17 Ch08 Solutions

8 Solution
Chapter Eight:
8.1 Properties of Solutions

8.1.1 Solutions don’t have to be liquids
The rst thing we usually think of when we hear “solution” in chemistry is a beaker of liquid that has
a solid dissolved in it. We call the dissolved solid the solute and the liquid the solvent. The solute Solutes, solvents, and solutions were
is the thing that dissolves (breaks apart) and the solvent is the thing that pulls apart the solute briefly introduced in Ch. 6.
(makes it dissolve). Although this is the most common type of solution we encounter in chemistry,
other types of solutions are abundant all around us. For example, a gas can be mixed with another
gas: the air we breathe is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and small amounts of many other
gases. “Which is the solute in this case?” you may ask. “There is nothing breaking apart.” A
technical de nition is that the solute is the less abundant component and the solvent the more
abundant component. This de nition also works with our solid solute dissolved in our liquid solvent.
How about some other solutions? Can you think of a solution made up of a liquid solute and a
gaseous solvent? Humid air. How about the opposite solution: a gaseous solute with a liquid
solvent? Carbonated water. An example of a liquid-liquid solution is rubbing alcohol, which is made
up of 70% isopropanol and 30% water. (Which is the solvent?) There are solid-solid solutions too:
steel is a solution of iron and carbon.
8.1.2 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures

To give a more precise de nition of a solution, we need to understand that there are two types of
mixtures. Take, for example, a mixture of sand and iron grains. If you look at it, you’ll see the We introduced mixtures in Ch. 4.
separate components of the mixture: some sand here, some bits of iron there. In fact, the Basically, it is when two or more pure
substances are intermingled.
composition of the mixture will vary from place to place. Maybe one part of the mixture has a little
more sand than iron and another part of the mixture has a little more iron than sand. Furthermore,
this type of mixture is easily separable (for example, by using a magnet). This type of mixture –
where the components are not uniformly mixed and can be seen separately – is called a
heterogenous mixture. A can of mixed nuts is another example: you can see the different
components and the composition varies from place to place. On the other hand, a solution is a
homogeneous mixture. What is meant by “homogeneous” is that it is thoroughly mixed and its
composition is uniform throughout. Every tiny part is indistinguishable from every other tiny part. A
chocolate chip cookie is obviously not a solution. The ingredients of the cookie are not uniformly
distributed: one part might be all dough and one part might be all chocolate. If you can easily pick
out the different components of the mixture, it isn’t homogeneous. In fact, the dough itself is not
uniformly distributed: if you look closely enough, one part might have a tiny bit more brown sugar
than another part. Salt water is a solution; you can’t distinguish the Na+ and Cl– ions from the H2O
8.1.3 Solutions are made up of atoms, molecules, or ions only

Some mixtures are clearly heterogeneous: you can easily see the different things that make it up.
Other mixtures might at rst appear to be homogenous, but really aren’t solutions. What sets
solutions apart from other types of mixtures that appear to be homogeneous is the size of the
particles in solution. Let’s look at three types of mixtures. Only one of them is homogeneous and a
true solution. We have special names for the other two types, which are heterogeneous mixtures.
One type of mixture is like muddy water or like cornstarch stirred up in water (oobleck). They both
look like solutions…for a little while. Given time, the mud (or the cornstarch in the case of oobleck)
will settle to the bottom of the container, separating into two substances. Even while mixed (before
settling), we would be able to see the particles suspended in the water if we looked closely enough
(with a magnifying glass, for example). We call such a mixture a suspension. You can easily
separate a suspension using lter paper. This is not a solution
A second type of mixture involves smaller particles, yet still quite bigger than atoms. The particles
are typically large molecules, individually too small to see with the naked eye, but sometimes
viewable with microscopes. These particles will not settle out upon standing, but remain spread
Chapter 8 Solutions 275

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evenly throughout the solvent. This would still be a heterogeneous mixture because there are two
distinct parts, or phases, of material: little particles of one type with tiny chunks of other particles in
it. We call such a mixture a colloid. Unlike suspensions, colloids can pass through lter paper
without having its components separated. (See the K.I.D. section below for some examples of
colloids.) However, these are not solutions either
The last type of mixture we’ll mention really is a solution. What makes solutions special is that all
the particles that make up the solution are atoms, molecules, or ions only. There is nothing much
bigger than about a nanometer. Everything is broken apart and mixed thoroughly. Not only will it
pass unchanged through a lter paper, but the dissolved particles can also – unlike a colloid –
sometimes pass through membranes such as those that enclose cells. In general, a solution is a
set of two or more substances mixed at the atomic level so that two particles of solute are very
unlikely to be next to each other. They’ll remain as separated atoms, molecules, or ions.
Knowledge In Depth
“Colloids”
The components of a colloid are not called solute and solvent (that’s only for solutions). The terms
used are dispersed phase and continuous phase. The dispersed phase is the thing in lower
quantity. It is spread out within the larger continuous phase.
We have special names for different types of colloids, depending on the physical states of the
components of the mixture. You’ve probably heard of most of these. For example, when tiny liquid
(or solid) particles are dispersed throughout a gas, we call the colloid an aerosol, such as spray
deodorant or smoke. When one liquid is dispersed throughout another liquid, we call the colloid an
emulsion. Mayonnaise is an emulsion. Milk is another emulsion (droplets of fat dispersed in a
mixture of water, sugars, and proteins). A foam is a colloid of a gas dispersed in a liquid or solid
(e.g. whipped cream or marshmallows). When a liquid is dispersed within a solid, it is called a gel.
An example would be jelly. The one you probably haven’t heard of is a sol: a solid dispersed phase
with another solid as the continuous phase. Certain types of colored glass and gemstones are
sols.
An interesting property of colloids is how they respond to light. For light to be scattered, there must
be intervening particles that are big enough to re ect some of the light wave. The particles of a
solution are too small to scatter light: solutions are transparent to light. That’s why you don’t usually
see a laser beam while it’s traveling across a room, only where it hits. The air (a solution of gases)
is made up of particles that are too small to send any of the light eyeward. However, if you pass a
beam of light through a colloid, the light will get scattered a bit in all directions by the dispersed
phase particles, allowing you to see it. This is called the Tyndall effect. Normally, you wouldn’t be
able to see a laser beam going through water. But if you add a little bit of milk (an emulsion) to the
water and shine a laser beam through it, you could see the path of the beam through the water. It
is also why you sometimes see shafts of sunlight in your room, in a forest, or laser beams at
concerts. The air is lled with some dispersed phase (dust or moisture), creating a colloid (in these
cases, aerosols) that will re ect bits of the light.
Concerts use fog machines to create
the aerosols (or just the natural
moisture from fans’ sweat). 8.1.4 An aqueous solution is formed by dissociation and hydration
We can use many solvents to create solutions. However, water is by far the most common solvent
used in chemistry because it is cheap, readily available, and is not harmful to the environment. It’s
not harmful because it already forms such a large part of the environment. Also, in biological
systems, water is usually the only possible solvent. Recall that we call a solution in which water is
the solvent an aqueous solution
Let’s take a common solution: salt water. We dump some grains of salt in water, stir it up, and the
salt disappears. Well, it doesn’t disappear. It just breaks apart into separate Na+ and Cl– ions, so
small that we can no longer see them. The process of a crystal breaking up into ions is called
dissociation. However, the salt gets some help. The NaCl bonds are pretty strong: NaCl doesn’t
dissociate by itself in air, does it? So the water must be doing something to expedite the process.
The action of a solvent on the solute is called solvation. If the solvent is water, the solvent action is
known as hydration.
276 Chapter 8 Solutions

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Basically, this is how dissociation and hydration work. Let’s take the dissolution of NaCl in water as Dissolution is a fancy word for
an example. At rst, there are a bunch of water molecules oating around, surrounding the solid dissolving.
ionic compound (see gure at the top left). The water molecules actually do have an attraction for
the Na+ and Cl– ions that make up the NaCl ionic compound. Recall that water molecules are polar,
so they possess charged ends. These will have an attraction for the ions of the solute. Like lions
hunting wildebeest, picking out a weak-looking one, the H2O molecules pick out a chloride ion.
Then they surround, isolate, and “attack” it (see top right). Pretty soon, the attraction for the water
molecules is too much and the chloride ion gets carried off screaming from the rest of the solute
and into the solvent. There it becomes part of the solution (see bottom left).
While in solution, the chloride ion is not oating around by itself. It is always surrounded by a
number of water molecules. We say that the chloride ion is hydrated. A similar fate awaits the
sodium ion of the solid salt. This time, other water molecules isolate and pull off the sodium ion. If the bonds between the cation and
The sodium ion becomes hydrated in solution, surrounded by water molecules (see bottom right). the water molecules are strong
This will keep happening until all the Na+ and Cl– ions get pulled off and hydrated enough, they might get incorporated
as part of the ionic compound
formed from the solution. If that were
to happen, it would produce a solid
hydrated ionic compound. These
were brought at the end of Ch. 4.
water
molecules
water molecules attacking Cl– ion
Cl–
Na+
solid NaCl

a hydrated Na+ ion

a hydrated Cl– ion
HELP!!
It is important to remember that the dissolved salt is no longer in the form of NaCl. There are no
intact NaCl units oating in the solution. There are only dissociated, hydrated Na+ ions and Cl– ions.
Once dissolved, in some ways it would be misleading to say that we have sodium chloride. There
are only Na+ and Cl– ions separated from each other and hydrated by H2O molecules. However, we
can and do say that we have an aqueous solution of sodium chloride, implying that the ions of the
salt are dissolved in water. That is why we use the subscript “aq” for aqueous solutions. There is a
big difference between writing NaCl(s) and NaCl(aq): the former means pure, solid salt while the
latter means that you dissolved a little NaCl in water and it exists as separated Na+ and Cl– ions Understand this. It will help you
later.
8.1.5 Difference between dissociation of ionic and molecular solutes

Although an aqueous solution can be any solution where water is the solvent, we will concentrate
mostly on aqueous solutions in which the solute is an ionic compound. This results in a solution
where the only things in the solution are water molecules and ions. However, I do want to point out
an important difference between solutions of ionic solutes and molecular solutes. When you
dissolve an ionic compound in water, it separates into individual ions, as we discussed above. As

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another example, consider potassium bromide. If you write KBr(s), you are referring to pure, solid
KBr. A chunk of it is shown next to the beaker below (it would be a white crystalline solid). When it
dissolves in water, the KBr dissociates into K+ and Br– ions (see beaker). We have no more “intact”
units of KBr. We call this an aqueous solution of KBr and write KBr(aq)
K+
Br–
K+
Note for this figure and the one Br–
below, I’m not showing the water KBr(s) KBr(aq) K+
molecules hydrating the dissolved
Br– Br–
particles. K+ Br– K+ Br–
K+
Br– K+ Br– K+ Br– K+
K+ Br– K+ Br– K+ Br–
On the other hand, consider fructose (fruit sugar), which has the chemical formula C6H12O6 (its
structure is shown in the margin). It is a molecular compound (note it’s made of nonmetals and thus
has covalent bonds). If you write C6H12O6(s), you are referring to pure, solid fructose. A chunk of it is
shown next to the beaker below, showing 9 molecules of fructose stuck together (of course, a real
fructose (C6H12O6)
chunk would have gajillions of molecules). When it dissolves in water, the sucrose dissociates into
individual C6H12O6 molecules, as shown in the beaker. But here’s the important point: each
C6H12O6 molecule stays intact and does not break apart into “half molecules” or individual atoms.
The covalent bonds between the C’s, H’s, and O’s are too strong. Thus, while the chunk of fructose
does indeed break apart when it dissolves, it keeps its chemical identity by staying together as
C6H12O6 molecules. It does not form any kind of ion whatsoever
C6H12O6(s) C6H12O6(aq)
This is generally true of all molecular compounds: while they break apart into separated molecules,
the molecules themselves do not break apart any further (such as into ions or atoms).
8.1.6 A solution that can conduct electricity is called an electrolyte solution

But tap water has some ions in it, so Normally, water isn’t a particularly good conductor of electricity. However, if we dissolve an ionic
it isn’t a good idea to drop a plugged- compound like NaCl or KBr in water, we now have a bunch of ions oating around (see diagrams
in radio into your bath water. above). These ions have the ability to conduct electricity. Electricity is simply the movement of
charge. The ions in the solution will ow toward one terminal or another, completing a circuit. We
call a substance that will conduct electricity when dissolved in water an electrolyte. (People also
You’ve probably heard that sports refer to the actual ions in solution as electrolytes.) All ionic compounds that dissolve in water are
drinks contain electrolytes. Our
nerves send signals electrically and
electrolytes. Of course, some ionic compounds will dissolve to a greater extent than others. Some,
electrolytes are part of that process. like NaCl, completely break apart into ions (they have 100% dissociation). These are referred to as
strong electrolytes, because they produce solutions that conduct electricity very well. Other ionic
compounds, which only partially dissolve in water, are referred to as weak electrolytes. Non-ionic
compounds (i.e. molecular solutes) that dissolve in water do not break into pieces that have an
electric charge, as we just saw above for fructose. Therefore, they do not conduct electricity. These
are non-electrolytes. Sucrose (table sugar) is another example. It is a molecule (not an ionic
compound) that dissolves in water. Dissociated sugar molecules are neutral, not charged ions.
Hence sugar water does not conduct electricity

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8.1.7 Most aqueous solutions are mostly water

