Preface

We are grateful to God who gave us all the strengths,

courage, preservation and patience to finish this
report. We also thankful to our parents and teachers
who support us for completing this report. Earlier
presentation of our group has been described the
term “Communication”, its barriers, medium, process
etc. Now we in this presentation are going to
describe the “importance of writing skills in a
business organization”. Our motive to describe its
importance but also to elaborate the formats of each
medium of writing (Documents) used with inside or
outside the organization. So, that our audience and
viewers will not only able to understand and
distinguish all the formats of all the mediums of
writings and their importance in a business
organization but it will also help them in their
professional life. It also very beneficial to understand
the business communication skills.
NOISE AS A BARRIER TO COMMUNICATION

Noise is one of the most common barriers in communication. It is any

persistent or random disturbance which reduces, obscures or
confuses the clarity of a message. Physical barriers are closely
related to noise as they can obstruct the communication transmission
process.
Noise creates distortion of the message and prevents it from
being understood the way it was intended. Comprehension
usually deteriorates when there is loud, intrusive noise which
interferes with the communication assimilation process. The level of
noise is very important. Generally, quiet background noise can
easily be filtered out, whereas loud or intrusive noise cannot.

NOISE BARRIER OVERCOME

 Identify the source of the noise
 Remove physical sources of distraction such as telephones
or objects within the room
 Close windows and doors
 Ensure all technology works effectively
 Omit irrelevant or wordy material from written documents
Oral communication's purpose is to allow a listener to interpret
a speaker's message. In many situations, the conversation does
not occur in a quiet atmosphere conducive to dialogue. In these
cases, noise may be a barrier to effective communication,
causing problems. The speaker and listener must overcome the
noise barrier by eliminating noise pollution or changing their
method of oral communication.

Eliminate or reduce the noise. Detect the source of the noise. If

it is possible to eliminate the noise, consider whether its
removal is practical. For example, the speakers can reduce
outside noises by closing the windows or moving toward an
inner area of the building. The speakers should determine how
important the conversation is in considering whether to
eradicate the noise. It may not be necessary to completely
remove the source of the noise.
Raise speech volume. The speaker can raise her voice if she
believes the listener cannot hear her well. If the listener has
difficulty understanding the speaker due to noise, she can
request the speaker talk louder. To overcome a noise barrier,
increase the volume of the conversation so that the noise no
longer significantly impedes the discussion.

Listen actively. The listener should attempt active listening. This

means paying close attention to the speaker's words -- not
merely hearing what the speaker has to say, but interpreting it
from the speaker's point of view as well. Frequently, noise is
only a subjective blockade to conversation. The listener is
distracted by the noise, but the noise is not objectively
impeding the communication.

Use clear, straightforward language. By using clear and

straightforward language, you are preventing needless
confusion and misinterpretation. Avoid using idioms, slang and
other language that may be misinterpreted. It may be that
verbose statements with complicated, multi-syllabic words are
distorted by the noise in the environment. In cases where the
noise is a slight to moderate nuisance and not a true obstacle
to communication, the speaker can improve conveying her
message by using clear, straightforward language.
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNNICATION

Nonverbal communication (NVC) between people is

communication through sending and receiving wordless clues.

It includes the use of visual cues such as body language

(kinesics), distance (proxemics) and physical
environments/appearance, of voice (paralanguage) and of
touch (haptics). It can also include chronemics (the use of time)
and oculesics (eye contact and the actions of looking while
talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation,
pupil dilation, and blink rate).

IMPORTANCE OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication represents two-thirds of all
communications. Nonverbal communication can portray a
message both vocally and with the correct body signals or
gestures. Body signals comprise physical features, conscious
and unconscious gestures and signals, and the mediation of
personal space.The wrong message can also be established if
the body language conveyed does not match a verbal message.
Nonverbal communication strengthens a first impression in
common situations like attracting a partner or in a business
interview: impressions are on average formed within the first
four seconds of contact. First encounters or interactions with
another person strongly affect a person's perception.
When the other person or group is absorbing the message, they
are focused on the entire environmentaround them, meaning
the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83%
sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2% touch and 1% taste.Many
indigenous cultures use nonverbal communication in the
integration of children at a young age into their cultural
practices. Children in these communities learn through
observing and pitching in through which nonverbal
communication is a key aspect of observation.

