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732 Energy Methods 11.75 Each member of the truss shown is made of steel; the cross-
sectional area of member BC is 800 mm2 and for all other members
B D 60 kN the cross-sectional area is 400 mm2. Using E 5 200 GPa, determine
the deflection of point D caused by the 60-kN load.
0.5 m
A 11.76 The steel rod BC has a 24-mm diameter and the steel cable
C
ABDCA has a 12-mm diameter. Using E 5 200 GPa, determine
1.2 m 1.2 m the deflection of joint D caused by the 12-kN load.
Fig. P11.75
480 mm 480 mm

360 mm
C
B
360 mm

12 kN
Fig. P11.76

*11.11 WORK AND ENERGY UNDER SEVERAL LOADS

In this section, the strain energy of a structure subjected to several
loads will be considered and will be expressed in terms of the loads
and the resulting deflections.
Apago PDF Enhancer
Consider an elastic beam AB subjected to two concentrated loads
P1 and P2. The strain energy of the beam is equal to the work of P1
and P2 as they are slowly applied to the beam at C1 and C2, respectively
(Fig. 11.33). However, in order to evaluate this work, we must first
express the deflections x1 and x2 in terms of the loads P1 and P2.
A B
x1 x2

C1 C2

P1 P2
x11 x21
A B Fig. 11.33 Beam with multiple loads.

Let us assume that only P1 is applied to the beam (Fig. 11.34).

C'1 C'2
We note that both C1 and C2 are deflected and that their deflections
are proportional to the load P1. Denoting these deflections by x11 and
P1 x21, respectively, we write
Fig. 11.34
x11 5 a11P1 x21 5 a21P1 (11.54)
x12 x22 where a11 and a21 are constants called influence coefficients. These
A B constants represent the deflections of C1 and C2, respectively, when
a unit load is applied at C1 and are characteristics of the beam AB.
C"1 C"2 Let us now assume that only P2 is applied to the beam
(Fig. 11.35). Denoting by x12 and x22, respectively, the resulting
P2 deflections of C1 and C2, we write
Fig. 11.35
x12 5 a12P2 x22 5 a22P2 (11.55)
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x11 x21
A B
11.11 Work and Energy under Several Loads
733
C'1 C'2

(a) P1

C'1 C'2
A B

x12 C1 C2 x22

(b) P1 P2
Fig. 11.36

where a12 and a22 are the influence coefficients representing the
deflections of C1 and C2, respectively, when a unit load is applied at
C2. Applying the principle of superposition, we express the deflections
x1 and x2 of C1 and C2 when both loads are applied (Fig. 11.33) as
x1 5 x11 1 x12 5 a11P1 1 a12P2 (11.56)
x2 5 x21 1 x22 5 a21P1 1 a22P2 (11.57)
To compute the work done by P1 and P2, and thus the strain
energy of the beam, it is convenient to assume that P1 is first applied
slowly at C1 (Fig. 11.36a). Recalling the first of Eqs. (11.54), we
express the work of P1 as
1
2 P1x11 5 12 P1 1a11P1 2 5 12 a11P21 (11.58)
Apago PDF Enhancer
and note that P2 does no work while C2 moves through x21, since it
has not yet been applied to the beam.
Now we slowly apply P2 at C2 (Fig. 11.36b); recalling the sec-
ond of Eqs. (11.55), we express the work of P2 as
1
2 P2x22 5 12 P2 1a22P2 2 5 12 a22P22 (11.59)
But, as P2 is slowly applied at C2, the point of application of P1 moves
through x12 from C91 to C1, and the load P1 does work. Since P1 is
fully applied during this displacement (Fig. 11.37), its work is equal
to P1x12 or, recalling the first of Eqs. (11.55),
P1x12 5 P1 1a12P2 2 5 a12P1P2 (11.60)