Before we move on, I want to make sure you understand the difference between a pure form of a
solute and an aqueous solution of it. Let’s say we want to make a pretty sweet sugar solution. A
can of cola has about 0.1 mol of sucrose per 18 mol of H2O. That is a ratio of 1:180. That means
when you dissolve the sucrose in water, it completely breaks up into individual sucrose molecules,
but these are outnumbered by water molecules 180-to-1. It would look something like this, where
the blue and red dots represent water and sucrose molecules, respectively.
As mentioned earlier, this is why there is a big difference between writing C12H22O11(s) and
C12H22O11(aq). The former means you have pure solid sugar. The latter is an aqueous sugar
solution, where the sugar is now dispersed among all those water molecules and is probably
outnumbered pretty signi cantly by them.
Keep this in mind throughout the course. Let’s say someone asked you to nd the number of moles
that are in 171 grams of solid sucrose. Since the molar mass is 342 g/mol, you’d divide to discover
that there is 0.5 mole of sucrose (3.01 x 1023 molecules). But now you are asked to nd the number Make sure you understand this
of moles of sucrose in 171 grams of an aqueous solution of sucrose. Do you think you should take paragraph.
171 and divide by 342? No! You don’t have 171 grams of pure sucrose. Most of those 171 grams is
water. Very little is sucrose, so it would be wrong to say we have 0.5 mole of it. In the next section,
we’ll learn how to do this problem properly.
8.1.8 A solute that can dissolve in a solvent is said to be soluble

No matter what the physical states of the solute and solvent, if the solute is able to dissolve in the It’s not as black-and-white as this.
solvent, we say that the solute is soluble. If you dump some solute into a solvent and they don’t It’s possible water can’t completely
form a solution (the solute doesn’t dissolve), we say that the solute is insoluble break apart the solid: some of it
might be left undissolved. A beaker
of water can only dissolve so much!
8.1.9 Two liquids that dissolve in each other are said to be miscible
You can mix some liquids and they will form a homogeneous mixture: a solution. The two liquids
are soluble in each other. This means the liquids can mix in any ratio. This mutual solubility of two
liquids is given the special name miscibility. Ethanol and water are miscible. We can have a
solution that is 99% ethanol and 1% water, a solution that is 1% ethanol and 99% water, or any
other ratio. Two liquids that are not soluble in each other are said to be immiscible. Vegetable oil
and water are immiscible. *Oil is a (mostly) nonpolar organic
molecule and water is polar. Recall
Section Overview
in Ch. 6 that we learned “like
dissolves like.” Oil molecules don’t
The Forest: have good IMFs with water
molecules so don’t dissolve in it.
When you combine two or more substances, you create a mixture. A special type of mixture is a
solution: one in which the particles are so small and uniformly mixed that you’d be unable to see
the separate components. When something dissolves in water, we call it an aqueous solution
The Trees:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture: the components are thoroughly mixed and uniform in
distribution. Everything in a solution is either an atom, molecule, or ion. This is in contrast to a
heterogenous mixture, which has components that can be picked out and differentiated. An
aqueous solution is one in which the solvent is water. An ionic compound dissolves in water
through the process of dissociation (breaking apart), helped by the water molecules, which then
surround and separate the ions from each other (called hydration). While molecular solutes stay
intact as molecules when they dissolve, ionic solutes dissociate into ions. These ions allow the
resulting solution to conduct electricity. We call this an electrolyte solution. Keep in mind that most
of an aqueous solution is water, not the solute. If a solute can dissolve in a solvent, we say that it is
soluble. If two liquids are mutually soluble in each other, we say they are miscible
Test Yourself:
Use the word bank to identify the correct term.
solute solvent heterogeneous homogeneous dissociation hydration solubl
miscible immiscible suspension colloi
a. The process of an ionic compound breaking apart in solution. _____________
b. Two liquids that do not mix with each other. _____________
c. A mixture containing fairly large molecules that do not settle to the bottom. _____________
d. A solution is this type of mixture. _____________
e. What we call the substance that dissolves in a larger volume substance. _____________
f. The surrounding of an ion by water molecules. ______________
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8.2 Solubility
8.2.1 A solution can reach equilibrium
Let’s say you drop a big chunk of solid (the solute) into some water (the solvent). The particles from
Dare I be nerdy and say, “If you the surface of the solute will start to dissociate and become part of the solution, hydrated by the
aren’t part of the solution, you are water. However, if one of these solute particles in the solution collides with the remaining
part of the solute”? I dare, I dare! undissolved solute, that particle can “re-attach” itself to the solute and become part of the solid
crystal again. We call the reforming of a solid crystallization.
When you rst put the chunk of solid in the solvent, what is mostly happening is dissociation:
particles leaving the solid to become part of the solution. There are no solute particles in the
solvent yet to return to the solid. Over time, the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent
increases. With more and more solute particles oating around in solution, the frequency with
which those particles bounce into the piece of solid increases. And the greater the number of
collisions, the greater the chance of a particle crystallizing. At some point, there will be enough
solute particles in solution that the rate at which the solute particles return from the solvent back to
the solid equals the rate at which the solute particles leave the solid. In other words, the rate of
dissociation will equal the rate of crystallization. This is called solution equilibrium. When the
solution is in equilibrium, you cannot get any more solid to dissolve (assuming you don’t change the
conditions). The particles come back to the solid as fast as they leave!
8.2.2 A saturated solution is one in which you cannot dissolve any more solid
When the solution is in equilibrium (the rate of crystallization equals the rate of dissociation), we
say that it is a saturated solution. It is all ne and good to think of the microscopic, conceptual
process above. But a more practical way to think of it is that a saturated solution is a solution in
which you cannot dissolve any more solute. The solvent is holding all the dissolved solute that it
can. Try to dump in a bunch more solid: no more solid will dissolve into the solvent. It will just sit
there at the bottom of your beaker
This is how you know that your solution is saturated. Let’s say you are instructed to prepare a
saturated aqueous solution of sucrose (the chemical name of table sugar). All you do is pour some
sucrose into some water and stir. If it all goes away (dissolves), pour some more sugar in. And
more. At some point, try as you might, you will have dumped some sugar in that will not dissolve. It
just sits there at the bottom. You know that you have reached solution equilibrium and your solution
is saturated because no more sugar can t in the solvent.
If you have not added enough solute to reach equilibrium, the solute will be all dissolved; you won’t
see any solid solute. However, the solvent could still t more solute particles in it. It is not “full” yet,
so to speak. When a solution contains less solute in it than what would make it saturated, we call it
an unsaturated solution.
How do you know whether a clear solution with no solid sitting at the bottom is saturated or
unsaturated? Dump a little bit more solute in it. If it dissolves, the solution was unsaturated. If it just
falls to the bottom and won’t dissolve, even if you stir it, then the solution was (and still is)
saturated.
8.2.3 The amount of solute required to saturate a solvent differs for different substances
So how much solute do you need to dump into the solvent to get it to be saturated? A teaspoon? A
pound? It all depends on what the solute and solvent are. (It also depends on the temperature: we’ll
get to that below.) The nature of the solute and solvent will affect the extent to which the solute will
dissolve. In water, sand doesn’t dissolve, salt does, and sugar really does. The amount of solute
In Ch. 6, we learned the solubility that will dissolve in a solvent is referred to as the solubility of that substance. This is pretty vague.
depends on the strength of IMFs
among the solute and solvent Are we talking about how much will dissolve in water or in ethanol? In 10mL of water or in a gallon?
particles. We need a more precise de nition than that, at least so that we can compare different substances’
ability to dissolve. Therefore, we de ne the solubility as the number of grams of solute that will
dissolve in 100 grams of water at 20ºC. The solubility of sucrose is 204g per 100g water at 20ºC,
Don’t worry about this technical meaning you can dissolve 204g of sugar in 100g of water at that temperature. If you dump 300g of
definition. Just know that a
substance with a higher solubility
sugar into 100g of water, 96g will sit undissolved at the bottom. The solubility of calcium hydroxide
means more grams of it will dissolve. is 0.173g per 100g water, so it will take only 0.173g of Ca(OH)2 in 100g of water to create a
saturated solution. Tables exist that list the solubilities of different substances in water (other
solvents, too).

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8.2.4 The solubility of a substance depends on the temperature

We have the temperature in the de nition of solubility because the solubility will differ for different
temperatures. Generally, more solid solute can be dissolved at higher temperatures. For example,
487g of sucrose will dissolve at 100ºC, compared to 204g at 20ºC. So if you have a saturated
solution of sucrose at 20ºC and raise the temperature, it will no longer be saturated. You’d have to
add more sucrose to make it saturated again. Similarly, if you have an unsaturated solution, you
theoretically could make it saturated by lowering the temperature enough.
8.2.5 A solution holding more solute than it can normally hold is supersaturated
Let’s say we dump 487g of sucrose into 100g of water at 20ºC. At that temperature, only 204g can
dissolve. There will be some solid sitting at the bottom. What can we do to get that extra solid to
dissolve? Increase the temperature! If we increase the temperature to 100ºC, we get it all to
dissolve. The solution is now saturated at 100ºC. We take it off the hot plate and allow the solution
to cool. It reaches 20ºC again. However, at that temperature, supposedly only 204g can “ t” into the
solution. What happens to that extra 283g? Does it crystallize out as it cools? It could, but under
certain conditions, you might be able to cool it without that extra solid crystallizing back out. If so,
you now have a solution that is holding 487g of sucrose, when it should normally only be able to
hold 204g at that temperature. We have more than the saturated amount! We call such a solution
supersaturated. (Note that the solution wasn’t supersaturated when it was at 100ºC — it was Note: a supersaturated solution is
simply saturated at that higher temperature.) not considered to be at equilibrium.
The reason why the extra solid might not crystallize on cooling and why the solution can remain
supersaturated is because the solute particles in the solvent need something onto which they can
crystallize. It is similar to why we add boiling chips to hot water to allow bubbles to form more
easily. The dissolved solute particles will not crystallize if there are only smooth surfaces. It needs
something to get it goin’. So if you cool the hot saturated solution in a clean, smooth beaker, the
solute might not crystallize. However, it is very unstable and wants to get rid of that extra solute. If
you drop one speck of solid crystal (with its jagged surface) into the beaker, the solute now has
something onto which it can crystallize. BOOM! Out comes that extra solid suddenly and
dramatically. Unless your teacher is lazy, no-fun jerk, he or she will show you the super-spectacular
sodium acetate demo. (It must be noted that while supersaturation is really cool, it is not that
common. Usually, the extra solute precipitates out as it cools.
8.2.6 Properties of gas-liquid solutions

So far, we have discussed only solid solutes in liquid solvents. Before we end this section, let’s
mention a couple of things about gaseous solutes in liquid solvents
A gas dissolves when it collides with the liquid surface: the more collisions, the more gas that will
get “trapped” in the liquid, becoming dissolved. To increase the number of gas particles, thereby
increasing the number of collisions and the amount of gas dissolved, we just increase the pressure
of that gas above the liquid. So the solubility of a gaseous solute increases with increasing Solubility of a solid or liquid solute
pressure of that gas above the solvent does NOT depend on pressure.
So why does a bottle of soda zz when it is opened? There is normally not much CO2 in the air, so
most liquids don’t have much carbonation in them under usual circumstances (a glass of tap water
isn’t “ zzy,” right?). To make the soda bubbly, the bottles of soda are sealed in a chamber where
there is a very high pressure of CO2 in the air surrounding it. This increases the amount of CO2 that
will dissolve in the soda. Now that sealed bottle has lots of CO2 dissolved in the liquid AND a lot of
CO2 in the space above the liquid and under the bottle cap. When you open the bottle of soda, all
that CO2 that was trapped in the bottle above the liquid escapes. With a lower CO2 pressure above
the liquid, the concentration of CO2 in the soda must decrease, so all of it zzes out. That’s what
you hear and see when you open a bottle of soda
This property also explains why deep sea divers can get a really painful (even fatal) condition if
they resurface too quickly. This is called “the bends,” or decompression sickness. Divers who go
fairly deep in the ocean use compressed air (tanks of high-pressure air). As you know, the majority
of air is nitrogen, not oxygen. As it turns out, N2 is not very soluble in blood (or water). But what do
we know will happen if we increase the pressure of N2 in the diver’s lungs? More of it will dissolve
in her blood. That’s not too much of a problem itself. But when the diver resurfaces and there is
less pressure of N2 in her lungs, the N2 can “ zz” out like our can of soda example. This causes
bubbles in the blood that can block capillaries. For this reason, many sea divers use other gases
that are less soluble in blood for their scuba tanks (like helium mixed with oxygen).

