat and lesserr fat can bee obtained compared
c to
o
smalller ones. The ideal slaughter weight oof Hog- 80-110 8 kg.,
cattlee/carabao- 300-400
3 kg., and no sttandard sizee for goats;; the biggerr
the better
 Healtth Considerrations
The soundness of the anim mals’ condittion are rem markably viisible on itss
undeerlying appearance, an nd consideered substanntially heaalthy if thee
animmal is activee, smart apppearance and reflexes iits body weell, if not so o
suspiicion of unsound
u co
ondition wiill be noteed. Pregnan nt animals,,
emacciated and extremely weak musst be spareed due theeir possiblee
deterriorating effects due to harm mful waste associated d by theirr
condditions. Thesse conditionns should be put into oone’s selectiion making.
Highh breathing rate,
r high teemperature,, foamy mouuth, variouss dischargess
from
m the body, diarrhea an nd fever aree among thee ordinary signs
s of ill--
healtth. This is usually
u undeer the servicce of professsional veterrinarian or a
traineed animal health
h inspecctor.
 Finish Consideraations
A well-fattened d animal is heavier an nd tend to pproduce hig gh dressingg
recovvery, unlesss the animalls’ body is heavily
h covered by thicck skin, peltt
or a heavy
h hairss. Butchers are more accquainted wwith the factt on the key
y
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criterria of animaal selection by choosin
ng the betterr percentagee of lean fatt
with at least 8-1 12% fat forr lean meatt and 30-40% fat for comminuted
c d
produ ucts. Good marbling iss the top cho
oice of conssumers. Thee amount off
“fill”” for ruminaants’ animaals lowers th
he carcass yyield the sam
me with thee
offals or non-caarcass com mponents off the animaals’ body decrease
d thee
yieldd.
.
Han
ndling Prrior to Slaughte
S r
 Genttly Handle the Animaals

Hand dle the aniimals in hu umane way y, where w whipping, kicking
k and
d
boxinng the an nimals might cause pigmentaation (red spots) orr
disco
oloration (bblood clots)) of the skiin/surface. T
The part off an animall
whippped, kicked d or boxed prior to slaughter devvelops bloo od clots andd
red spots
s in meeats. Microoorganisms proliferate
p rrapidly in areas
a wheree
this blood
b clot and
a hastenss the spoilag ge of the meat
m due to its off-tastee
and souring. It is also un nappealing to the connsumers. Must M see thee
Animmal Welfaree Act RA 84 485.
 Relax the animal

Overrwork and fatigue
f to annimals affecct the meat quality fromm slaughterr
resultted to reduuce in quallity.At this time, suffificient rest is given too
anim
mals to recov ver Excitemment during this rest muust be restriicted.One to
o
threee-day relaxaation in the holding peen is enough h torecoverr the effectss
of stress on the t animalls depending on thee level. In njured andd
comp promised an nimals are qquarantined in holding pens.
p
Stress related efffects on thee meat quality includess the follow
wing: loss off
musccle glycogeen, high teemperature of carcasss, low water holding//
bindiing capacity y of resultting meat, low aromaa, flavor, texture, and d
juicin
ness scores. Pale, softt and exudaative (PSE)) is visible to animalss
with not very severe stress w while dry, firm
f and darrk (DFD) isi for severee
casess.
 Fast the animall

Feeds are restriccted during this period but fresh annd clean am
mple amountt
of waater will be given in add libitum. For
F simple sstomach aniimals 12-24 4
hourss is enough h for fastinng and 24-4 48 hours foor compoun nd stomachh
anim
mals. Amon ng the advaantages of fasting
f inclludes feed saving, fastt
clean
ning of entrrails and ev viscerating carcass, miinimize conntamination,
well bled carcaass, bright colored caarcass, longg shelf life fe, and loww
nkage of meat.
shrin m For thhis reason it
i is of greeat deal to empty thee
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stomach to increase the effficiency in cleaning thhe visceral organs and
d
mize the sp
minim pilling of tthe contents that posssibly contamminates thee
meat.
*Note:
* during this period Ante-mo
ortem inspeection can be made.
 Clean the anim mals