P P

P1

P2

C'2
O x O x
C'1 C1 C2
x11 x12 x21 x22

x1 x2

(a) Load-displacement (b) Load-displacement

diagram for C1 diagram for C2
Fig. 11.37 Load-displacement diagrams.
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734 Energy Methods Adding the expressions obtained in (11.58), (11.59), and (11.60), we
express the strain energy of the beam under the loads P1 and P2 as
x12 x22
A B U 5 12 1a11P21 1 2a12P1P2 1 a22P22 2 (11.61)
C"1 C"2
If the load P2 had first been applied to the beam (Fig. 11.38a),
(a) P2 and then the load P1 (Fig. 11.38b), the work done by each load would
have been as shown in Fig. 11.39. Calculations similar to those we
C"1 C"2 have just carried out would lead to the following alternative expres-
A B sion for the strain energy of the beam:
U 5 12 1a22P22 1 2a21P2P1 1 a11P21 2 (11.62)
x11 C1 C2 x21
Equating the right-hand members of Eqs. (11.61) and (11.62), we find
(b) P1 P2 that a12 5 a21, and thus conclude that the deflection produced at C1 by
Fig. 11.38 a unit load applied at C2 is equal to the deflection produced at C2 by a
unit load applied at C1. This is known as Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem,
after the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879).
While we are now able to express the strain energy U of a
structure subjected to several loads as a function of these loads, we
cannot use the method of Sec. 11.10 to determine the deflection of
such a structure. Indeed, computing the strain energy U by integrat-
ing the strain-energy density u over the structure and substituting
the expression obtained into (11.61) would yield only one equation,
which clearly could not be solved for the various coefficients a.
P P
Apago
P 1
PDF Enhancer
P2

O x O x
C"1 C1 C"2 C2
x12 x11 x22 x21
x1 x2

(a) Load-displacement (b) Load-displacement

diagram for C1 diagram for C2
Fig. 11.39 Alternative load-displacement diagrams.

*11.12 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM

We recall the expression obtained in the preceding section for the strain
energy of an elastic structure subjected to two loads P1 and P2:
U 5 12 1a11P21 1 2a12P1P2 1 a22P22 2 (11.61)
where a11, a12, and a22 are the influence coefficients associated with
the points of application C1 and C2 of the two loads. Differentiating
both members of Eq. (11.61) with respect to P1 and recalling Eq.
(11.56), we write
0U
5 a11P1 1 a12P2 5 x1 (11.63)
0P1
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Differentiating both members of Eq. (11.61) with respect to P2, 11.12 Castigliano’s Theorem
735
recalling Eq. (11.57), and keeping in mind that a12 5 a21, we have
0U
5 a12P1 1 a22P2 5 x2 (11.64)
0P2
More generally, if an elastic structure is subjected to n loads
P1, P2, . . ., Pn, the deflection xj of the point of application of Pj,
measured along the line of action of Pj, can be expressed as the
partial derivative of the strain energy of the structure with respect
to the load Pj. We write

0U
xj 5 (11.65)
0Pj

This is Castigliano’s theorem, named after the Italian engineer

Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884) who first stated it.†
Recalling that the work of a couple M is 12 Mu, where u is the
angle of rotation at the point where the couple is slowly applied, we
note that Castigliano’s theorem may be used to determine the slope
of a beam at the point of application of a couple Mj. We have

0U
uj 5 (11.68)
0Mj

Similarly, the angle of twist fj in a section of a shaft where a torque

Apago PDF Enhancer
Tj is slowly applied is obtained by differentiating the strain energy
of the shaft with respect to Tj:

0U
fj 5 (11.69)
0Tj

†In the case of an elastic structure subjected to n loads P1, P2, . . ., Pn, the deflection of
the point of application of Pj, measured along the line of action of Pj, can be expressed as

xj 5 a ajkPk (11.66)
k

and the strain energy of the structure is found to be

U 5 12 a a aikPiPk (11.67)
i k

Differentiating U with respect to Pj, and observing that Pj is found in terms corresponding
to either i 5 j or k 5 j, we write
0U 1 1
5 a ajk Pk 1 a aijPi
0Pj 2 k 2 i
or, since aij 5 aji,
0U 1 1
5 a ajk Pk 1 a ajiPi 5 a ajkPk
0Pj 2 k 2 i k

Recalling Eq. (11.66), we verify that

0U
xj 5 (11.65)
0Pj
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736 Energy Methods