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Another special property of a gaseous solute in a liquid solvent is that the solubility of a gas
decreases with increasing temperature. If you want to increase the amount of gas in a liquid, you
need to lower the temperature. This is the opposite of most solid solutes. Gas molecules are not
very “sticky” – they don’t have strong attractions for each other or for other molecules. So they are
typically held in the solution only very weakly. The solvent particles need to be moving with very
little speed/energy if we want the gas particles to stay dissolved in solution. If we increase the
temperature, the solvent particles move around too energetically to keep hold of the gas molecules.
Therefore, a higher temperature solvent will not have as much gas dissolved in it than it did at a
lower temperature. This is why your soda goes at faster in warmer weather
We will be dealing exclusively with solid solutes in liquid solvents for the rest of this chapter, so
please don’t let this last subsection confuse you. The solubility of a solid solute in a liquid solvent
does not depend on the gas pressure above the solvent and generally increases with temperature.
Section Overview
The Forest:
When you add a soluble substance to a solvent, it will dissolve. At some point, you won’t be able to
get any more to dissolve. We’d then say the solution is saturated. A saturated solution contains as
much solute as it can hold: no more can dissolve. The amount of solute that can dissolve, called
the solubility, differs for different solutes and solvents
The Trees:
Just as solid solute particles can dissociate and dissolve into solution, dissolved solute particles
can return to the solid, called crystallization. When the number of solute particles dissolving equals
the number crystallizing, we say it is at equilibrium. At this point, no more solid can dissolve at that
temperature. The solution is “full.” We say that it is saturated. The characteristics of the solute and
solvent determine how much can dissolve before the solution becomes saturated. The amount of
solute that can dissolve is called the solubility, which usually increases with temperature for solid
solutes. A solution that is currently holding more solute than it should at that temperature is said to
be supersaturated. Gaseous solutes in liquid solvents have a higher solubility at lower
temperatures and when there is a higher pressure of that gas above the solvent
Test Yourself:
1. The solubility of an ionic compound is 34g per 100g of water at 20ºC. How many grams of the compound will you
have to add to 50g of water at 20ºC to make it saturated?
If you raised the temperature to 50ºC, could you dissolve more of the compound in the water
2. Sugar and gaseous CO2 are dissolved in water. If you raise the temperature, what happens to their solubilities?
8.3 Molarity and Making Solutions

8.3.1 Concentration of a solution is expressed in molarity
There are many ways that we could indicate how much solute is dissolved in solution. Above, we
mentioned grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent. If you’re dealing with small concentrations,
you might use parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). These tell you how many particles
of solute are present in a million or a billion particles of solution. However, the most common way in
chemistry is to express the concentration in molarity, which is how many moles of solute are
dissolved per liter of solution
Asking “what’s the molarity of the moles of dissolved solute moles
solution?” is like asking “what’s the Molarity, M = =
concentration in mol/L?” volume of solution in liters V
First, notice that it is moles of dissolved solute. If you dump 5 moles of solute in water to make 1
liter of solution, but part of that solute isn’t dissolved (some is just sitting at the bottom), you don’t
have a solution that€ is 5 mol/L. Second, notice that it is volume of solution, not volume of solvent. If
you dump 1 mole of solute in 1 liter of solvent, the total volume is going to be a bit greater than 1
liter (the solute takes up space, too). Please remember that the “V” in “M = mol/V” stands for
volume of solution, okay?
One more thing: we use brackets to represent concentration. [NaCl] means “concentration of
NaCl.” So if you want to indicate a concentration, write [NaCl] = 0.3 mol/L, not NaCl = 0.3 mol/L
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Using this equation, you can determine the concentration of a solution. Say for example that you
dissolve 3 moles of NaCl in enough water to produce 2 liters of solution (notice I didn’t say
“dissolve 3 moles of NaCl in 2 liters of water”)
moles 3mol mol
M= = = 1.5 = 1.5M
V 2L L
We pronounce 1.5M as “1.5 molar.” We use M as a unit to stand for “mol/L.” If you ever need to
specify how much water to add, remember to phrase your response appropriately (e.g. “dissolve 5
grams in enough water to make 150mL of solution” or something similar)
€
Using the molarity “equation,” you can solve for other properties. For example, if you know the
concentration (“molarity”) of a solution and you know its total volume, you can nd out how many
moles of solute must be dissolved. Take your molarity equation and solve for “moles”
moles TAKE HEED: This equation
M=
V
➜ moles = MV (mol=MV) will be used over and over
again. Get used to it now!
We use this equation whenever we want to know how many moles of a solute are in a solution of a
given concentration. Let’s say that we want to know how many moles of solute are in 25mL of a
2.0M NaCl solution. We use the equation shown above to solve for moles; however, notice that we
need to convert the volume from milliliters to liters
Note that by converting to liters, the
moles = MV = ( 2 mol
L ) ( 0.025L ) = 0.05 mol
units will cancel, correctly leaving
“mol” as the remaining unit.
Similarly, we can solve for the volume of a solution if we know how many moles of solute are
dissolved in a given concentration solution, as this next example shows
Example 1:
There is 0.03 mol of NaCl in a 0.24-M solution. What is the volume of the solution?
Solution:
Since we’re talking about solutions, we use our “molarity equation.” This time, we need to solve for volume
Then we plug in 0.03 mol in the numerator and 0.24 M (or 0.24 mol/L) in the denominator and voilà!
moles moles 0.03 mol
M=
V
➜ V=
M
V= ➜0.24 mol
L
= 0.125 L = 125 mL
Notice that by using “mol/L” instead of “M” for concentration, we can see how the units work out to liters
The next example deals with questions involving “how would you prepare….” It illustrates a couple
of points. First, as discussed earlier, the volume refers to the solution, not to the water added
(although for most solutions, it would hardly make any difference). Therefore, be careful how you
word your answers involving volumes. Second, if we are going to physically prepare a solution, we
have no device that measures out moles. Instead, you’d use a balance to measure out a mass. So
if you really want to describe how you’d go in a laboratory and prepare a solution, you need to
convert any moles of solute into mass
Example 2:
How would you prepare 200mL of a 0.100M solution of NaCl?
Solution:
The equation we always use for solutions is M = mol/V. All we need to do is solve for the correct variable.
Note that this question gives us the volume (200mL = 0.2L) and the concentration (0.1M = 0.1mol/L). That
means we can solve for the remaining variable: the number of moles
 mol 
moles = MV =  0.100 (0.200L) = 0.0200mol
 L 
This is how many moles is required to make 200mL of solution have a concentration of 0.1M. But we don’t
measure out moles of solids: we measure out mass. We need to nd out what mass is equivalent to moles
 58.5g 
€ ( 0.0200mol)  = 1.17g
 mol 
The answer to the question, then, is: “Add 1.17g of NaCl to enough water to make 200mL of solution.
Again, notice how we avoided saying, “Add 1.17g of NaCl to 200mL of water.” Although it would
€
barely change the concentration if we added 200mL of water (maybe the total volume would end up
being 200.1ml), let’s be technically correct, okay

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8.3.2 Diluting solutions

Let’s say that you have a 5M solution of KCl and you want a 2M solution instead. In other words,
you want to dilute the 5M solution (make it less concentrated). The more water you add, the less
concentrated the KCl solution becomes. But how much water do you need to add to make it 2M
Well, rst you need to realize that no matter how much water you add, you aren’t changing the
number of moles of solute (we are only adding water, not taking away or adding solute particles). If
the number of moles isn’t changing, the product “MV” (which equals “moles”) doesn’t change either.
We can express this mathematically, where i is for initial and f is for nal
Understand that Vf represents the moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilutio
total volume of solution after dilution,
not the amount of water you need to MiVi = MfVf
add to the concentrated solution. Let’s say you’re doing some lab and need 80mL of a 2M solution. You don’t have any 2M, but you
do have 5M solution sitting around. How would you make 80mL of a 2M solution from the more
concentrated 5M solution? Mi is 5M, Mf is 2M, and Vf is 0.08L. Plug those numbers in
(5M)Vi = (2M)(0.08L) ➞ Vi = 0.032L = 32m
Okay, we got “32mL.” But what does that represent? It is how much of the 5M solution we need to
use. Those 32mL of 5M solution contain the same number of moles of KCl that would be in 80mL of
No, you don’t add 80mL of water to a 2M solution. We would take the 32mL of the 5M KCl solution and add enough water to make the
the 32mL of 5M solution. Remember total volume 80mL. We would say, “Dilute 32mL of the 5M solution with enough water to make
that we want 80mL total. So if our 80mL of solution,” or “Add 48mL of water to 32mL of 5M KCl.”
equation says we need 32mL of the
5M, we make up the rest with water. By the way, notice how I really did not need to convert the volume to liters in the calculation. I could
have left it in milliliters
Example 3:
How would you make 100mL of a 3-M HBr solution from a 12-M stock solution of HBr?
Solution:
Hey! This is one of dem dy-looshin problems. Let’s use MiVi = MfVf. Mi = 12M, Mf = 3M, and Vf = 100mL.
Solving for Vi yield
(12M)(Vi) = (3M)(100mL) ➞ Vi = 25m
Now let’s be careful how we word our answer. This represents the amount of concentrated HBr we need.
But we want a total volume of 100mL at the end. So we’ll say, “Add enough water to 25mL of 12-M HBr to
make the total volume 100mL,” or “Add 75mL of water to 25mL of 12-M HBr.”
Think about this logically for a second. We wanted to change the concentration from 12M to 3M: that is, we
wanted it to be four times less concentrated. If we want to dilute it by a factor of four, we need to
QUADRUPLE the volume. Hey, that’s what we did: took 25mL of the concentrated stuff and quadrupled the
volume to 100mL
Let’s try another one, this time attempting to nd a nal concentration
Example 4:
You take 50mL of a 0.88M NaCl solution and add 50mL of water to it, making the total volume of the
solution 100mL. What is the new concentration?
Solution:
First of all, understand that the concentration will decrease (be lower than 0.88M) because we are diluting
the solution. Our initial conditions are Mi = 0.88M and Vi = 50mL, and one of the nal conditions is Vf =
100mL. Solving for Mf yield
(0.88M)(50mL) = Mf(100mL) ➞ Mf = 0.44
The concentration of our diluted solution is 0.44M.
This makes perfect sense. Notice how we doubled the volume of the initial solution (we diluted the solution
by half). That means we have the same moles of solute in twice the volume of solution. This can only mean
the the concentration is halved
Section Overview
The Forest:
A quantity we use to describe concentration of solutions is molarity, which is how many moles of
solute are dissolved in a liter of solution

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The Trees:
Molarity is a numerical quantity that describes how many moles of solute are dissolved per liter of
solution. When you use the equations below, remember that the volume refers to the total volume
of solution, not just the solvent. You can use the equation to make solutions. If you need to lower
the concentration of a solution (dilute it with water), you can use a related equation. The equation
for molarity and for dilutions ar
moles
M= MiVi = MfVf
V
Test Yourself:
1. How many moles of HF are in 30mL of a 2.0-M solution of HF
€
2. How would you prepare a 0.5-M solution of NaOH by using 1.3 moles of solid NaOH? State your answer carefully
3. How would you prepare 100mL of a 3M HCl solution from a 7M solution of HCl. State your answer carefully
8.4 Predicting Solubility and Precipitation

8.4.1 Mixing two solutions may result in a precipitate
As mentioned before, some solutes are more soluble than other solutes. Two examples of ionic
compounds that are quite soluble are NaCl and AgNO3. When you put either of them in water, they
break apart (dissociate) into ions quite easily. An example of a very insoluble ionic compound is
AgCl. When you put it in water, it tends to stay together (remains undissociated). The beaker on the
left below is an NaCl solution and the middle one is an AgNO3 solution. Neither has solid sitting in it:
they are completely dissolved. This means that water’s attraction for the Na+ and Cl– ions is strong
enough to pull the two ions apart (that, and the effect of the extra stability from being hydrated by
water molecules). This allows the NaCl to dissolve. Likewise for Ag+ and NO3–: water’s attraction for
these two ions and the stability of the hydration allows them to stay dissolved. However, in the third
beaker sits the insoluble AgCl. It doesn’t dissolve because the attraction of the Ag+ for the Cl– is too
strong for the water molecules to pull them apart. There won’t be any Ag+ or Cl– ions (or at least
very little) in solution. Evidently, when Ag+ and Cl– ions are in a beaker of water together, they will
be strongly attracted to each other and exist as a solid chuck of AgCl, rather than existing as
separate ions

For purposes of clarity, I haven’t

shown the hydration of the ions by
water molecules.
Na+ Cl– Ag+ NO3–
Now we mix the contents of the rst two beakers (the NaCl and AgNO3). This is shown below left.
What ions are present in our mixture? Na+, Cl–, Ag+, and NO3–

We wouldn’t see the dissolved ions.

They’re too small. But the solid AgCl
precipitate would be visible. Keep
that in mind: just because a solution
looks clear doesn’t mean it is pure
water. There could be lots of ions
dissolved in it.
Hmm. Ag+ and Cl– in the same solution together? How can that be? I just told you that AgCl is
insoluble: that is, if solid AgCl is put into water, it will remain a solid and not dissociate. AgCl would
rather be a solid than be dissolved as separated ions. In our mixture, these two ions – Ag+ and Cl– –
do not like to coexist in solution. The Ag+ and Cl– ions are so attracted to each other that water can’t
pull them apart when they touch. They will combine to form solid AgCl and separate out of solution.
We call a solid that separates out of a solution a precipitate. We say that the AgCl “precipitates”
out of the solution (we use the word as a noun and a verb...maybe even a gerund). Fairly quickly,
we’ll get the situation shown on the right: solid AgCl formed at the bottom with Na+ and NO3– ions
still oating around (those two ions are cool with being in solution together: they won’t precipitate)
If you mix two solutions and a precipitate forms, evidently there were two ions (a cation from one of
the solutions and an anion from the other solution) that can’t coexist in solution. The ionic
compound made from these two ions must be insoluble. In another chapter, we will learn how to
calculate exactly how much of one ion can exist with another ion before a precipitate forms. For
now, we will just qualitatively predict whether or not a precipitate will form.
8.4.2 Use the solubility table to determine if an ionic compound is soluble

In Ch. 6 we learned that ionic or Some solutes are highly soluble, like sugar in water. Other solutes dissolve, but maybe only 0.0001
polar solutes should dissolve in mole per liter of solution. Then what is “of cially” soluble and what is “of cially” insoluble? By
water (“like dissolves like”). But that’s
just a rule of thumb. Here we’ll find
convention, there is an arbitrary dividing line: if more than 0.1 mole of solute can dissolve per liter
specifically which do a good job of of solution, we will call it soluble. Any less, and we call it insoluble. Let’s nd out which substances
dissolving in water. are soluble (i.e., those that dissolve to an appreciable extent).
To determine if an ionic compound is soluble in water, use this table. It is also just before the EOC
Negative ion Soluble with… Insoluble with…

all negative ions alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+)
ammonium ion (NH4+)
nitrate, NO3– all positive ions
perchlorate, ClO4–
acetate, CH3COO– all positive ions except… Ag+
chloride, Cl– all positive ions except… Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Cu1+
bromide, Br–
iodide, I–
fluoride, F – all positive ions except… Pb2+, Group 2A ions (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+)
sulfate, SO42– all positive ions except… Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+
phosphate, PO43– + +
Group 1A ions (Li , Na , K , Rb , Cs + + +) all other positive ions
carbonate, CO32– ammonium ion (NH4+)
sulfite, SO32–
hydroxide, OH– Group 1A ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) all other positive ions
ammonium ion (NH4+)
Ba2+
sulfide, S2– Group 1A ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) all other positive ions
Group 2A ions (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+)
ammonium ion (NH4+)
Find the anion of the ionic compound in the rst column. If the cation is listed in the middle column,
the ionic compound will be soluble in water. If the cation is listed in the third column, we would call it
insoluble (notice that this just means less than 0.1 mole will dissolve per liter of water).