The major importance of non-verbal communication is

highlighted in the following points:

Conveying Ideas

Effective in Traffic Control

Convey Information through Symbols

Communication with Someone who is Hard of Hearing, of
Deaf, is Possible Easily

Communication can be Done at place where Silence is
Required

Privacy

Easy Distant Communication

Non-Verbal Communication Makes Conversation Short
and Brief

Easy Expression of Feeling

Convincing


TYPES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Body Space
Paralanguage/
Language/ Language/
Vocalics
Kinesics Proxemics

Sign Language/ Time Touch

Symbols & Language/ Language/
Signs Chronemics Haptics

Physical
Appearance

Body Language/Kinesics: Kinesics is the interpretation of body

motion communication such as facial expressions and gestures,
nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the
body or the body as a whole. The equivalent popular culture
term is body language, a term Ray Birdwhistell considered the
founder of this area of study, neither used nor liked (on the
grounds that what can be conveyed with the body does not
meet the linguist's definition of language).
Paralanguage/Vocalics: Vocalics is how people express
themselves through voice. The voice has different vocal
properties. These properties are: rate, or speed at which the
person speaks, pitch, inflection and variety in the voice,
volume, being loud or soft, and articulation and pronunciation,
or how correctly and clearly the person speaks. The voice will
also develop physiological habits that are called vocal qualities.
These qualities are: breathiness, think Joan Rivers, raspiness, or
hoarseness like someone who has been smoking for far too
long, and nasality, having a really whiny voice.

Space Language/Proxemics:Proxemics is the study of human

use of space and the effects that population density has on
behaviour, communication, and social interaction. Proxemics
remains a hidden component of interpersonal communication
that is uncovered through observation and strongly influenced
by culture.

Sign Language/Symbols & Signs: The use of sign language is

not, as you might think, restricted to people who have hearing
disabilities. Even for hearing enabled people, sign language is a
natural extension. For example, the hitchhiker putting out his
thumb is using sign language. When you hold up your hand in a
stop motion, that's sign language. Sign language is a
replacement for words. It's worth noting that sign language use
is exceedingly culture bound. A symbol or sign that is seen as
polite in one culture may be perceived as extremely rude in
another culture.
Time Language/Choronemics: Chronemics can be defined as
"the interrelated observations and theories of man's use of
time" the way in which one perceives and values time,
structures time, and reacts to time frames communication.
Time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal
communication process. Time perceptions include punctuality,
willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect
lifestyle, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how
long people are willing to listen.

Touch Language/Haptics: Haptic communicationis refers to the

ways in which people and animals communicate and interact
via the sense of touch. The sense of touch allows one to
experience different sensations such as: pleasure, pain, heat, or
cold. One of the most significant aspects of touch is the ability
to convey and enhance physical intimacy. Touch can be
categorized in many terms such as positive, playful, control,
ritualistic, task-related or unintentional. It can be both
sexual(kissing is one example that some perceived as sexual),
and platonic (such as hugging or a Handshake).

Physical Appearance: Physical appearance is the main look of

humans. It is also the major factor in the development of our
personality, because people outline by that they see not from
what they think. In this world, we have a different culture that
is why; we have different degrees of prominence on the real
meaning of physical appearance and its importance to our
social status and other phenomena.
ADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUICATION
Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal
message by adding to its meaning. You can pat someone you
offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone
indicates the actual meaning of the specific words.
Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a
direction while stating directions.)
Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based
on visual, picture, graph, sign etc. that can be seen very much
attractive.

DISADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal
communication, long conversation and necessary explanations
are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of
the messages.
Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge
cost. For example, neon sign, power point presentation, cinema
etc are very much costly compared to others form of
communication.
Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound, paralanguage etc.
for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in
distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
Business etiquette is about building relationships with other
people. Etiquette is not about rules & regulations but is about
providing basic social comfort and creating an environment
where others feel comfortable and secure, this is possible
through better communication.Social media communication
platforms (i.e. Facebook, WhatsApp) are evolving rapidly day by
day, as the concept of social media etiquette becomes a crucial
part of business. Business etiquette consists of two things.
Firstly, thoughtful consideration of the interests and feelings of
others and secondly, being able to minimise
misunderstandings. These are influenced by individual
behaviour & demeanour. Business etiquette instructs
this behaviour.

SCOPE OF BUSINESS ETIQUETTE

1. When in doubt, introduce others: Always introduce people
to others whenever the opportunity arises, unless you know
that they’re already acquainted. It makes people feel valued,
regardless of their status or position.
2. A handshake is still the professional standard: Not only does
this simple gesture demonstrate that you’re polite, confident
and approachable, it also sets the tone for any potential future
professional relationship. In a very casual work atmosphere,
you might be able to get away with a nod or a hello, but it’s
worth it to make the extra effort to offer your hand.
3. Always say “Please” and “Thank you”: This should go
without saying, but even in a very casual professional
atmosphere, this basic form of courtesy is still imperative.
Today, sending a thank you e-mail is perfectly acceptable, but a
handwritten thank you note is always a nice touch.
4. Don’t interrupt: We’ve become a nation of “over-talkers,” so
eager to offer our own opinions or press our point that we
often interrupt others mid-sentence. It can be tongue-bitingly
difficult to force ourselves not to interject, especially when the
discussion is heated. Don’t. It’s rude and shows disrespect for
the opinions of others. Remember, be assertive, not aggressive.
5. Watch your language: Verbal and written communications
are often much less formal than in times past, but be careful to
choose your words wisely. Of course, derogatory, rude or
offensive language is unacceptable, but so is slang. While it may
be commonplace in our society, it’s never acceptable in a
professional atmosphere.
6. Double check before you hit send: While we’re on the
subject of communication, always check your e-mails for
spelling and grammar errors. Since the advent of spell check,
there is no excuse for typos. Also, do a quick read to make sure
the meaning and tone are what you wish to convey. And no
smileys, please.
7. Don’t walk into someone’s office unannounced: It’s
disrespectful to assume that you have the right to interrupt
other people’s work. Knock on the door or say hello if it’s open
and ask if it’s a good time to talk. If the discussion is going to
take more than a few minutes, it’s a good idea to call or e-mail
and schedule a good time for both of you.
8. Don’t gossip: It’s so hard sometimes to resist engaging in a
little “harmless” gossip. But the reality is that gossip is never
harmless. It is most certainly damaging to the subject of the
gossip, but it also reflects poorly on you. It’s natural to be
curious and interested in what other people are doing, but
talking about someone who is not present is disrespectful.
9. Don’t eavesdrop: Everyone is entitled to private
conversations, in person or over the phone. The same goes for
e-mail; don’t stand over someone’s shoulder and read their e-
mails.
10. Acknowledge others: When someone approaches you,
acknowledge him or her. If you’re in the middle of something
important, it’s fine to ask them to wait a minute while you
finish. If you pass someone in the hallway or on the street, but
don’t have time to talk, at least wave a hand and say hello.
Busyness is not an excuse to ignore people.
 PREPARATION OF CV
A curriculum vitae (often shortened CV or vita) is a written
overview of a person's experience and other qualifications for a
job opportunity. It is akin to a résumé in North America. In
some countries, a CV is typically the first item that a potential
employer encounters regarding the job seeker and is typically
used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview. CVs
may also be requested for applicants to postsecondary
programs, scholarships, grants and bursaries.