*11.13 DEFLECTIONS BY CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM
We saw in the preceding section that the deflection xj of a structure
at the point of application of a load Pj can be determined by comput-
ing the partial derivative 0Uy0Pj of the strain energy U of the struc-
ture. As we recall from Secs. 11.4 and 11.5, the strain energy U is
obtained by integrating or summing over the structure the strain
energy of each element of the structure. The calculation by Castigli-
ano’s theorem of the deflection xj is simplified if the differentiation
with respect to the load Pj is carried out before the integration or
summation.
In the case of a beam, for example, we recall from Sec. 11.4
that
L
M2
U5 # 0
2EI
dx (11.17)

and determine the deflection xj of the point of application of the load

Pj by writing

L
0U M 0M
xj 5
0Pj
5 #
0
EI 0Pj
dx (11.70)

In the case of a truss consisting of n uniform members of length

Li, cross-sectional area Ai, and internal force Fi, we recall Eq. (11.14)
Apago PDF Enhancer
and express the strain energy U of the truss as
F2i Lin
U5 a (11.71)
i51 2AiE

The deflection xj of the point of application of the load Pj is obtained

by differentiating with respect to Pj each term of the sum. We
write

n
0U Fi Li 0Fi
xj 5 5 a (11.72)
0Pj i51 Ai E 0Pj

EXAMPLE 11.12 The cantilever beam AB supports a uniformly distributed load w and
a concentrated load P as shown (Fig. 11.40). Knowing that L 5 2 m,
w 5 4 kN/m, P 5 6 kN, and EI 5 5 MN ? m2, determine the deflec-
tion at A.
L
w

A
B

P
Fig. 11.40
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The deflection yA of the point A where the load P is applied is

obtained from Eq. (11.70). Since P is vertical and directed downward, yA
represents a vertical deflection and is positive downward. We have
L
0U M 0M
yA 5
0P
5 #
0
EI 0P
dx (11.73)

The bending moment M at a distance x from A is

M 5 21Px 1 12 wx2 2 (11.74)

and its derivative with respect to P is

0M
5 2x
0P

Substituting for M and 0My0P into Eq. (11.73), we write

L
1 1 3
yA 5
EI #
0
aPx2 1
2
wx b dx

1 PL3 wL4
yA 5 a 1 b (11.75)
EI 3 8

Substituting the given data, we have

1 16 3 103 N2 12 m2 3 14 3 103 N/m2 12 m2 4

yA 5 6 2
c 1 d
5 3 10 N ? m 3 8
yA 5 4.8 3 1023 m    y A 5 4.8 mmw
Apago PDF Enhancer
We note that the computation of the partial derivative 0My0P could not
have been carried out if the numerical value of P had been substituted
for P in the expression (11.74) for the bending moment.

We can observe that the deflection xj of a structure at a given

point Cj can be obtained by the direct application of Castigliano’s
theorem only if a load Pj happens to be applied at Cj in the direction
in which xj is to be determined. When no load is applied at Cj, or
when a load is applied in a direction other than the desired one, we
can still obtain the deflection xj by Castigliano’s theorem if we use
the following procedure: We apply a fictitious or “dummy” load Qj
at Cj in the direction in which the deflection xj is to be determined
and use Castigliano’s theorem to obtain the deflection
0U
xj 5 (11.76)
0Qj

due to Qj and the actual loads. Making Qj 5 0 in Eq. (11.76) yields

the deflection at Cj in the desired direction under the given
loading.
The slope uj of a beam at a point Cj can be determined in a
similar manner by applying a fictitious couple Mj at Cj, computing
the partial derivative 0Uy0Mj, and making Mj 5 0 in the expression
obtained.
737
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EXAMPLE 11.13 The cantilever beam AB supports a uniformly distributed load w (Fig.
11.41). Determine the deflection and slope at A.
L
w Deflection at A. We apply a dummy downward load QA at A
(Fig. 11.42) and write
L
A 0U M 0M
B yA 5
0QA
5 #
0
EI 0QA
dx (11.77)