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Example 5:
Is BaSO4 soluble in water? How about Na2SO4?
Solution:
Find SO42– in the table. Ba2+ is listed in the third column, so BaSO4 is insoluble. Na+ isn’t listed in the third
column, so Na2SO4 is soluble (SO42– is soluble with everything but those in the third column). But you also
know that it is soluble because it contains an alkali metal. Why? Look at the rst row. It says that alkali metal
ions are soluble with any anion. This means any ionic compound with an alkali metal ion is soluble
“Howdy, folks. I’m back with a hint. Although we’ll always provide the table, there are a few things
you should memorize that will make your life easier. Look at the top two rows of the table. Notice
how ionic compounds involving alkali metals (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+), the ammonium ion (NH4+),
and the nitrate ion (NO3–) are always soluble. Memorize these! (Perchlorate (ClO4–) and acetate
(CH3COO–) are almost always soluble, too, but those aren’t nearly as common, so it’s okay if you
don’t memorize those). Is K2SO4 soluble? How about AgNO3? Both are indeed soluble because the
rst has an alkali metal and the second has nitrate. We didn’t even have to look at the table.”
8.4.3 Use the solubility table to determine if a precipitate will form

If you are mixing two aqueous ionic solutions and want to predict if a precipitate will form, use the
table in the same way. Let’s say you mix solutions of CaI2 and KOH. Will a precipitate form? First
determine which ions are in solution. From the rst solution, you have Ca2+ and I–. From the second
solution, you have K+ and OH–. Of course, no precipitate will form between Ca2+ and I– or between
K+ and OH–, because each pair was already dissolved together in solution. So we don’t need to
check for these in the table. We also don’t need to check to see if Ca2+ is soluble with K+ or if I– is
soluble with OH– (I hope you see that! Precipitates will form only between a cation and anion). So Ca2+ I–
all we need to do is check the solubility of the cation from one solution with the anion from the other
solution (and vice versa). Thus, the two pairs we need to check are K+/I– and Ca2+/OH–. Looking in
the table for I–, we see that it is soluble with K+, so they won’t form a precipitate. But the table tells
us that OH– and Ca2+ are insoluble together: they will form a precipitate. Now what is the chemical
K+ OH–
formula of the solid precipitate that will form? It is an ionic compound consisting of these two ions.
Balancing the charge, we nd that it must be Ca(OH)2. (We always write the cation rst.) check this… and this…
Remember that we can make things easier if we remember that nothing will form a precipitate with Is it possible for two precipitates to
an alkali metal, the ammonium ion, or the nitrate ion (or the perchlorate ion). form at the same time? Yes, but it’s
very uncommon.
Example 6:
Use your solubility table to predict if a precipitate will form when aqueous solutions of CaS and AgNO3
are mixed. If a precipitate forms, write its chemical formula.
Solution:
What pairs of ions do we need to check? Ca2+ with NO3– and S2– with Ag+. Well, without even looking at the
chart, we know that the calcium ion will not form a precipitate with nitrate: nothing does. How about the
other pair? Finding the sul de ion row, we see that it is soluble only with alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
and ammonium. Therefore, it is insoluble with silver ions. It will form a precipitate. Because Ag+ is +1 and S2–
is –2, we’ll need two of the former for each of the latter: Ag2S is the formula of the precipitate
Section Overview
The Forest:
Some ionic compounds are more soluble than others in water. Also, some ions, when together in
solution, form a solid precipitate. We can use a table to predict both processes
The Trees:
We de ne soluble as the ability to dissolve at least 0.1 mole per liter of solution. To nd out which
can do so, use the table. Find the anion in the rst column. If the cation is in the middle column, it is
soluble. Will two ions in solution together coexist as ions or form a precipitate? Again, use your
table. If the pair of ions is listed as “soluble,” it will not form a precipitate
Test Yourself:
1.Which of these ionic compounds are soluble? KNO3, PbF2, AgO
2.Will a precipitate form between Ba2+ and PO43–? If so, write the formula of the precipitate.

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8.5 Dissociation Reactions and Ion Concentrations

8.5.1 Ions produced in the dissociation of ionic compounds
In §8.1, I showed you gures for the ionic compounds NaCl and KBr dissolving. By now, I hope you
are completely comfortable with the idea that these ionic compounds break apart into their
constituent ions. This is true for all soluble ionic compounds. However, care must be taken when
identifying the ions that are produced (and how many of them). Take, for example, BaF2. It is an
ionic compound, so when it dissolves it will dissociate into its constituent ions. But here’s my
question to you: what are those ions? Here’s one option: Ba2+ and F22–. Is that what happens? No!
Recall what we learned in §4.2.4 and §4.2.5. First, while uorine is diatomic (F2) when it is by itself
Ba2+ in the elemental form, it is monatomic (F–) when it is an ion in solution or a part of an ionic
Ba2+ F22– compound (this is true for all halogens). Second, don’t think that ionic compounds always have to
F22– be made up of a cation and anion in a 1:1 ratio. Sometimes it takes a different ratio to balance
charges, so there can be multiple ions of each in the ionic compound.
The real answer (as I hope you know) is that each unit of BaF2 breaks apart into a single Ba2+ ion
Ba2+ and two (count ‘em, two) F– ions (see the gure in the margin). Thus, the dissolution of BaF2
F– Ba2+ F–
produces three ions for each unit of BaF2 that dissolves. What about AlBr3? Does it dissociate into
F– F– an Al3+ ion and a Br33– ion? No! Halogens form monatomic ions. It will dissociate into a single Al3+
ion and three separate Br– ions. Thus, each unit of AlBr3 produces four total ions when it dissolves
The ionic solutes we’ll use are binary compounds. They are composed of a single cation and a
single anion, but there might be more than one of either or both. Assume that the subscripts in the
formula refer to how many there are of that ion, unless the subscript is part of the identity of a
polyatomic ion. For example, KNO3 is composed of one K+ ion and one NO3– ion, not a K+, N3– and
three separate O2– ions. The 3 is part of the nitrate ion’s identity.
As a couple more examples, consider Na2S and Ba3(PO4)2. The Na2S will dissociate into two
separate Na+ ions and one S2– ion (thus producing 3 ions total). The Ba3(PO4)2 will dissociate into
three separate Ba2+ ions and two separate PO43– ions (thus, producing 5 ions total). Visually, this is
what’s going on if you dissolve Ba3(PO4)2 in water
Ba2+
PO43– Ba2+
Ba2+ PO43–
Ba2+
Ba3(PO4)2(s) Ba3(PO4)2(aq)
PO43– PO43– PO43–
Ba2+ Ba2+ Ba2+ PO43–
PO43– PO43– Ba2+
Ba2+
Ba2+ Ba2+ Ba2+
Notice that it is breaking apart into its constituent ions (5 total for each “unit” of Ba3(PO4)2), but that
the phosphate polyatomic ion stays intact. As another reminder, notice that Ba3(PO4)2(s) represents
the pure solid chunk of barium phosphate while Ba3(PO4)2(aq) represents an aqueous solution of
barium phosphate, where it has dissociated into its constituent ions and most of the solution is
actually water molecules
8.5.2 Dissociation reactions

Recall that a dissolved ionic compound no longer exists as a solid chunk. Once NaCl dissolves, all
we have are separated Na+ ions, Cl– ions and water molecules (plus a couple of other things that
we’ll get to when we cover acids and bases). In “chemical language,” we would writ
NaCl(s) ➞ Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq
This is an equation for a dissociation reaction. We use the abbreviation “(aq)” to denote that the
ions are dissolved in water: that is, they are in an aqueous solution. Recall that water molecules will
hydrate the ions. Not only does this happen because the water molecules are attracted to the ions,

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but it also serves an important purpose. Ions surrounded by water molecules are, in effect, caged.
Their charges are shielded from each other. This decreases repulsions of similarly charged ions in
solution. It also prevents anions from recombining with cations.
Here is another dissociation reaction

BaF2(s) ➞ Ba2+(aq) + 2 F–(aq)
Notice a couple of things here. First, solid BaF2 is a structure made up of Ba2+ ions and individual
monatomic F– ions. Thus, when BaF2 breaks apart, it forms two separate monatomic F– ions not
some kind of diatomic ion like F22– (this is the example we used in the previous subsection).
Second, notice how many particles are produced. Dissolving one mole of BaF2 will yield a total of
three moles of ions: one mole of Ba2+ and two moles of F–. That said, remember to recognize
polyatomic ions. Each polyatomic ion will stay intact and will not break itself apart when the solute
dissolves. Take for example the dissociation of barium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2(s) ➞ Ba2+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq)
Notice that I did not break the OH– into individual O ions and H ions: it stays intact as a uni ed
hydroxide (OH–) ion. This is one of the reasons why we want you to memorize the polyatomic ions:
so that you’ll recognize them when you see them and keep them intact. Also notice that I did not
write the product as (OH)22–. Ba(OH)2 is not made up of Ba2+ and some kind of “diatomic” (OH)2
ion: it is made up of Ba2+ and two separate OH– ions. So when it comes apart, it forms OH– ions,
not (OH)22–
Example 7:
Write the dissociation reactions for AlBr3 and for Al2(SO4)3.
Solution:
Keep in mind that unless it is one of the polyatomic ions, the ionic compound is made up of monatomic ions.
Thus, AlBr3 is made up of Al3+ ions and Br– ions, not some kind of Br3 anion. The dissociation reaction i
AlBr3(s) ➞ Al3+(aq) + 3 Br–(aq)
For the second ionic compound, recognize that it is made up of the sulfate polyatomic ion, so we don’t
break up the SO42–. Also, it is made up of monatomic Al3+ ions, not diatomic Al2 cations. Thus, we’d writ
Al2(SO4)3(s) ➞ 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42–(aq)
We would not write something like Al2(SO4)3(s) ➞ Al23+ + (SO42–)3
Example 8:
You dissolve 4 moles of Al2(SO4)3 in a beaker of water. If it is completely soluble, what chemicals are
actually oating in the water and how many moles of each are there?
Solution:
An ionic compound breaks apart into its ions.
Al2(SO4)3(s) ➞ 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42–(aq)
If it is completely soluble, there will be zero moles of intact Al2(SO4)3 in the beaker. Notice that for every
mole of Al2(SO4)3 that dissolves, you get two moles of Al3+ and three moles of SO42–. Thus, if you dissolve 4
moles of Al2(SO4)3, you actually have 8 moles of Al3+ and 12 moles of SO42–.
“Prof. Frink here. Sometimes, we may ask something like, ‘Write an equation for KBr dissolving in
water.’ A mistake many students make is to treat (and write) H2O as a reactant. This would require
the water molecules to break apart, but they don’t. (Since the water molecules don’t break into
pieces or otherwise change chemically, we don’t consider them a reactant. The KBr does undergo
a change, so it is a reactant.) Then they get in trouble trying to balance all the atoms of the
equation and end up making weird products. Here is an example of what some may write
KBr(s) + H2O(l) ➞ KO(aq) + H2Br(aq)
What we meant for you to do is just show the solid dissociating in water, not reacting with it. So
don’t put water in your equation. You would want to write it like this
KBr(s) ➞ K+(aq) + Br–(aq)
That be said, there are chemicals that do react with water. However, we’ll treat those individually
when we come across them. For problems in this chapter involving ionic compounds dissociating to
form solutions, don’t use water as a reactant. HmmGlavinHoyvenMayvin!