Keepping the animmals free frrom dirt (soiil, fecal matterial, urinee stains) and
d
possiible contamminants makkes the anim mal clean. This qualifies for thee
fitnesss of the an
nimal to bee healthy an nd physiolo ogically accceptable forr
slaug
ghter.
Stepss in the Slau

ughtering off Animals
1. Antte-Mortem Inspection. An inspecttion made too food anim mals prior to o

slau
ughtering, this
t examinnation is done
d througgh ocular and
a clinicall
quaalification by
b a qualifieed veterinarry personneel or trained d personnel.
Thee two stagess:
a Generall Examinattion (Stagee-I).Animalls will be assessed iff
a.
they aree healthy, unhealthy
u (
(diseased) or apparen ntly healthy y
(doubtfuul case). Occular exam mination aree performed d while thee
animals are at rest and also in motionn to observ ve the gaitt
(staggeriing), posturre, fatigueneess and abnnormal beh haviors such h
as dischaarge from natural
n orificces. At the eend of the first
f stage off
examinattion, healthy animals area cleared aas fit for slaaughter.
b Clinical examinattion (Stagee-II). The animals cllassified ass

b.
unhealthhy (diseasedd) are subjjected to fu
further exammination to
o
correctly
y diagnose the
t illness while
w the annimals placed in group
p
three (A
Apparently healthy
h or doubtful caases) are examined too
ascertain
n whether thhese animaals are reallly sick and
d if so whatt
could be the nature of illness.
Judgmen
nt decisions at ante-mortem inspecction
 P
Passed/Acce
epted/ Fit fo
or slaughter
 R
Rejected/ Coondemned/ Unfit for slaughter
 S
Suspect
2. Stuunning. It is
i a process of makin ng the animmals unconsscious for a
peeriod of tim
me. This is to make su ure the minimal movem ment of thee
annimal and itt is a requireed process with
w large aanimals. The proceduree
elliminates paain, discomffort and streess. Methodds of stunnin
ng includes:
strriking on th
he head, elecctrical stunn
ning and annesthetizatio
on.
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3. Sticking/ Bleeeding. This is a way off draining thhe blood by
y cutting thee
ugular vein in
ju i the neck and carotidd artery leadding to the death
d of thee
an
nimal. Kniife must bee sharp enou ugh for preecise incisioon to avoidd
daamages of blood
b vessells that migh
ht delay the flow of blo ood, rupturee
th
he vessels and
a hemorrh hages of thhe muscle. For poultry y and smalll
ru
uminants sllitting is pplaced just behind thhe jaw on the throat.
Thhorough blleeding is achieved in 3 to 5 minutes if properly y
ex
xecuted.
.
4. Cleaning of Carcass
C
 Scaldingg- is subm merging thee carcass in hot waater beforee

scrapping g or remov ving the haairs and scuurf. 130-180 ‘F is thee
prescribeed temperatture range ofo the scaldiing water to o loosen thee
skin surfface for easyy scalding.
 Flaying- is the remooval of the hides
h (large ruminants)); by cutting
g
the skin along
a the m
middle line from
f the sticcking wounnd to the taill
and it is also known n as dehidin
ng. Skinning g is a term mostly
m used
d
for smalll ruminants and the skinned materrials are callled as skins.
The most valuablee by-produ uct econom mically is skin
s (smalll
ruminantts).
 Singeing g- is the appplication of burning torrch or flamee to removee
and burn n the remaiining hairs. It also deccreases the number off
microorg ganisms on the skin su urface. Loccally, burninng of wood d
and newsspaper is appplied to rem move fine hhairs.
5. Evisceration
E is the reemoval of entrails thhat includees stomach,
intesttines, gall bladder,
b liv
ver, heart an
nd lungs. Itt should bee performed d
careffully to avo oid damagees on intern nal organs. Gastro-inteestinal tractt
mighht contamin nate the ccarcass thaat containss microorg ganisms. In n
evisccerating, cuttting and tyying the buung or rectuum is the most
m priority
y
and removed from f its attachments
a . Organs that contaiin possiblee
contaaminants aree carefully removed
r to avoid spilliing out of th
he contents.
Thenn the carcass is then washed
w and carried for manual or mechanicall
inspeection.
plitting/Wasshing. Splittting is cuttiing at the baackbone off the carcasss

6. Sp
into the
t equal paarts with thhe tail normmally goes w with the left side if it iss
not reemoved. Right after spplitting, the carcass
c is w
washed veryy thoroughly y
to remmove visibble soiling and
a blood stains
s and tto improve appearancee
after chillingand
d the parts w
with blood clots
c are trim
mmed and other
o visiblee
growwth like cyssts.This is. Washing iss no substittute for goo od hygienicc
practtices during slaughter aand dressingg.
7. Poost- Mortem n refers to inspection of carcass and organss

m Inspection
for itts fitness to human consumption usually by quualified veteerinarians.
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Judgmeents
 Condemmned
 Passed
 Passed for
f sterilizattion
 Passed for
f refrigeraation
 Passed for
f renderinng
 Retained
d.
8. Shhrouding is i the proccess of wrrapping thee carcass with w warm

m
cheessecloth afteer being soaked in luk kewarm waater. This is to absorb b
remaaining blood d at the carccass, smootthen external fat coverring, causess
fat to
o appear white
w and deense, and prevents
p ex
xcessive shrrinkage and d
oxidaation.
hilling. Thiss is when th