Curriculum Vitae Format: What to Include

Contact information: At the top of your CV, include your name
and contact information (address, phone number, email
address, etc.). Many CVs include even more personal
information, such as gender, date of birth, marital status, and
even names of children.

Education: This may include college and graduate study.

Include the school attended, dates of study, and degree
received.

Honors and Awards: This may include dean's list standings,

departmental awards, scholarships, fellowships, and
membership in any honors associations.

Thesis/Dissertation: Include your thesis or dissertation title.

You may also include a brief sentence or two on your paper,
and/or the name of your advisor.
Research Experience: List any research experience you have,
including where you worked, when, and with whom. Include
any publications resulting from your research.

Work Experience: List relevant work experience; this may

include non-academic work that you feel is worth including.List
the employer, position, and dates of employment. Include a
brief list of your duties and/or accomplishments.

Teaching Experience: List any teaching positions you have held.

Include the school, course name. You may also include any
other relevant tutoring or group leadership experience.

Skills: List any relevant skills you have not yet mentioned. This
may include language skills, computer skills, administrative
skills, etc.

Publications and Presentations: List any publications you have

written, co-written, or contributed to. Include all necessary
bibliographic information. Include papers you presented at
conferences and/or associations: list the name of the paper,
the conference name and location, and the date.

Professional Memberships: List any professional association to

which you belong. If you are a board member of the
association, list your title.

Extracurricular Activities: Include any volunteer or work you

have done, as well as any clubs or organizations to which you
have belonged. You can also include any study abroad
experiences here if you have not already mentioned them.
 GROUP DISCUSSION
"Group" is a collection of individuals who have regular contact
and frequent interaction and who work together to achieve a
common set of goals. "Discussion" is the process whereby two
or more people exchange information or ideas in a face-to-face
situation to achieve a goal. The goal, or end product, maybe
increased knowledge, agreement leading to action,
disagreement leading to competition or resolution or perhaps
only a clearing of the air or a continuation of the status-quo.
"Group Discussion", popularly labeled as GD, is a methodology
used by an organization (company, institute, business school,
etc.) to gauge whether the candidate has certain personality
traits. In this methodology, the group of candidates is given a
topic or a situation, typically given some time to think about the
same, and then asked to discuss it among themselves for a
specific duration (which may vary from one organization to
another). As in a football game, where you play like a team,
passing the ball to each team member and aim for a common
goal, GD is also based on team work, incorporating views of
different team members to reach a common goal.

GD tests you on following:

 Communication skill
 Listening skill
 Confidence
 Leadership skill
 Team work
 Knowledge
 Assertiveness
TYPES OF GD:
GDs can be topic-based or case-based.

1. TOPIC BASED GD

Topic based GD’s can be classified into 3, they are as below:

- Factual Topics
- Controversial Topics
- Abstract Topic

2. CASE BASED GD

Another variation is the use of a case instead of a topic.

The case study tries to simulate a real-life situation.
 INTERVIEW
Interview means a private meeting between people when
questions are asked and answered. The person who answers
the questions of an interview is called in the interviewer. The
person who asks the questions of our interview is called an
interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the
purpose of getting a view of each other or for knowing each
other. When we normally think of an interview, we think a
setting in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a
job.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1. Personal interviews: Personal interviews include:

 Selection of the employees

 Promotion of the employees

 Retirement and resignation of the employees

Of course, this type of interview is designed to obtain

information through discussion and observation about how
well the interviewer will perform on the job.