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8.5.3 Expressing concentrations of solutions
Please take note of how K2CO3 Consider potassium carbonate K2CO3(s) ➞ 2 K+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
breaks up into two K+ ions, NOT into
a diatomic K22+ ion. So don’t write Let’s say we completely dissolve 0.4 mole of K2CO3 in enough water to make 2 liters of solution.
K2CO3 ➞ K22+ + CO32–
What is the molarity of the solution? As we learned in §8.3, we simply divide the moles of dissolved
solute by the total volume of solution in liters. Thus, [K2CO3] = 0.4mol / 2L = 0.2 M (remember that
square brackets mean “concentration of”). That’s what we made, so we’d slap a label on the beaker
saying that it is 0.2-M K2CO3
But let’s stop for a moment and think what is really in the beaker. If the K2CO3 completely
dissolved, how many moles of actual, intact, undissociated K2CO3 are in the beaker? None moles!
So what is the molarity of actual, intact, undissociated K2CO3 in the beaker? 0 M. However, would
we want to put a label on the beaker saying it is “0-M K2CO3”? No! That sounds like we didn’t
dissolve anything. So although in the back of our minds we understand the K2CO3 is completely
dissociated, we did put 0.4 mole of K2CO3 in enough water to make 2L of solution. Thus, we made
a 0.2-M solution. That’s what we’ll call and label the solution
So what’s really oating in the water and what are their concentrations? We said we made a 0.2-M
K2CO3 solution. If we get two K+ for every one K2CO3 (in the same volume of solution), what do you
think the concentration of K+ should be? Twice as big: 0.4 M. And if we get one CO32– for every one
K2CO3, what do you think the concentration of CO32– should be? 0.2 M.
The moral of the story? If you know the concentration of the solution, the concentration of the
resulting ions can be easily calculated just by looking at the coef cients in the balanced equation.
For example, consider aluminum bromide
AlBr3(s) ➞ Al3+(aq) + 3 Br–(aq)
If we have a 0.03-M solution of AlBr3 (i.e. [AlBr3] = 0.03 M), what are the concentrations of Al3+ and
Br– in the beaker? 0.03 M and 0.09 M, respectively. It’s as simple as that
Example 9:
You dissolve 0.5 mole of Ba3(PO4)2 in enough water to make 2 liters of solution. (a) What is the
concentration of the Ba3(PO4)2 solution? (b) What are the concentrations of the ions in solution?
Solution:
(a) molarity = moles of dissolved solute ÷ volume of solution = 0.5mol/2L. Thus [Ba3(PO4)2] = 0.25 M
(b) Notice that for every one Ba3(PO4)2 that dissolves, we get 3 Ba2+ ions and 2 PO43– ions
Ba3(PO4)2(s) ➞ 3 Ba2+(aq) + 2 PO43–(aq)
So if [Ba3(PO4)2] = 0.25 M, that means [Ba2+] = 0.75 M and [PO43–] = 0.5 M. Get it
Section Overview
The Forest:
Dissociation reactions show ionic compounds breaking apart into their ions. The concentrations of
the ions are related to the concentration of the solution by the coef cients of the equation
The Trees:
When you write a dissociation reaction, care should be taken to ensure that the product ions are
actually what is produced, which is what the ionic compound is composed of. For example, since
BaF2 is composed of Ba2+ and F– ions, we would write BaF2(s) ➞ Ba2+(aq) + 2 F–(aq). Note that we
get the same number of moles of Ba2+ and twice as many moles of F– compared to the moles of
BaF2 dissolved. Thus, whatever the concentration of our BaF2 solution, [Ba2+] will be the same
concentration and [F–] will be twice as big. For example, a 0.1-M solution of BaF2 will have ion
concentrations of [Ba2+] = 0.1 M and [F–] = 0.2 M
Test Yourself:
1.Write an equation for Na2CO3 dissolving in water (that is, write the dissociation reaction)
2. If you have a bottle of Na2CO3 that has written on it, [Na2CO3] = 0.5M, what is the concentration of the Na+ and
CO32– in the bottle? (Refer to your balanced equation in #1.
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8.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions

8.6.1 Double replacement, ionic, and net ionic equations
In §8.4, we found out that if we mix aqueous solutions of CaI2 and KOH, a precipitate forms. We
also quickly determined (by balancing the charge of the ions) that the formula of the precipitate is
Ca(OH)2. We might write this unbalanced equation for the reaction
CaI2(aq) + KOH(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s)
where I used (aq) for the two aqueous solutions and (s) for the solid precipitate. However, notice
that it is incomplete. What happened to the K’s and I’s? How do we write them on the product side?
Well, look at that equation. Notice the Ca2+ of CaI2 swapped I– for OH–: it changed partners. Do you
remember a reaction where two ionic compounds swap partners? Double replacement! That’s all
that’s happening in a precipitation reaction: a double replacement. So to nd the other product, we
just need to partner up K+ from the KOH with the I– of the CaI2. What would be the formula between
K+ and I–? KI. Therefore, this is actually what’s being produced (not yet balanced)
CaI2(aq) + KOH(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s) + KI(aq)
Note I used (aq) for the KI because it did not form a precipitate. The KI actually exists as separated
K+ and I– ions oating in the water, which we write that as KI(aq). Now balance it with coef cients
CaI2(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s) + 2 KI(aq)
This is saying, “When you react aqueous solutions of CaI2 and KOH, you form the solid precipitate
Ca(OH)2 and you’re left with a solution of KI.” This is one way to describe a precipitation reaction
In the double replacement equation, everything is written as undissociated chemical formulas. In

reality, the aqueous solutions exist as separated ions (while the calcium hydroxide stays intact as
the solid precipitate). Another way of describing the reaction would be to write the species in
solution as they actually exist. For example, what is actually in an aqueous solution of CaI2? Ca2+
ions and I– ions. What is in an aqueous solution of KOH? K+ ions and OH– ions. And in an aqueous
solution of KI? K+ and I–. So to more precisely indicate what’s in the beakers, we could take the
double replacement equatio
and rip apart everything that would actually be dissociated (the CaI2, KOH, and KI). However,
notice the coef cient of 2 in front of the KOH and KI. If 2 KOH dissociate, you get 2 K+ and 2 OH–.
And when 2 KI dissociate, you get 2 K+ and 2 I–. Thus, rewriting the equation above, we’d get
For ionic equations, you don’t need
Ca2+(aq) + 2 I–(aq) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 I–(aq) to write the (aq) subscripts: we’ll
assume ions are indeed aqueous
This is called an ionic equation, because it shows everything that would exist as separate ions as (dissolved in water). But please write
separate ions. If that was a little hard, let’s redo it using drawings to help visualize it. Let’s go back (s) for the precipitate that forms.
to the double replacement reaction and draw little circles representing the reactants and products
I– Ca2+ I– K+ OH– OH– Ca2+ OH– K+ I–
K+ OH– K+ I–
For the ionic equation, we separate all the ions of the 3 aqueous solutions but keep together the
ions of the solid precipitate. Let’s do that with our circles
Ca2+ I– K+ OH– ➞ OH– Ca2+ OH– K+ I–
I– K+ OH– K+ I–
Notice what we have. Indicate that with chemical symbols for each
Ca2+(aq) + 2 I–(aq) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 I–(aq)
No, you don’t have to do the drawings. But perhaps this helped you see what’s going on
Do you notice some “unnecessary” information in the ionic equation and drawings? Are there some
reactants that don’t seem to be doing anything? Yes, the K+ and I– ions just sit around in solution
and aren’t involved in the action. We call such non-participatory ions spectator ions. We usually

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aren’t interested in these. We want to know only the things involved in the chemical reaction. What
we can do is eliminate the spectator ions (those that appear unchanged in equal numbers on both
sides of the equation), which results in what is called the net ionic equation
Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) ➞ Ca(OH)2(s)
What happens if you mix two aqueous solutions of ionic compounds and no pair of ions is insoluble
(nothing precipitates)? Take for example NaCl and KBr: the ionic equation would b
Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + K+(aq) + Br–(aq) ➞ Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + K+(aq) + Br–(aq)
If we eliminate the spectator ions, nothing is left. That’s right! There is no reaction: nothing
precipitates. If there is no reaction, we do not write an ionic equation for it. All we would write i
NaCl(aq) + KBr(aq) ➞ N.R
Example 10:
You mix aqueous solutions of copper (I) sulfate and potassium chloride
a. Determine what will precipitate
b.Write the undissociated “double replacement” equation for the reaction
c.Write the ionic equation
d. Identify the spectator ions
e.Write the net ionic equation.
Solution:
a. First, we need to identify the compounds: copper (I) sulfate is the ionic compound between the Cu+1 ion
and the SO42– polyatomic ion: its formula is Cu2SO4. The other one is pretty easy: KCl. The pairs that could
form a precipitate are SO42–/K+ or Cu+/Cl–. By looking at the sulfate row, we see that it is soluble with K+
(but we already knew that: everything is soluble with alkali metals). But look at the chloride row: it is
If the copper compound were CuSO4 insoluble with Cu+. Therefore, a precipitate will form. Balancing charge, we see that it will be CuCl
instead of Cu2SO4, the charge state
of the copper would be +2. Notice in b. Writing the skeleton equation, taking note that we need two K+ ions for each SO42–
the chart that Cu2+, unlike Cu+, is
soluble with Cl–. You gotta be careful Cu2SO4(aq) + KCl(aq) ➞ CuCl(s) + K2SO4(aq)
sometimes.
We see we need a “2” in front of the CuCl to balance the coppers. But by doing so, we’ll need a “2” in front
of the KCl to balance the chlorides. That should do it. Write “aq” for solutions and “s” for the precipitate
Cu2SO4(aq) + 2 KCl(aq) ➞ 2 CuCl(s) + K2SO4(aq)
c. For the ionic equation, we write anything that would actually be ions as separate ions; but we leave any
solid formed written as an undissociated solid. Therefore, we’ll leave the CuCl alone, but separate all those
aqueous species as ions. The Cu2SO4 breaks up into two Cu+ ions and one SO42– ion. The KCl breaks up into
K+ and Cl–; but notice how there is a coef cient of “2” in front of it, so we’ll actually get 2K+ and 2Cl–. The
K2SO4 breaks up into 2K+ and one SO42–. Rewriting – and leaving out the (aq) – yield
2 Cu+ + SO42– + 2 K+ + 2 Cl– ➞ 2 CuCl(s) + 2 K+ + SO42–
Pet Peeve Alert! I just want the d. The spectator ions are those that ain’t doin’ a thing. They are K+ and SO42–
identity of the spectators, not how e. The net ionic equation is the same as the ionic, but just without the spectators
many there are in the equation, so
don’t write “2 K+”. Also, don’t forget
2 Cu+ + 2 Cl– ➞ 2 CuCl(s)
the charges: these are spectator However, let’s get rid of those unnecessarily large coef cients
ions. K and SO4 ≠ K+ and SO42–
Cu+ + Cl– ➞ CuCl(s)
8.6.2 The quick way to write the net ionic equation

With a little practice, you can write the net ionic equation and identify the spectator ions fairly
quickly. Say that we want to write the net ionic equation when I mix aqueous solutions of Pb(NO3)2
and NaBr.
STEP ONE: Determine if a precipitate forms

To do this, “cross check” the positive ion of one solution with the negative ion of the other. We have
Pb2+ and NO3– ions in one solution and Na+ and Br– ions in the other. So, that means we need to
check if Pb2+ forms a precipitate with Br– and check to see if Na+ forms a precipitate with NO3–.
Consult your table. Hey! Pb2+ will form a precipitate with Br–
STEP TWO: Determine the chemical formula of the precipitate
Since Pb is +2 and Br is –1, the formula of the precipitate is PbBr2
STEP THREE: Write the precipitate on the right side of the arrow
➞ PbBr2(s)

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STEP FOUR: Now we just put in the two reactants needed to make the product
Well...what do we need to make PbBr2? We need one Pb2+ ion and two Br– ions
Pb2+ + 2Br– ➞ PbBr2(s)
STEP FIVE: Identify the spectator ions.
These are just the leftovers. Don’t forget the charges and don’t make something diatomic that isn’t!
The spectator ions are Na+ and NO3–.
Here are some reminders. Note that in Step 4, I wrote the bromide as two separate Br– ions. Sure,
when bromine is by itself in its normal state (in its liquid elemental form), it is diatomic (as are the
other halogens: I2, Cl2, and F2). But when they are dissolved in water, they all exist as monatomic
ions (Br–, I–, Cl–, F–), NOT as diatomic ions (e.g. Br2–).
Also, just because there are two (or more) of a particular element in an ionic compound doesn’t
mean they must stay together when they are dissolved. For example, the ionic compound Na2S is
made up of Na+ ions and S2– ions. The “2” in Na2S just means that there are twice as many Na+
ions as S2– ions. When the Na2S dissociates in water, it does not form some diatomic ion like Na22+:
it separates into two individual Na+ ions. [Also notice how I didn’t say “(NO3)22–” for the spectator
ion in Step 5 just because the nitrate ions came from Pb(NO3)2.
Example 11:
Write the net ionic equation and identify the spectator ions when you mix aqueous solutions of KOH and
Ca(NO3)2.
Solution:
Okay, the possible precipitates are between K+ and NO3– (NOPE!) or between Ca2+ and OH–. Checking the
chart for OH– shows us that they are insoluble together. The precipitate that forms is Ca(OH)2. Okay, here’s
the quicker way to do the net ionic equation. If you are going to form Ca(OH)2, you are doing this reaction
______ + _____ ➞ Ca(OH)2(s
Without worrying about the rest of the problem, but by just looking at this incomplete equation, what two
ions belong in those blanks, and how many of each? Obviously, we need a single Ca2+ ion and two OH– ions
(not an (OH)22– ion!). Let’s do it
Ca2+ + 2 OH– ➞ Ca(OH)2(s
That’s it! We’re done with the net ionic equation. What about the spectator ions? Those will just be the
other two ions we haven’t used: the K+ and the NO3–. Cake
Truth be told, the (total) ionic equation (the one with all the ions written out) isn’t as important
because it has all those extraneous spectator ions that aren’t doing anything. Writing net ionic
equations is more important, so you should be adept at quickly writing them and identifying the
spectator ions. But also make sure you can write the double replacement reactions
Section Overview
The Forest:
When two aqueous solutions are mixed and a precipitate forms, we can write three types of
balanced equations to represent the reaction that occurred: a double replacement reaction, ionic
equation, and net ionic equation.
The Trees:
When two aqueous solutions are mixed and a precipitate forms, you can write 3 types of equations.
A double replacement equation shows everything with their binary formulas, with (aq) to represent
which are dissolved and (s) for which is the precipitate (AX(aq) + BY(aq) ➞ AY(s) + BX(aq)). The ionic
equation shows all the aqueous solutions as separated ions (A+ + X– + B+ + Y– ➞ AY(s) + B+ + X–).
The spectator ions are the ones that didn’t do anything in the reaction. The net ionic equation is the
same as the ionic equation, but with the spectators eliminated (A+ + Y– ➞ AY(s))
Test Yourself:
1. Using the “quick method” of Example 11, write the net ionic equation and identify the spectator ions when you mix
aqueous solutions of Li2SO4 and AgNO3
8.7 Colligative Properties