The bending moment M at a distance x from A is

Fig. 11.41
M 5 2QAx 2 12 wx2 (11.78)
w
and its derivative with respect to QA is

A 0M
5 2x (11.79)
B 0QA
L
QA Substituting for M and 0M/0QA from (11.78) and (11.79) into (11.77), and
making QA 5 0, we obtain the deflection at A for the given loading:
Fig. 11.42
L
1 wL4
yA 5
EI # 0
1212 wx2 2 12x2 dx 5 1
8EI
Since the dummy load was directed downward, the positive sign indicates
that
wL4
yA 5 w
8EI
w
Apago Slope
PDF Enhancer
at A. We apply a dummy counterclockwise couple M A at
A
B A (Fig. 11.43) and write
MA L
0U
uA 5
Fig. 11.43 0MA
Recalling Eq. (11.17), we have
L L
0 M2 M 0M
uA 5
0MA # 0
2EI
dx 5 #0
EI 0MA
dx (11.80)

The bending moment M at a distance x from A is

M 5 2MA 2 12wx2 (11.81)
and its derivative with respect to MA is
0M
5 21 (11.82)
0MA
Substituting for M and 0My0MA from (11.81) and (11.82) into (11.80),
and making MA 5 0, we obtain the slope at A for the given loading:
L
1 wL3
uA 5
EI #
0
1212 wx2 2 1212 dx 5 1
6EI
Since the dummy couple was counterclockwise, the positive sign indicates
that the angle uA is also counterclockwise:
wL3 a
uA 5
6EI

738
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A load P is supported at B by two rods of the same material and of the EXAMPLE 11.14
same cross-sectional area A (Fig. 11.44). Determine the horizontal and
vertical deflection of point B. C
We apply a dummy horizontal load Q at B (Fig. 11.45). From
Castigliano’s theorem we have
0U 0U 3
xB 5 yB 5 4 B
0Q 0P
l
Recalling from Sec. 11.4 the expression (11.14) for the strain energy of a 3
rod, we write P
4
F2BC 1BC2 F2BD 1BD2
U5 1
2AE 2AE
where FBC and FBD represent the forces in BC and BD, respectively. We
D
have, therefore,
0U FBC 1BC2 0FBC FBD 1BD2 0FBD Fig. 11.44
xB 5 5 1 (11.83)
0Q AE 0Q AE 0Q
and C
0U FBC 1BC2 0FBC FBD 1BD2 0FBD
yB 5 5 1 (11.84)
0P AE 0P AE 0P
3
From the free-body diagram of pin B (Fig. 11.46), we obtain B
4
FBC 5 0.6P 1 0.8Q FBD 5 20.8P 1 0.6Q (11.85) Q
l
3
Apago PDF Enhancer
Differentiating these expressions with respect to Q and P, we write P
4
0FBC 0FBD
5 0.8 5 0.6
0Q 0Q
(11.86)
0FBC 0FBD
5 0.6 5 20.8 D
0P 0P
Substituting from (11.85) and (11.86) into both (11.83) and (11.84), mak- Fig. 11.45
ing Q 5 0, and noting that BC 5 0.6l and BD 5 0.8l, we obtain the
horizontal and vertical deflections of point B under the given load P:
FBC
10.6P2 10.6l2 120.8P2 10.8l2
xB 5 10.82 1 10.62
AE AE 3
Pl 4 B
5 20.096 3 Q
AE
10.6P2 10.6l2 120.8P2 10.8l2 4
yB 5 10.62 1 120.82
AE AE
FBD
Pl
5 10.728 P
AE
Fig. 11.46
Referring to the directions of the loads Q and P, we conclude that
Pl Pl
xB 5 0.096 z yB 5 0.728 w
AE AE
We check that the expression obtained for the vertical deflection of B is
the same that was found in Example 11.09.