Evaluation interviews: The interviews which take place

annually to review the progress of the interviewee are
called the evaluation interviews. Naturally, it is occurring
between superiors and subordinates. The main objective of
this interview is to find out the strengths and weaknesses of
the employees.
 Persuasive interviews: This type of interview is designed
to sell someone a product or an idea. When a sales
representative talk with a target buyer, persuasion takes
the form of convincing the target that the product or idea
meets a need.
Structured interviews: Structured interviews tend to
follow formal procedures; the interviewer follows a
predetermined agenda or questions.
Unstructured interviews: When the interview does not
follow the formal rules or procedures. It is called an
unstructured interview. The discussion will probably be
free-flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to
another depending on the interests of the interviewee and
the interviewer.
Counseling interviews: This may be held to find out what
has been troubling the workers and why someone has not
been working.
Disciplinary interviews: Disciplinary interviews are
occurring when an employee has been accused of breaching
the organization’s rules and procedures.
Stress interviews: It is designed to place the interviewee in
a stress situation in order to observe the interviewees
reaction.
Public interviews: These include political parties’ radio-
television and newspaper.
Informal or conversational interview: No predetermined
questions are asked, in order to remain as open and
adaptable a possible to the interviewee’s nature and
priorities; it goes with the flow”.
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

These are the ten most frequently-asked interview questions

that you can expect to face:

1. What can you tell me about yourself?

2. Can you list your strengths?
3. What weaknesses do you have?
4. Why should I consider hiring you?
5. Where do you see yourself five years from now?
6. Why do you want to work here?
7. What is your salary expectation?
8. What motivates you?
9. What makes a good team player?
10. Is there anything that you would like to ask me?
TYPES OF REPORTS
Report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It is the result
of the researches, analysis, and investigations, which is present in a
written form. It is the basic tool on which decisions can be based.

The information present in the report is needed to evaluate progress

and plan future action. Reports provide feedback to an organization to
guide future course of action.

Common report structures

Short report Science report Business report

 Title page  Title page  Title page

 Introduction  Introduction  Executive
 Discussion  Method & summary
 Recommendation materials  Table of contents
s  Results  Introduction
 References  Discussion  Discussion
 Conclusion  Conclusion
 Appendices  Recommendation
 References s
 Appendices
 References
Engineering report Research report

 Title page  Title page

 Executive  Executive
summary summary
(optional)  Introduction
 Introduction  Method /
 Objectives methodology
 Analysis  Results / findings
 Discussion  Discussion
 Recommendation  Conclusions
s & action plan  Recommendation
 Conclusion s
 Appendices  Appendices
 References  Bibliography
 LETTER WRITING
Business Letter Structure And Elements
Address of the Sender
It is usually common for the sender to have their address in the
letterhead. Alternatively, they can add these details as the first
item on the page. This section should only include the physical
mailing address without any other contact details.
Date of Writing
The date is usually inserted just below the sender’s address. For
letters created over a period of time, they should bear the date
when the letter was completed. Do be sure to make the
distinction between U.S. and other international date formats
and use them as appropriate. The date is placed at the left or
center.
Recipient’s Address
The recipient’s mailing address follows under the date on the
left side of the page. Whenever possible, precede it with the
name and title of the recipient. In some cases if the person’s
title is unclear, do a bit of research to verify it. This type of
information can easily be found on corporate websites or by
phoning the company.
Greeting
The salutation at the beginning of the letter can vary depending
on how well the sender knows the recipient. In extremely
formal cases, it is acceptable to simply list the recipient’s title
and surname. When the two people are on a first name basis,
the salutation can instead read, “Dear *first name+“. If the
person’s gender is unknown, it is best to forgo a title and simply
list their full name.
Body of the Letter
The first paragraph should be concise and clearly written. It is
customary to include a brief amiable sentence, followed by the
reason behind the letter. The following paragraphs should be
used to elaborate on this reason. Include any necessary details
and information to ensure that the recipient fully understands.
The last paragraph is the closing paragraph. It should be used to
sum up the letter and request any specific actions that are
needed.
The Closing
After the concluding paragraph, leave a blank line, and then
add a closing word such as “Thank you”, “Sincerely” or “Best
regards”. This should always be followed by a comma and the
sender’s signature below it. It is usually better to personally
sign the letter instead of using a digital copy of the signature.
Below the signature should be the sender’s name typed out.
This is especially useful since most signatures are difficult to
read clearly.
Enclosed Documents
If any supporting documents have been attached, list them at
the bottom of the letter. This section should be titled
“Enclosures”. For digital letters, include the actual file name
along with its extension (e.g.: JohnSmith-Resume.pdf).
Typist’s Identification
If somebody else has typed the letter, they should indicate this
by including their initials at the very bottom of the page.
Senders who type the letter themselves do not need to include
their own initials.
Business Letter Formatting Guidelines
Block Format
This format is the most common version in use. It uses left
justified paragraphs for the entire letter. All text is single
spaced, with double spacing inserted between each paragraph.
Modified Block Format
The modified block format is another popular version for
business letters. It follows the same formatting as the block
format except for the date and the letter’s closing. These two
items are centered instead of being left aligned.
Semi Block Format
The semi block format is heavily used. Instead of left aligned
the paragraphs, they are indented in the first line. There can
also sometimes be other variations for formal business letter
formats, depending on company variations. If the organization
has an official style guide, always refer to that first. Most word
processing software programs come with helpful templates
that can be used when creating business letters. Simply select
the desired template and then plug in the information within
each section.
Using the Right Fonts
Choosing the right font is crucial to ensure that the letter is
legible. Avoid fancy fonts that look strange to the eyes. A
standard serif font like Times New Roman at size 12 is the
norm. Sans-serif fonts like Arial can be a little harder to read in
blocks of text; they are better used for headers or single lines.