Pure solvents have de nite properties. At sea level, water always freezes at 0ºC and always boils
at 100ºC. However, dissolving a solute in water (or any solvent) changes some properties. That is,
a solution (a solvent with a solute dissolved in it) has slightly different characteristics than the pure
solvent by itself. We call these colligative properties: collective properties of a solute and solvent
together (i.e. a solution) that are different than those of the pure solvent alone. Colligative
properties do not depend on the actual identity of the solute itself, just how much of it is dissolved.
8.7.1 Osmosis and osmotic pressure

Look at the left side of the gure below. You have two adjacent compartments that have solutions of
different concentrations (the little blue dots are water molecules and the big red dots are the solute
particles). The two compartments are separated by a barrier through which water can pass but
solute particles cannot (a semipermeable membrane). The dissolved solute cannot go through,
but the water molecules can. Look at the region next to the membrane in the left compartment.
There are mostly water molecules there, so water passes across the membrane fairly easily from
left to right (see little blue arrows). Now look at the region next to the membrane in the right
compartment. There are a lot of big red solute particles blocking access to the membrane. So not
as many water particles can pass across the membrane from right to left. The overall result is that
there will be a net movement of water to the right, which lowers the volume on the left side and
raises the volume on the right (see the right side of the gure below). In doing so, this lowers the
concentration of the right side (it has the same amount of solute, but more water now) and
increases the concentration of the left side (same amount of solute, but less water). We call this
process in which solvent ows from a less concentrated to more concentrated region osmosis.
One way to think about osmosis is that there is a “desire” for the two solutions to become equal in
concentration. Water will ow in a direction that will try to “even out” the concentrations. In other
words, water will want to ow from the less concentrated side to the more concentrated side.
Convince yourself of this by looking at the diagram above
Take a look at the nal result on the right. It looks a bit strange. If you had two compartments of
liquid separated by a barrier through which the liquid could pass, you’d think they should have
equal heights. But because of the unequal amounts of solute (the red particles), water is pushed
through the membrane to the more-concentrated compartment, causing its level to rise. Thus, the
lower-concentrated side is exerting a pressure large enough to support the weight of that extra
solution in the adjacent compartment. We call the pressure it exerts osmotic pressure. It’s the
“push” that liquids can get across membranes if the concentrations on either side are unequal
It sounds a bit complicated, but just remember that osmotic pressure is a pressure associated with
two separate solutions that differ in concentration, and that water ows from the lower
concentration to the higher concentration solution.
Osmosis plays an important function in biology. Your body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells have
enclosing envelopes, called plasma membranes, that separate the inner contents from the outer
environment. These are semipermeable just like we discussed above, allowing water to move in
and out of the cell. The concentration of ions on either side of the cell membrane control the ow of
liquid in and out of the cell. The primary ion outside your cells is Na+. If you need to decrease the
amount of uid inside your cells, your body produces more Na+ ions to surround the membrane,
which draws out the cell uid by osmosis. If you need more uid in your cells, your body decreases
the amount of Na+ outside your cells and uid will be drawn into the cells. An important function of
your kidneys is to regulate the amount of Na+ throughout your body

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Keeping in mind how cell uid volume depends on concentrations of ions in and out of the cell, let’s
examine an example of how osmosis can be used to study cells. A solution is said to be isotonic if
it has the same concentration on one side of the cell membrane as the other side. In that situation,
there will be no net ow of liquid from one side to the other. A hypotonic solution describes a
situation where the solution outside the cell is less concentrated than that inside. In this case, uid
would pass from outside to inside the cell. As a result of this, the cell will swell up bigger and bigger
until it bursts. This is one way to examine the contents of a cell. A hypertonic solution is one in
which the solution outside the cell is more concentrated than inside the cell. In that case, uid will
leave the cell, causing it to shrivel up.
Image credit: Wikipedia.org
You may have heard of the term isotonic, especially if you wear contact lenses. If you look at the
ingredients of contact lens cleaning solution, it says it is an isotonic saline solution. This is
important. A contact lens that is isotonic with the uid of the cornea of your eye will prevent any ow
of liquid between the contact lens and your eye. That’s why you don’t want to wash and store your
contact lens in plain water. This would cause a hypotonic situation (the contact lens being less
concentrated in ions than the uid in your eye). As a result, water from the contact lens will enter
the cells of your cornea, causing them to swell. For the same reason, intravenous solutions used
on patients in hospitals must be isotonic with your blood
8.7.2 Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression

I don’t want you to lose sight of the main points here by giving long explanations for them. So I will
rst just give you the results. In §8.7.4, I will provide those explanations along with another
colligative property, vapor pressure lowering
Boiling Point Elevation

When you dissolve a solute in a solvent, the boiling point of the resulting solution is higher than the
boiling point of the pure solvent alone. As an example, while pure water boils at 100ºC, a 1M
solution of salt water boils at 101ºC
Freezing Point Depression

When you dissolve a solute in a solvent, the freezing point of the resulting solution is lower than the To learn how to numerically calculate
freezing point of the pure solvent alone. As an example, while pure water freezes at 0ºC, a 1M the effect, see the optional reading at
solution of salt water freezes at –3.7ºC the end of this section.
To illustrate these two colligative properties, let’s examine some different phenomena we observe in
everyday life to explain how they work
Why does sprinkling salt on an icy road help melt the ice? We are adding a solute to the icy,
snowy, watery sludge. The salt doesn’t warm up the ice to make it melt. What it does do is
cause a freezing point depression. Imagine that it is –2ºC outside: the ice won’t melt. If we add
enough salt so that the freezing point of the H2O on the road is –5ºC, it means that the weather A technicality we should mention:
is actually warmer than the freezing point of the salt solution. Thus the ice will melt. colligative properties are true only for
Why do we add rock salt to the ice when making ice cream? Once again, this lowers the nonvolatile solutes (those that do not
temperature at which the ice melts. So instead of melting at 0ºC and having our ice cream vaporize easily). If you put gasoline
in water, it won’t cause any effect
surrounded by 0ºC icy water, the ice will now melt at –5ºC and our ice cream will be surrounded
because it will just evaporate away.
by –5ºC icy water.
Why do we add an antifreeze like ethylene glycol to keep the water of a car’s engine coolant
system from freezing or overheating? The reason why we add the antifreeze is that this solute
increases the boiling point of the water so it doesn’t boil as easily, and it also lowers the freezing
point so it doesn’t freeze as easily in the winter

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8.7.3 The magnitude of a colligative effect depends on the number of dissolved solute particles
An interesting and important fact is that these colligative properties depend only on the number of
solute particles dissolved in solution, not on the type or identity of the solute particles. In other
words, one mole of dissolved NaCl will have the same effect on the properties of the water as one
mole of KBr. The boiling point of water will increase the same amount and the freezing point will
decrease the same amount. The fact that one is NaCl and one is KBr doesn’t matter. The only thing
that matters is how many particles are dissolved
But we need to be careful of the solute we put in solution. When you dissolve one mole of NaCl in
water, it breaks up completely into Na+ and Cl– ions (it is a strong electrolyte): therefore, you get
TWO moles of particles: one mole of Na+ ions and one mole of Cl– ions. Dissolving one mole of KBr
(another strong electrolyte) will also result in two moles of particles: one mole of K+ ions and one
mole of Br– ions. Thus, dissolving one mole of KBr in water will cause the same colligative effects
as dissolving one mole of NaCl because they produce the same number of particles in the solution
What about dissolving one mole of CaCl2 in water? It is a strong electrolyte, so it will completely
dissolve. But in this case, we get three moles of particles for every mole of CaCl2 that we dissolve:
one mole of Ca2+ and two moles of Cl– ions. This means that dissolving one mole of CaCl2 in water
will cause 1.5 times the effects that dissolving one mole of NaCl would cause.
What about dissolving 1 mole of methanol (CH3OH)? This isn’t an ionic compound; it isn’t going to
break up into ions. When methanol dissolves, it exists simply as hydrated methanol molecules. For
every mole of methanol that dissolves, you get only one mole of particles in your solution.
Therefore, one mole of methanol will have half the effect that one mole of NaCl would have
Lastly, what about putting 1 mole of AgCl in water? You might remember that AgCl is insoluble: it
will not dissolve at all. It will just fall to the bottom of the beaker. Therefore, adding AgCl to water
will have no colligative effect
Therefore, when comparing the effects on colligative properties by different solutes, you need to
use the concentration information along with how many particles each unit will produce upon
dissolution.
Example 12:
Consider two beakers of aqueous solutions: one has 2-M KOH in it and the other has 1.5-M Ca(NO3)2.
Which will have a lower freezing point?
Solution:
You know that solutions have lower freezing points than the pure solvent (water). The magnitude of freezing
point depression depends on the number of dissolved particles. Your rst extinct might be to say the KOH is
lower since it’s more concentrated; however, you need to consider how many particles each produces. KOH
breaks apart into K+ and OH– ions (“2 for the price of 1”). In other words, a 2-M KOH solution really has a
concentration of 4M in terms of dissolved particles. Meanwhile, the Ca(NO3)2 breaks apart into one Ca2+
ion and two NO3– ions (“3 for the price of 1”). Thus, a 1.5-M Ca(NO3)2 solution really has a concentration
of 4.5M in terms of dissolved particles. Therefore, the freezing point will be lower for Ca(NO3)2
8.7.4 Vapor pressure lowering and the explanation of boiling and freezing point changes
In this nal part, I will bring up one more colligative property. In doing so, I will explain why the
freezing point is decreased and the boiling point is increased for solutions
Vapor pressure and boiling

A liquid can evaporate even below its boiling point. We know this is true: rain puddles dry up even
though the sidewalk doesn’t reach 212ºF. Imagine putting water in a closed container (left diagram)
evaporation evaporation condensation evaporation condensation
At rst, the only thing that is happening is evaporation. Vapor (gas) particles start to accumulate
(middle diagram). As the number of vapor particles increases, it will become more and more likely
that a vapor particle will condense – that is, turn back into a liquid particle. This happens when a
vapor particle moving slowly enough hits the surface of the liquid and it becomes “trapped” by the
attractive IMFs of the liquid particles. Okay, so after awhile, the vapor particles start to condense,

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but maybe not at the same rate as the liquid particles are evaporating (indicated by the smaller
arrow for condensation). So the net results is more liquid will evaporate. We might notice the liquid
level slightly dropping. And if we had a pressure gauge, we’d see the gas pressure increasing.
Sooner or later, however, there are going to be so many vapor particles above the liquid that the
rate at which vapor particles condense is equal to the rate at which the liquid particles evaporate
(right diagram): the vapor is turning into liquid just as fast as the liquid is turning into vapor. To our
macroscopic senses, it looks like nothing is happening. The liquid level stops dropping and the gas
pressure levels off. This is called equilibrium, a topic we’ll devote a whole chapter to later. Particles
are still evaporating and condensing, but just at equal rates. The pressure that the enclosed vapor
would exert when it has reached equilibrium is called the vapor pressure.
Now imagine doing the same thing, but at a higher temperature. As you probably understand, the
water will evaporate more readily at a higher temperature. This means that there will be more vapor
particles (see margin). The result: the higher the temperature, the higher the vapor pressure.
Let’s nally talk about boiling. You heat a pot of water on a stove. At some point, you’ll see little 20ºC 60ºC
bubbles form at the bottom of the pot. Is this boiling? No. In fact, the water is probably only about
80ºC at this point. What is happening, then? Recall that gases like air can dissolve in water. In any
sample of water, there is going to be some trapped air. As you learned in §8.2.6, the amount of gas
that can stay dissolved in liquid decreases as the temperature increases. So what you are seeing
when you view the tiny bubbles is the dissolved air coming out of the water. This is not boiling
You keep heating the water. Although the water tries to be all at a uniform temperature (from
convection currents), the water at the bottom closest to the stove is going to be a little hotter than
the water above it. You might see a bubble start to form on the bottom of the pot where it might
actually be 100ºC. However, as this bubble expands and tries to oat upwards, it encounters some
slightly cooler water above it. That bubble won’t survive to the surface. Only after the entire pot of
water reaches 100ºC can a bubble of gas that forms make it to the top and escape. This is true
boiling, called a rolling boil. So to be sure all your water is at 100ºC, big bubbles have to form (not
the little ones on the side or bottom) and the bubbles have to make it to the surface and pop.
Why do bubbles form, and why won’t water boil until 100ºC? At the bottom of the pot, where it is
very hot, the liquid turns into vapor. What is different between a liquid and gas? The gas takes up
much more space. There is a lot of empty space between the gas particles. So the water vapor
particles try to spread out, pushing on the liquid water surrounding them. The vapor is trying to
create a little pocket, or bubble, for itself. However, at the same time, there are other forces trying
to crush that bubble. You might think that the weight of the liquid is crushing the bubble. But it turns
out that this is a minor contribution. The biggest force trying to crush the bubble is the pressure of
the atmosphere on the surface of the water. Try to envision this. A water vapor bubble trying to In the next chapter, you’ll learn just
spread out and stay alive while this huge, crushing pressure from above is squashing it. If the how strong atmospheric pressure is.
atmospheric pressure from above is larger than the vapor pressure of the gas in the nascent
bubble, the bubble can’t survive. Only when the vapor pressure of the bubble is just as high as the
atmosphere pressure would the bubble not be squashed and survive all the way up to the surface.
Stay with me here. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm. So what vapor pressure
must be inside a bubble for boiling to occur? 1 atm! Recall that vapor pressure increases with
temperature. To get the vapor pressure of our water to reach 1 atm, make a wild guess for the
temperature the water needs to be raised to. That’s right: 100ºC. At 100ºC, the vapor pressure of
water is 1 atm. The bubbles formed will have enough pressure to counteract the pressure of the
atmosphere above them and make it to the surface. So the boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure
One more thing to think about. Let’s say you are on top of a mountain. I think many of you are
familiar with the fact that water boils at a lower temperature at high altitudes. At a higher elevation,
such as on top of a mountain, the atmospheric pressure might be only 0.8 atm. That means that the
atmosphere is not pushing as hard on the liquid or on any bubbles that attempt to form. Since water
boils when its vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure, it will boil when the vapor pressure
reaches 0.8 atm. This occurs at a lower temperature (~94ºC). So if you are planning to boil food at
high altitude, you need to cook it longer because the water will be boiling at a lower temperature. If
you could lower atmospheric pressure down to 0.03 atm, the water will boil at room temperature
(and it really won’t be good for cooking anything)