9. Ch he carcass arre placed affter slaughteer should in
n
cold storage faccility witha temperaturee of 0-4 C ( 32-40F). Chilling iss
necesssary to firm
m up the carrcass, allow
w rigor mortiis to passed
d and inhibitt
the growth
g of microorganis
m sms.48 hourrs are requiired for beeef, carabeeff,
and horse
h carcassses while ggoat muttonn and other small carcaasses should d
be ch
hilled for 244 hours.
10. Aging
A is holding the m
meat for 7-1 14 at 36 ‘F to improvee tendernesss
and flavor
f of meat.
m All off the meat can subjectt for aging to achievee
tendeerness exceppt pork becaause it gets rancid.
11. Fabrication
F o Carcassis cutting caarcass into standard
of s wh
holesale and
d
retaill cuts and diiffers from species to species.
s
Imp
portance off proper faabrication p
procedure
 Minimizes cutting lo
osses
 Makes coonsumer’s ppreferences
 Gives co
onfidence to
o producer and
a consumeers
Basic priinciples of cutting carrcass
 Seeparatethe thick
t portionn from the thin
t
 Teender parts must be sepparated from m less tendeer
 Soort high pricced cuts fro
om less valu
ued cuts.
 Cuuts must bee made across the musccle fiber.
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M
Meat Termss
Abattoir or slaughterh
A house- prem mises that are approvved and reg gistered by
y
coontrolling authority
a succh as Nationnal Meat In
nspection Seervice (NMIS)in which
h
foood animalss are slaugh
htered and dressed
d for human
h conssumption.
C
Carcass- the body of any
y slaughtereed animal after
a bleedinng and dresssing.
F
Fabrication- process of cutting carccass into staandard whollesale and retail cuts.
Food animall- all domesstic animalss slaughtered for humann consumpttion such ass
F
but not limitted to cattlee, carabaos,, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, hogs, deer,
raabbits, ostriich and poulltry.
Meat- the caarcass or carrcass parts coming from the anim

M mals sufficieently maturee
an
nd healthy.
B
Beef- meat from
f cattle more
m than oone year old
d.
V
Veal- meat from
f cattle less
l than on
ne year old.
C
Carabeef- meat from caarabaos morre than one year
y old.
C
Chevon- meaat from goaats.
L
Lamb- meat from lambss.
L
Lapan- meatt from rabbiit.
M
Mutton- meaat from sheeep.
P
Pork- meat from
f swine.
V
Venison- meeat from deeers.
For additional inform

mation, pleasee open the filee online:S
RA 92296 (Meat Insppection Code oof the Philippiines)
RA 84885 (Animal WWelfare Act of 1998)drive/.
Applicaation Finally, you are on thee stage of self-checking