739
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740 Energy Methods

*11.14 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
The reactions at the supports of a statically indeterminate elastic struc-
ture can be determined by Castigliano’s theorem. In the case of a
structure indeterminate to the first degree, for example, we designate
one of the reactions as redundant and eliminate or modify accordingly
the corresponding support. The redundant reaction is then treated as
an unknown load that, together with the other loads, must produce
deformations that are compatible with the original supports. We first
calculate the strain energy U of the structure due to the combined
action of the given loads and the redundant reaction. Observing that
the partial derivative of U with respect to the redundant reaction rep-
resents the deflection (or slope) at the support that has been elimi-
nated or modified, we then set this derivative equal to zero and solve
the equation obtained for the redundant reaction.† The remaining
reactions can be obtained from the equations of statics.
†This is in the case of a rigid support allowing no deflection. For other types of support,
the partial derivative of U should be set equal to the allowed deflection.

EXAMPLE 11.15 Determine the reactions at the supports for the prismatic beam and load-
ing shown (Fig. 11.47).
w
The beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree. We con-
sider the reaction at A as redundant and release the beam from that
A support. The reaction RA is now considered as an unknown load (Fig.
Apago
B PDF Enhancer
11.48) and will be determined from the condition that the deflection yA
L
at A must be zero. By Castigliano’s theorem yA 5 0Uy0RA, where U is the
strain energy of the beam under the distributed load and the redundant
Fig. 11.47 reaction. Recalling Eq. (11.70), we write
L
0U M 0M
w
yA 5
0RA
5 #
0
EI 0RA
dx (11.87)

A We now express the bending moment M for the loading of Fig. 11.48.
yA  0 B The bending moment at a distance x from A is
L M 5 RAx 2 12 wx2 (11.88)
RA
and its derivative with respect to RA is
Fig. 11.48
0M
5x (11.89)
0RA
Substituting for M and 0M/0RA from (11.88) and (11.89) into
(11.87), we write
L
1 1 1 RAL3 wL4
yA 5
EI #0
aRAx2 2 wx3 b dx 5
2 EI
a
3
2
8
b

Setting yA 5 0 and solving for RA, we have

RA 5 38 wL RA 5 38 wLx
From the conditions of equilibrium for the beam, we find that the reac-
tion at B consists of the following force and couple:
RB 5 58 wLx MB 5 18 wL2 i
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A load P is supported at B by three rods of the same material and the same EXAMPLE 11.16
cross-sectional area A (Fig. 11.49). Determine the force in each rod.

C H

0.5l RH

0.6l
B H yH  0
C
l

0.8l P

D
P
Fig. 11.49

The structure is statically indeterminate to the first degree. We

consider the reaction at H as redundant and release rod BH from its sup-
port at H. The reaction RH is now considered as an unknown load (Fig. D
11.50) and will be determined from the condition that the deflection yH
of point H must be zero. By Castigliano’s theorem yH 5 0Uy0RH, where Fig. 11.50
U is the strain energy of the three-rod system under the load P and the
redundant reaction RH. Recalling Eq. (11.72), we write
Apago PDF Enhancer
FBC 1BC2 0FBC FBD 1BD2 0FBD FBH 1BH2 0FBH
yH 5 1 1 (11.90) FBH  RH
AE 0RH AE 0RH AE 0RH
FBC
We note that the force in rod BH is equal to RH and write
FBH 5 RH (11.91)
B
Then, from the free-body diagram of pin B (Fig. 11.51), we obtain
FBC 5 0.6P 2 0.6RH FBD 5 0.8RH 2 0.8P (11.92)
FBD
Differentiating with respect to RH the force in each rod, we write
P
0FBC
0RH
5 20.6     0FBD
0RH
5 0.8     0FBH
0RH
51 (11.93) Fig. 11.51

Substituting from (11.91), (11.92), and (11.93) into (11.90), and not-
ing that the lengths BC, BD, and BH are, respectively, equal to 0.6l, 0.8l,
and 0.5l, we write
1
yH 5 3 10.6P 2 0.6RH 2 10.6l2 120.62
AE
1 10.8RH 2 0.8P2 10.8l2 10.82 1 RH 10.5l2 112 4
Setting yH 5 0, we obtain
1.228RH 2 0.728P 5 0
and, solving for RH,
RH 5 0.593P
Carrying this value into Eqs. (11.91) and (11.92), we obtain the forces in
the three rods:
FBC 5 10.244P FBD 5 20.326P FBH 5 10.593P

741
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