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[As a bit of review, recall from Ch. 6 that liquids with weaker IMFs have lower boiling points. This
now can be understood in terms of vapor pressure. If Liquid A has weaker IMFs than Liquid B, it is
easier to evaporate and have a higher vapor pressure at any given temperature. Thus the vapor
pressure will reach atmospheric pressure at a lower temperature. Liquid B with its stronger IMFs
has a harder time increasing its vapor pressure and will reach atmospheric pressure at a higher
temperature, and thus boil at a higher temperature.
Vapor pressure lowering

The easiest colligative effect to visualize is the lowering of vapor pressure. Imagine a pure solvent
in a sealed container. The molecules at the surface can evaporate if they have enough energy.
(The ones in the interior of the liquid are not evaporating – just those at the surface.) Evaporation
will continue until there are enough evaporated molecules above the liquid such that the rate of
condensation is equal to the constant rate of evaporation. At that point, the system is at equilibrium.
In order to reach equilibrium, a certain number of vapor particles are needed above the liquid,
which exerts a certain amount of pressure
Now we dissolve a solute in the solvent. There are solute particles everywhere in the solution.
Think about the surface of the solution. It is no longer composed solely of solvent molecules. Most
solutes do not evaporate easily. So the solvent ends up being “diluted” by the non-evaporating
solute, which take up space on the surface. As a result, the evaporation rate decreases and the
vapor pressure is lower than it had been for the pure solvent. We refer to this as vapor pressure
Recall that nonvolatile means it lowering. Dissolving a nonvolatile solute in a solvent will always have this effect
doesn’t evaporate easily.
Boiling point elevation (revisited)
The effect on the boiling point can be best understood in relation to the vapor pressure lowering.
Remember that the boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure above the liquid. Imagine pure water at its boiling point at sea
level: 100ºC. The vapor pressure must be equal to the atmospheric pressure. Now we dissolve
some salt in our boiling water. With the sodium and chloride ions taking up space on the surface of
the solution, fewer particles can evaporate. As above, the vapor pressure is lowered. The saltwater
solution stops boiling. How do we get it to boil again? We need to increase the vapor pressure back
up to where it is equal to the atmospheric pressure. How do we do that? Increase the temperature
of the solution. Thus, it takes a higher temperature to boil a liquid if a solute is dissolved in it: boiling
point elevation. The solvent molecules need that extra ümph of kinetic energy to make up for the
reduced number of molecules at the surface. Please note that it takes a lot of salt to change the
boiling point of water by 1ºC. The pinch of salt that a cook uses in boiling water is more for avor
than to make the water boil at a signi cantly higher temperature
Freezing point depression (revisited)

Imagine a beaker of pure water with an ice cube sitting in it. Let’s say the liquid water and solid ice
are both exactly at 0ºC, the normal freezing point of water. If the temperature were any higher, the
ice would melt. If the temperature were any lower, more water would solidify as ice. But at 0ºC, the
rate of melting is equal to the rate of solidi cation. Some ice molecules are constantly breaking off,
forming liquid water molecules. At the same time, an equal number of liquid water molecules
(probably the ones going really slowly) are bumping into the ice cube and sticking to it, becoming
part of the solid ice. Currently, both processes are happening at the same rate.
Now we dissolve some solute (e.g. NaCl) into the water. Surrounding the ice cube are sodium and
chloride ions. This does not affect the rate at which solid water molecules leave the ice cube – they
keep melting at the same rate. However, because there are fewer liquid water molecules near the
surface of the solid ice, there will be fewer collisions with the ice by the liquid molecules. Fewer
collisions means that the rate of freezing decreases. So, if the melting rate remains constant and
the freezing rate decreases, what happens? The ice cube in the solution begins to melt – it is
breaking apart faster than the water is re-solidifying. How can we “correct” this and make the liquid
freeze again? By lowering the temperature. Therefore, when you dissolve a solute in a solvent, the
freezing point is lowered: freezing point depression. By lowering the temperature, we make the
collisions between the liquid molecules and the solid molecules less energetic. They are more likely
to adhere to the solid surface and become part of the ice cube.

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Knowledge In Depth
“Molality and Colligative Effect Equations”
Recall that molarity is the number of moles of dissolved solute divided by the liters of solution. For example, if Feel free to skip it unless you’re
you dissolve 2 moles of NaCl in enough water to make 4 liters of saltwater solution, we’d say that it is 0.5 curious.
molar, or 0.5M. There are other ways to express concentration other than molarity. One is called molality,
which is the number of moles of dissolved solute divided by the KILOGRAMS of SOLVENT. So there are two
differences from molarity. Not only are you dividing by kilograms instead of liters, but it is the mass of solvent,
not solution, you’re using. Thus, if you dissolve 2 moles of NaCl in 1 kg of water, we’d say it is 2 mol/kg or 2
molal. The symbol for molality is “m”: thus we can write 2m.
I know that it is annoying that we need another concentration unit, especially with such a similar name. But
molality is a useful property and is preferred in many instances. That’s because a solution’s molality isn’t
affected by changes in temperature. Remember that liquids expand at a higher temperature. If you have 1 mole
of solute in 1 liter of solution, you have a 1 molar solution. But at a higher temperature, you’ll have the same
amount of solute, but a larger volume. Thus, the concentration in molarity decreases. Since molality is based
on mass, which isn’t affected by temperature, its value remains constant as temperature changes.
Molality is used in equations specifying colligative effects, since they involve solutions changing in temperature.
It turns out that the equations are quite simple. The change in boiling point or freezing point can be calculated
by multiplying a solvent-speci c constant by the solution’s molality by what is called the solute’s i-factor. For
example, the change (increase) in boiling point is given b
ΔTb = i Kb m
The i-factor represents how many particles that result when one particle of solute dissolves: i = 1 for a soluble
non-electrolyte (something like CH3OH or glucose that doesn’t break into ions); i = 2 for an electrolyte that
forms two ions (like NaCl); i = 3 for an electrolyte that forms three ions (like BaCl2); etc.
For water, Kb = 0.5ºC/m (a half a degree per molal). The easiest way to solve the problems is to rst ignore the
i-factor. So if you have a one-molal solution (1 mole of solute dissolved in 1 kg of water), the boiling point will
increase by 0.5ºC. Then take into account how many particles are formed when the solute dissolved. If it is a
non-electrolyte like sucrose, 0.5ºC is your answer. If your solute forms two ions (like KF), multiply by 2 to get
1.0ºC as your answer; etc. Okay, what if you have 3 moles of CaBr2 dissolved in 1 kg of water? That’s a 3-
molal solution, so the boiling point should increase by 1.5ºC; however, since CaBr2 forms three ions, the boiling
point increase will actually be 4.5ºC
The change (decrease) in freezing point is given by a similar equation:

ΔTf = i Kf
For water, Kf = 1.85ºC/m. Say you have 3 kg of KCl dissolved in 1.5 kg of water. Since that is a 2-molal
solution, the freezing point should decrease by 3.7ºC. But since KCl forms two ions when it dissolves, the
freezing point decrease will be 7.4ºC.
Section Overview
The Forest:
Colligative properties are certain physical properties of solutions that are different than those of the
pure solvent itself. Namely, they are osmosis, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and
vapor pressure lowering
The Trees:
In osmosis, there is a net ow of solvent across a semipermeable membrane from a more dilute
solution to a more concentrated solution (the concentrations try to become equalized). When you
make a solution, the freezing point will be lower and the boiling point will be higher than the pure
solvent. The vapor pressure will also be lower for a solution vs. the pure solvent. The magnitude of
these colligative effects depend on the number of particles dissolved in solution only, not on the
nature of the solute. So an electrolyte like NaCl will have twice the effect on a per-mole basis than
a non-electrolyte like sucrose
Test Yourself:
1. Two regions of saltwater solution are separated by a semipermeable membrane. Water ows by osmosis from
region G to region H. Which region had been more concentrated?

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2. Beaker C and Beaker D both have boiling water in it. However, Beaker C is boiling at 100ºC and Beaker D is
boiling at 103ºC. Which has some solute dissolved in it
3. Beaker E and Beaker F have NaCl dissolved in water. The solution in Beaker E freezes at 270K while the solution
in Beaker F freezes at 268K. Which beaker has more salt dissolved in it
4. Beaker J and Beaker K both contain 1 liter of ethanol. You dissolve 0.2 mol of isopropanol (a non-electrolyte) into
Beaker J and the boiling point increases by 0.4ºC. If you dissolve 0.2 mol of NaF into Beaker K, what will be its
increase in boiling point
These two questions are related to the K.I.D. section above. Completely optional
5. What is the molality of a solution in which 2.5 moles of LiNO3 are dissolved in 5 kilograms of water
6. At what temperature will water boil if you dissolve 0.5 mol of NaCl in 1 kg of water
Solubilities of Ionic Compounds in Water

Negative ion Soluble with… Insoluble with…
all negative ions + + +
alkali metal ions (Li , Na , K , Rb , Cs + +)
ammonium ion (NH4+)

nitrate, NO3 all positive ions
perchlorate, ClO4¯
acetate, CH3COO¯ all positive ions except… Ag+
chloride, Cl all positive ions except… Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Cu1+
bromide, Br
iodide, I¯
uoride, F ¯ all positive ions except… Pb2+, Group 2A ions (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+)
sulfate, SO42– all positive ions except… Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+
phosphate, PO43 Group 1A ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) all other positive ions
carbonate, CO32 ammonium ion (NH4+)
sul te, SO32–
hydroxide, OH¯ Group 1A ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) all other positive ions
ammonium ion (NH4+)
Ba2+
sul de, S2– Group 1A ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+ all other positive ions
Group 2A ions (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
ammonium ion (NH4+)
Soluble is de ned as the ability to dissolve at least 0.1 mole of solute per liter of solution.
To determine if an ionic compound is soluble in water

Find the anion of the ionic compound in the rst column. If the cation of the ionic compound is listed
in the second column, the ionic compound will be soluble in water. If the cation is listed in the third
column, we would classify it as insoluble.
To determine whether a precipitate will form if two ions are added to water
Find the negative ion in the rst column. If the positive ion is in the third column, a precipitate will
form. 