F s g. Answer the activitiees providedd
below, and youy are rem minded to ffollow the instructions
i s carefully. Enjoy yourr
leearning appplication! Do
D your bestt and be honnest.
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E
Exercise A.
Innstruction: Match colu umn A(speccies) and coolumn B (meat’s name)). Write thee
leetter of the correct
c answ
wer on the space
s proviided before the numberr item.
Column
C A Column B
___1. Gooata. Mutton
n
__
___2. Hog b. Lapan
__
___3. Sheep c. Veal
__
___4. Young
g Cattle d. P
Pork
__
___5. Rabbitt e. Chevvon
E
Exercise B.
Innstruction: Encircle
E thee letter of thhe correct answer.
a
1.The term th hat refers too the body ofo any slaug ghtered anim mal after bleeding andd
d
dressin:
a. Sex b. Finish h c. Agge d Class
d.
2. The best age
a considerration in slaaughtering cattle is;
a. 6-1
12 months b. 2-33 years c. c 1 year oldd d. 35 dayys
3. The term that
t refers to
t the body of any slaug ghtered aniimal after bleeding and d
d
dressing;
a. Meeat b.
b Carcass c. Abattoor d. Foood
4. Leanness of a meat with firm and evenlyy distributio on of fat iss under thiss
coonsideration is;
a. Sexx b. Finish
F c. Age d. Cllass
5. In cattle species
sp asidde from cow ws, what is the
t other claass conainss high waterr
holding capa acity?
a. Sta
ag b.
b Bullock c. Steer d. Heeifer
6 The term that
6. t describbes the interrmingling off fat and in meat:
a. Marrbling b Shroudingg
b. c. Faabrication ning
d. Stunn
7 The inspecction made to animals pprior to sla
7. aughter throough ocularr and
cllinical quallification:
a. Antee-mortem b. Post-Abba atoir c. Po ost- Mortem m d. Cliniccal
8. It refers too the processs in slaughtering by making
m the aanimals unco onscious
foor a period of time.
a. Stickking b. Slitting c. Resstraining d. Stunnin
ng
9. The proceess of cleaniing the carccass by subm merging in a hot water before
sccrapping orr removing the hairs:
a. Flayiing b.. Scalding c. Singgeing d. Evisceraation
10. It is the cutting
c of ca
arcass into sstandard wh holesale annd retail cuts
ts:
a. Chilliing b. Aging c. Fabbrication d. Trimmin ng
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Closuree Congratulatiions! You hu
C urdlelesson
n 1 successfu
fully. You m
may proceed
d to the last
taask given beelow. Keep your enthu
usiasm!
MODU
ULE ASSES
SSMENT
Preparee a semi-d detailed queestionnaire on the prrocesses off slaughteriing animalls. Use thee
questionnnaire to iinterview a local bu utcher from
m your areaa (backyard or slaug ghter housee
practitio
oner). Cite the differen
nce and com mpare with proper han
ndling and sslaughtering
g proceduree
from thhis lesson.
Rubriccs:
Requireed Elementss (Identificaation of the main issuess) - 50%
Analysiis and Evaluuation - 30%
3
Writing
g Mechanicss - 20
0%
1000%
MODU
ULE SUMM
MARY
Slaughtter is defineed as the act of killing the animal to obtain carcass
c suchh as meat fitt for human
n
mption comiing from food animals; free from disease or defect. Shoould be dully inspected
consum d
and passsed by meaat inspectorss.
For the productionn of wholesoome and goo od quality meat,
m physiccal quality aand health condition
c off
the anim
mals must first
f be obseerved so thaat it will beccome safe and
a sound too consume and qualify y
the animmals in acccordance too the legisllations gov verning the safety of tthe consum mer and thee
welfaree the animals prior and during handdling stagess.
Slaughttering Proccedure is as a follows: ante-morteem inspecttion, stunniing, stickin ng/bleeding,,
cleaning
g the carcasss, eviscerattion, splittin ng, chilling,
ng/washing,, post-morteem inspectioon, shroudin
aging, fabrication.
f
REFEREN
NCES
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Food and A Agriculture Organization of the United Natio
ons Regionaal Office for Asia and
the Pacific http://www
h w.fao.org/3/x
x6552e/X65 552E04.htm
m
DOST-PCA
ARRD. Meaat Proceessiing.
TESDA.Training Regu
ulation for Slaughtering
S g
(Must be w
written in APA format))
.
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INTRODUCTION TO

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Course Outcomes On the completion of the course, student is expected to be

Module Lessons Writer

Module 2: Lesson 1: Overview of Anatomy Dr. Rudy Camay

Lesson 3: Muscular System

Lesson 4: Nervous System

Lesson 5: Endocrine system

Lesson6: Cardiovascular System

Lesson7: Lymphatic System

Lesson 8: Respiratory System

Lesson 9: Reproductive system

Module 4: • Animal Genetics Felix Sansaet Jr.

Module 5: Lesson 1: Slaughtering & Reynan M. Maglimolo

Lesson 1: Intrroduction too Animal Sccience

Introduction Hello, how are

Underline thhe term/s commonly used

MARKET cultivvation CARE AN INDUSTRY

Analysiis This is just an

3. What do o you thinnk is the best consiideration in

In an m the continuued growth of plants an

Plantts, through their photoosynthetic activity

Whille animals return

Notwwithstandingg the relativ

woulld have otheerwise gonee to waste, in

In crrop producction, only a fraction n of biomaass is fit for human n

Evenn in the proccessing of riice grains in

While food is the most importantt contributio

Sheepp Ovis ariees Meat, miilk, and hairr (wool)

FAO and otherr institution ns suggest that

Withh the everr-increasing g human populationn and thee attendantt

liiving, and was

Like all other prroductive seectors of thee economy, the continu

Swine 122.71 M -0.2% 62.33% 37.7%

Applicaation Finally, you are on thee stage of self-checking

Innstruction: Match coluumn A(speccies) and coolumn B (sscientific naame). Writee

2. The most populous

3. Developedd countries attained imp

4. The estimaated world population

onsumption of beef in Davao

Closuree Congratulatiions! You hu

Animal Anatomy and Physiology is the scientific study of the life-supporting

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

Lessons in the Module:

The following are the lessons for you to be discussed:

II. Internal Anatomy of farm Animals

End of Lesson 1, Module 2

Keep up the good work!

1. In your own understanding, what are the differences of Anatomy from

Osteology- study of bones that makes up the skeleton.

1. Long bones- elongated, cylindrical form with enlarge extremities.

3. Flat bones- expanded in two directions

4. Irregular bones- irregular in shapes

Figure 2. Skeletal system of the chicken

End of Lesson 2, Module 2

Post test 1. Multiple Choice

1. This kind of bone has a similar dimension in length and thickness.

Post test 2. Discussion.

Instruction: Discuss comprehensively the provided questions below. (10min.)

1. What is the main function of the bone?

 Involuntary striated muscle