Punctuation, Grammar, and Spell Checking

In general, a colon is placed following the salutation, and a
comma is inserted just after the letter’s closing phrase. The
open punctuation method forgoes both of these. Always pay
close attention to spelling, grammar, and punctuation after
writing the letter. Run a spell check within the word processor
to catch any glaring mistakes. It is also helpful to have another
person read the letter and point out any remaining errors
 MINUTES OF MEETING
Minutes are “a written document that accurately and
objectively records the essence of a meeting.”They are
useful because people can forget what was decided at a
meeting if there is no written record of the proceedings.
Minutes can also inform people who were not at the
meeting about what took place.

Minutes usually contain the main point s of discussion, the

conclusions reached, the recommendations made, and the
tasks assigned to individual members and groups. They are
not a verbatim record of the proceedings of a meeting. The
emotions and feelings , if any , expressed by members
during the course of discussion are generally not recorded.
A clear, concise, accurate and well organised summary of
the business transacted is all that is required. Minutes, in
fact, are a special type of summary of what happened at a
meeting.

CONTENTS
 Name of organizational unit
 Date,time,place of the meeting
 No. of the meeting
 Name of chairman of the meeting
 No of members present
 Record of transactions
 Signature of the secretary n the chairman
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is an outline of your proposed project
that is designed toDefine a clear question and approach to
answering it. Highlight its originality (Doctoral level only)
and/or significance. Explain how it adds to, develops (or
challenges) existing literature in the field. Persuade potential
supervisors and/or funders of the importance of the work,
and why you are the right person to undertake it Research
proposals may vary in length, but generally speaking, a
proposal should be no more than 2,500 words, or 5 pages in
length; 2-3 pages is normally sufficient.
Structuring your Research Proposal the following elements
are crucial in a good research proposal. Each item aligns to a
section in the research proposal template:
Title: This can change, but make sure to include important
‘key words’ that will relate your proposal to relevant
potential supervisors, funding schemes and so on.
1. Project Summary: In this section you should provide a
summary of your proposed research intelligible to a reader
who is not a specialist in this field; summarize the aims,
significance and expected outcomes of the research.
2. Project Details: Be sure to establish a solid and convincing
framework for your research in this section. This should
include the following sub-sections:
a) Research Questions This section should explain the
research question(s) (1-3 should suffice) and may include the
hypothesis or problem to be addressed.
• The major approach(es) you will take (conceptual,
theoretical, empirical and normative, as appropriate) and
rationale
• Significance of the research (in academic and, if
appropriate, other fields)
b) Aims/Objectives of the Project What do you want to know,
prove, demonstrate, analyse, test, investigate or examine?
List your aims in a logical sequence, e.g. The aim of this
project is to:
• Provide an outline of a research proposal
• Enable a prospective student to prepare a research
proposal
c) Significance/Contribution to the Discipline In this section
you should justify the project from a review of literature on
the topic: discuss the texts which you believe are most
important to the project, demonstrate your understanding of
the research issues, and identify existing gaps in the
literature that the research is intended to address. This
section is intended to ‘sign-post’ and contextualise your
research questions, not to provide a detailed analysis of
existing debates. You should also use this section to make
links between your research and the existing strengths of the
School/Discipline to which you are applying. Visit appropriate
websites to find out about existing research taking place in
the School and how your project can complement this.
d) Theoretical Framework and Methods You do not need to
have full details of the methods you will use to answer your
research questions but you need to demonstrate that you
have already given some thought about how you will do
things. The important thing is to anticipate the methods you
will use to achieve the project aims and to show that your
project is feasible in the time period available. If your
proposal is too elaborate and not feasible within 3 or 4 years
for a PhD or 1-2 years for a Masters, your application is likely
to be unsuccessful. Aim to address the following points:
• How do you anticipate you will achieve the project aims
and what is your rationale for adopting this approach?
• What do you need (identify any special equipment,
software or material)
• Can you access necessary data or expertise?
• Do you require particular resources?
• Are there barriers or pitfalls?
• Does the proposed project involve human ethics, animal
ethics or safety implications?