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Problems
8.1 Properties of Solutions 8.2 Solubility
1. a. We usually think of solutions where a solid is dissolved 8. a. _______________ is the process of dissolved solute
in a liquid. In this case, the solid is the __________ and the particles turning back into a solid form
liquid is the ___________. Another technical de nition of b. Solution _________________ is when the rate of
these is that the ____________ is the more abundant dissociation equals the rate of crystallization
substance of the two in the solution c. When a solution has dissolved in it as much solute as it
b. A solution is a _____________________ mixture, can hold at that temperature so that no more solute can
meaning that it is perfectly and thoroughly mixed and has the dissolve, we say the solution is ________________
same composition throughout. The only things in a solution d. The maximum amount of a substance that can dissolve in
are atoms, molecules, and ________ a given amount of solvent at a certain temperature is called
c. A chocolate chip cookie is a _______________________ its _________________
mixture. The composition isn’t perfectly uniform throughout: e. The solubility of a solid solute usually increases as you
there is more of one substance than another at different _______________ the temperature
locations. f. If a solution has more solute dissolved in it than it should
d. A _________________ is a heterogeneous mixture with normally hold at that temperature, the solution is said to be
large enough particles that will sink to the bottom of the __________________
container. A _______________ is a heterogeneous mixture g. I am able to dissolve 24 grams of solute A in 100 g of
with large particles, but they will stay dispersed in another water at 20ºC. I can dissolve only 13 g of solute B in 100 g of
substance. Examples include aerosols, gels, foams, water at 20ºC. Thus, substance A is more ______________
emulsions, and sols than substance B in water at 20ºC.
e. A homogeneous mixture where water is the solvent is
called an _____________ solution 9. TRUE/FALSE: I put some CaCl2 into a beaker of water
f. _______________ is when the particles of a solute break and it all dissolves. I have formed a saturated solution.
apart and go into the solution
g. When the particles of solute are in solution, they are 10. You dump sucrose into a beaker of water until some is
surrounded by the solvent molecules. We call this process sitting at the bottom and no more can dissolve. Which of
________________. If the solvent is water, we give it the these is/are true
special name _________________ a. The solution is saturated
b. The solution is at equilibrium
2. a. When an ionic compound like LiCl dissolves, what does c. The solid sucrose is still dissolving
it dissociate into: into Li+ and Cl– ions or into units of LiCl d. The dissolved sucrose is crystallizing
e. The rate at which the sucrose is dissolving equals the rate
b. When a molecular compound like CH3OH dissolves, what at which it is crystallizing
does it dissociate into: into CH3+ and OH– ions or into units of f. All of the above are true
CH3OH
11. All of the following actions will help you saturate an
c. Therefore, which would be an electrolyte solution: the LiCl unsaturated saltwater solution except
or CH3OH? a. evaporating a portion of the solvent
b. adding additional solute
3. Circle the electrolytes. Assume they are all soluble c. cooling the solution
CO2 Na2CO3 C12H22O11 (NH4)3PO4 d. increasing the air pressure above the solution
e. None of the above answers is correc
4. Ionic compound AB produces a lot more ions when it
dissolves than does ionic compound CD. We’d say that ____ 12. Under which conditions are gaseous solutes most
is a stronger electrolyte soluble in aqueous solution
a. High temperature and high pressur
5. Keep in mind that water makes up most of an aqueous b. Low temperature and high pressur
solution. There’s just a little solute dissolved here and there. c. High temperature and low pressur
Say I have 58.5mL of a 0.01-M NaCl solution. The mass of d. Low temperature and low pressur
the solution is about 58.5g. Since the molar mass of NaCl is e. Neither temperature or pressure has an effect
58.5 g/mol, do I have 1 mole of NaCl
13. How does temperature affect the solubility of a solid
6. If a solute is able to dissolve in a solvent, we say that it is solute in a liquid solvent?
SOLUBLE / INSOLUBLE
14. You open two identical cans of cola at the same time.
7. Two liquids can dissolve in each other in any proportion. You put one in a cold refrigerator and leave the other in a
We say that they are ________________. If two liquids stay warm room. After an hour, which can of cola will be more
separated and do not stay mixed with each other (like oil and carbonated (“bubbly”)?
water), we say they are _________________

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8.3 Molarity and Making Solutions 22. How would you prepare 2L of a 0.5M KI solution
15. What is the molarity of a solution in which you dissolve
0.1mol of BaCl2 to make 200mL of solution
23. You dilute 50mL of a 5M NaOH solution by adding

16. What is the molarity of a solution in which you dissolve
450mL of water. What will be the new concentration
35g of NaF to make 300mL of solution
17. How many moles of NaCl are in 100 mL of a 2-M NaCl

solution
24. You have a stock solution of 3M HCl. You want 100mL of
0.6M HCl. How would you prepare this
18. How many moles of HF are in 20mL of a 0.1M solution
19. How many grams of NaOH would you need to prepare 8.4 Predicting Solubility and Precipitation
150mL of a 4M solution 25. Use your solubility table to predict if the following ionic
compounds are soluble in water. (See Example 5 for help.
a. CaSO4 SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
b. Li2CO3 SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
c. Al(NO3)3 SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
d. CuC SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
e. Na3PO4 SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
f. Fe2S3 SOLUBLE INSOLUBL
26. Use your solubility table to predict if a precipitate will

20. You have a solution of 3M CaF2 that contains 0.85 moles form when the following pairs of aqueous solutions are
of solute. What volume of solution do you have combined. If a precipitate forms, write the chemical formula
of the resulting precipitate. (See Example 6 for help.
a. NaCl and Pb(NO3)2
b. NH4OH and MgCl2
c. KBr and NaNO3

21. You have 0.3 moles of KI. You want to make a 0.25M
solution. How much water should you add to the 0.3mol
d. Na2SO4 and SrCl2
e. AgNO3 and K2

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8.5 Dissociation Reactions and Ion Concentrations 34. Say 0.1 mol of NaCl completely dissolves in 10 L of H2O
a. How many moles of intact, undissociated NaCl will be
27. The circles below represent a solid piece of the ionic
oating in solution
compound FeCl3. You dissolve it in water. On the right side
of the arrow, draw circles to represent what’s in the beaker
b. How many moles of Na+ will there be oating in solution
after it dissolves
c. How many moles of Cl– will there be oating in solution
Cl– dissolve in water d. What will be the most abundant particle in the solution?
Fe3+
Cl– Cl– 35. Say 0.6 mol of Fe2(SO4)3 completely dissolves in H2O
a. How many moles of Fe3+ will there be oating in solution
28. Do the same thing as last question, but this time for the
b. How many moles of SO42– will there be oating in
ionic compound Na2CO3. (I’m not showing you a diagram of
solution
the compound this time.
36. An aqueous solution is in a beaker that is labeled “0.2-M

Al(NO3)3.”
a. What is the concentration of Al3+ in the beaker
b. What is the concentration of NO3– in the beaker
c. What is the concentration of intact, undissociated Al(NO3)3

29. When calcium chloride (CaBr2) dissolves in water, what
in the beaker
atoms or ions are produced
a. 1 Ca and 1 Br b. 1 Ca2+ and 1 Br2
c. 1 Ca and 1 Br2
2+ 2 d. 1 Ca2+ and 2 Br–
37. You have a 2.5-M solution of magnesium perchlorate
(Mg(ClO4)2). What are the concentrations of Mg2+ and ClO4–
30. If 10 mole of CaBr2 completely dissolves, how many
in the solution
moles of Ca2+ and Br– will there be in the solution
a. 5 mol Ca2+ & 5 mol Br– b. 5 mol Ca2+ & 10 mol Br–
c. 10 mol Ca & 10 mol Br
2+ – d. 10 mol Ca2+ & 20 mol Br–
31. When magnesium phosphate (Mg3(PO4)2) dissolves in

water, what are the products? 8.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
a. 1 Mg3 and 1 (PO4) b. 1 Mg32+ and 1 (PO4)23–
38. You mix aqueous solutions of lithium chloride and silver
c. 1 Mg2+ and 1 PO43 d. 3 Mg2+ and 2 PO43–
(I) nitrate. (Refer to Example 10 for help.
a. Determine the formula of the precipitate
32. If 4 moles of Mg3(PO4)2 completely dissolve, how many
moles of Mg2+ and PO43– will there be in the solution
a. 2 mol Mg2+ and 2 mol PO43–
b. 3 mol Mg2+ and 2 mol PO43–
b. Write the double replacement equation for the reaction
c. 4 mol Mg2+ and 4 mol PO43–
d. 12 mol Mg2+ and 8 mol PO43–
33. Write an equation showing the following ionic

compounds dissolving in water. (That is, write the
c. Write the ionic equation
dissociation reactions.
a. SrBr2
b. (NH4)2CO3 d. Identify the spectator ions
e. Write the net ionic equation
c. Ba3(PO4)2

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39. You mix aqueous solutions of barium chloride and 8.7 Colligative Properties
sodium phosphate. (Refer to Example 10 for help.
44. When water is pushed through a semipermeable
a. Determine the formula of the precipitate. (Hint: “phosphate”
membrane due to a difference in concentration (a
sounds polyatomic-ish, doesn’t it?)
concentration “gradient”), we say this was due to
a. colligative pressur
b. osmosis shmasmosi
b. Write the double replacement equation for the reaction
c. osmotic pressur
d. magi
45. In osmosis, water travels across the membrane from the

c. Write the ionic equation
LESS / MORE concentrated side to the LESS / MORE
concentrated side
46. You surround a cell with a saline (salt) solution. As a

result, the cell swells up. Which solution had been more
concentrated, that inside the cell or that outside it
d. Identify the spectator ions
e. Write the net ionic equation

47. When an object is immersed in a more concentrated
solution, we say the object is in a(n) ____________ solution
a. hypotoni
b. hypertoni
40. Using the “quick method” shown in Example 11, write the
c. isotoni
net ionic equation and identify the spectator ions when the
following aqueous solutions are mixed. If there’s no
48. Two compartments a separated by a semipermeable
precipitate, write “no reaction.
membrane. Initially, Compartment A has a 2M solution of
a. FeCl3 and NaO
NaCl and is 10mm high. Compartment B has a 1M solution
of NaCl and is 10mm high. After it comes to equilibrium,
what can you say about each compartment
Compartment A’s height:
b. KOH and NaC
a. 10mm b. <10mm c. >10m
Compartment B’s height:
a. 10mm b. <10mm c. >10m
Compartment A’s concentration
c. Li2S and Ag
a. >2M b. between 1M and 2M c. <1
Compartment B’s concentration
a. >2M b. between 1M and 2M c. <1
d. Pb(NO3)3 and K2CO3
49. What happens to the freezing point of water when we
add a solute to the water?
41. Assuming that AgCl does indeed form a precipitate, nd

what’s wrong with this net ionic equation and correct it 50. What happens to the boiling point of water when we add
Ag + Cl ➞ AgC a solute to the water?
51. Which of the following is NOT true about solutions

42. Assuming that PbBr2 does indeed form a precipitate, nd
a. Its freezing point is lower than that of the pure solvent
what’s wrong with this net ionic equation and correct it
b. They are composed of atoms, molecules, and ions only
Pb2+ + Br2 ➞ PbBr2(s)
c. It is a homogeneous mixture
d. Its boiling point stays constant if you dissolve more solute
e. More solid solute can be held in aqueous solution if the
temperature is raised
43. Big Jim correctly writes the net ionic equation between
K2SO4 and BaCl2 correctly as Ba2+ + SO42– ➞ BaSO4(s)
52. You observe the following things happening. Order them
What should he report as the spectator ions from lowest temperature to highest temperature
a. K2 and Cl d. 2K and 2C Beaker A: pure water that’s freezin
b. K2+ and Cl2 e. 2K+ and 2Cl– Beaker B: salt water that’s freezin
c. K22+ and Cl22– g. K+ and Cl– Beaker C: salt water that’s boilin
Beaker D: pure water that’s boilin

–

fi
fi
.
53. Let’s say that you have two 5-L beakers of water. You
dissolve 1 mole of table salt (NaCl) into one of the beakers,
and you dissolve 1 mole of glucose (C6H12O6) into the other.
Would both solutions have the same boiling point? If not,
which would have the higher boiling point
54. List the following aqueous solutions (and water) from

lowest freezing point to highest freezing point
a. 0.1M NaC
b. 0.1M C12H22O11 (table sugar
c. 0.1M MgCl2
d. pure wate
55. Which will have a higher boiling point: a 2-M Na2SO4

solution or a 2.5-M KBr solution
56. You have two 5-L beakers of water. In Beaker A, you put
0.5 mol of MgCl2, and in Beaker B you put 0.5 mol of PbCl2.
Which will have a lower freezing point? (Hint: Our table says
that PbCl2 is insoluble.)
These next three questions are related to the K.I.D.

section involving molality and quantitative colligative
effects. Your teacher will probably not assign them, but
they are here if you read the section and want to
practice what you learned
57. What is the molality (not molarity) of a solution in which
20 grams of NaOH are dissolved in 4000 grams of water
58. Recall that the “boiling point increase constant” for water
is 0.5ºC/m (0.5ºC per molal). What will be the boiling point of
a solution if you dissolve 2 moles of ethanol in 1 kg of water?
(Hint: ethanol is a molecule, not an ionic compound)
59. Recall that the “freezing point decrease constant” for

water is 1.85ºC/m. What will be the freezing point of a
solution if you dissolve 2 moles of NaCl in 0.5 kg of water?
(Hint: sodium chloride breaks up into Na+ and Cl– ions)

r

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8 Solution

8.1 Properties of Solutions

8.1.2 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures

8.1.3 Solutions are made up of atoms, molecules, or ions only

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276 Chapter 8 Solutions

water molecules attacking Cl– ion

a hydrated Na+ ion

8.1.5 Difference between dissociation of ionic and molecular solutes

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K+ Br– K+ Br– K+ Br–

8.1.6 A solution that can conduct electricity is called an electrolyte solution

278 Chapter 8 Solutions

8.1.7 Most aqueous solutions are mostly water

8.1.8 A solute that can dissolve in a solvent is said to be soluble

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280 Chapter 8 Solutions

8.2.4 The solubility of a substance depends on the temperature

8.2.6 Properties of gas-liquid solutions

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8.3 Molarity and Making Solutions

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8.3.2 Diluting solutions

Let’s try another one, this time attempting to nd a nal concentration

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8.4 Predicting Solubility and Precipitation

For purposes of clarity, I haven’t

Na+ Cl– Ag+ NO3–

Chapter 8 Solutions 285

We wouldn’t see the dissolved ions.

8.4.2 Use the solubility table to determine if an ionic compound is soluble

Negative ion Soluble with… Insoluble with…

286 Chapter 8 Solutions

8.4.3 Use the solubility table to determine if a precipitate will form

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8.5 Dissociation Reactions and Ion Concentrations

8.5.2 Dissociation reactions

288 Chapter 8 Solutions

Here is another dissociation reaction

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290 Chapter 8 Solutions

8.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions

In the double replacement equation, everything is written as undissociated chemical formulas. In

I– Ca2+ I– K+ OH– OH– Ca2+ OH– K+ I–

Ca2+ I– K+ OH– ➞ OH– Ca2+ OH– K+ I–

Chapter 8 Solutions 291

8.6.2 The quick way to write the net ionic equation

STEP ONE: Determine if a precipitate forms

292 Chapter 8 Solutions

Chapter 8 Solutions 293

8.7 Colligative Properties

8.7.1 Osmosis and osmotic pressure

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8.7.2 Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression

Boiling Point Elevation