• Will travel or fieldwork be required? If so: where to, how
long and at what intervals?
4. Research Plan and Timeline (This section is not required by
all Faculties) Provide a monthly/quarterly outline of how you
will complete the work within the time scheduled. A full-time
PhD normally takes 3 years and a Masters degree 2 years.
Part time qualifications can be expected to take 6 years (PhD)
and 4 years (Masters).
5. References Cited/Bibliography of Planned Reading (no
word limit applies) (This section is not required by all
Faculties) Your references should provide the reader with a
good sense of your grasp on the literature and how you can
contribute to it. Be sure to reference texts and resources that
you think will play a large role in your analysis, in addition to
your planned readings.
DATA INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences
from the collected facts after an analytical and/or
experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader
meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation
has two major aspects viz.,the effort to establish
continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of another, and the establishment of
some explanatory concepts.

“In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships

within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”1
Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors
that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in
the course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide
for further researches.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a
great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher.
Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and
experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance
from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The
technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the
relations which he has found and he must interpret the
lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies
under the surface layer of his diversified research findings.
In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should
be done and concepts be formulated.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must
be considered while interpreting the final results of
research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation,
to consult someone having insight into the study and who
is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a
consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus,
will enhance the utility of research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation
only after considering all relevant factors affecting the
problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no
hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the
conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning,
may not at all be accurate.
SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING

Research report is considered a major component of the

research study for the research task remains incomplete till the
report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact
even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and
conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations
and findings are of little value unless they are effectively
communicated to others. The purpose of research is not well
served unless the findings are made known to others. Research
results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
All this explains the significance of writing research report.
There are people who do not consider writing of report as an
integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is
in favour of treating the presentation of research results or the
writing of report as part and parcel of the research project.
Writing of report is the last step in a research study and
requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for
in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek
the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily

be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in
its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods
and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to
be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper layout of
the report. The layout of the report means as to what the
research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the
research report should comprise preliminary pages, the main
text and the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.
Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and
date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or
‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed
by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or
anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the
required information in the report.
Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research
report along with all details. Title of the research study is
repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then
follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively,
beginning with the second page. Each main section of the
report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report
should have the following sections:

1. Introduction
2. Statement of findings and recommendations
3. The results
4. The implications drawn from the results; and
5. The summary.
1. Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce
the research project to the readers. It should contain a
clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough
background should be given to make clear to the reader
why the problem was considered worth investigating. A
brief summary of other relevant research may also be
stated so that the present study can be seen in that
context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the
definitions of the major concepts employed in the study
should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the
report.
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must
be fully explained. The scientific reader would like to know
in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out?
What was its basic design? If the study was an
experimental one, then what were the experimental
manipulations? If the data were collected by means of
questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions
were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is
usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were
based on observation, then what instructions were given
to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study
the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How
many were there? How were they selected? All these
questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of
generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis
adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this,
the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary
lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which
 the research project was completed, must also be
narrated.
2. Statement of findings and recommendations: After
introduction, the research report must contain a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language so that it can be easily understood by
all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at
this point they should be put in the summarised form.
3. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the
study, with supporting data in the form of tables and
charts together with a validation of results, is the next step
in writing the main text of the report. This generally
comprises the main body of the report, extending over
several chapters. The result section of the report should
contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data
rather than the raw data. All the results should be
presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily
identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place
in the report. But how one is to decide about what is
relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes
primarily from the research problem and from the
hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned.
But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own
judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
“Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the
problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by
which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which
he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.
4. Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main
text, the researcher should again put down the results of
his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the
implications that flow from the results of the study, for the
general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behaviour. Such implications
may have three aspects as stated below:
o A statement of the inferences drawn from the

present study which may be expected to apply in

similar circumstances.
o The conditions of the present study which may limit

the extent of legitimate generalizations of the

inferences drawn from the study.
o The relevant questions that still remain unanswered

or new questions raised by the study along with

suggestions for the kind of research that would
provide answers for them. The conclusion drawn
from the study should be clearly related to the
hypotheses that were stated in the introductory
section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable
future of the subject and an indication of the kind of
research which needs to be done in that particular
field is useful and desirable.
5. Summary: It has become customary to conclude the
research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief
the research problem, the methodology, the major
findings and the major conclusions drawn from the
research results.
End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in
respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample
information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index
(an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with
the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end
of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as
a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
 NOTICES
A notice may be oral or written or in the form of notification
issued or published in some ways media. The notice must be
given to the members before a meeting is conducted. Ideally
this should be done one week before the meeting. Either the
secretary or the chairperson will be incharge of issuing the
notice.

The notice informs the members of the date, time and place
of the meeting. It must also include the agenda which
highlights the issues that would be discussed during the
meeting. This would allow members to prepare for the
meeting. The following basic information must be included
in a notice:

1. The venue (where the meeting to be held).

2. The day, date and time of the meeting.
3. Details of any special business to be discussed at the
meeting.
4. The type of meeting (where appropriate).
5. The name of person calling the meeting(chairperson).
6. The date of the notice.

Advantages of Notices

1. It can contain diagrams as well as written information.

2. A written record of the message is kept.
3. They can be created in such a way as to attract attention.
4. Employees tend to look at notice boards in their breaks.
Disadvantages of Notices

1. The message is not clearly sent across, as not a lot of

detail can be included in the notice.
2. The notice can easily be taken-down to be read by an
employee or covered-up by another notice.
3. It can take time to distribute the notices around the
organization.
4. If they do not look attractive, people tend not to look at
them as they may think from their first impression that
it does not seem very interesting.
THE END

Piyushmathur
 CONTENTS

 NOISE AS A BARRIER TO COMMUNICATION

 NON VERBAL COMMUNICTION

 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE

 PREPARATION OF CV

 GROUP DISCUSSION

 INTERVIEW

 TYPES OF REPORT

 LETTER WRITING

 MINUTES OF MEETING

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

 DATA INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

 NOTICE
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Communication LAB
MBA 2017-19

Submitted by:-
PIYUSH MATHUR
MBA 1st SEM