A Caribbean Examinations Council” Study GuideContents Introduction 1 Chapter 5 Organic acids and bases 50 51 Carboxylic acids and acidity 50 Module 1 5.2 Comparing acidities 52 Chapter 1 Carbon compounds: 5.3 Amines, amides and acylhalides 54 an introduction 2 5.4 Amino acids 56 11 Bonding in carbon compounds 2 Chapter 6 Polymers 58 1.2 Homologous series 4) 43: fameeriting terete 6 61 Addition polymerisation 58 414 Naming organic compounds g 62 Condensation polymerisation 60 15. Isomerism 49 63 Monomers and polymers 62 1.6 Stereoisomerism j2;| 4) Protelhs ot 1.7 More about isomers 14 65 Carbohydrates 66 1.8 More about homologous series 16 Exam-style questions -Module 1 68 Chapter 2 Hydrocarbons 18 Module 2 2 The alkanes 18 Chapter 7 Data analysis and 22 Thealkenes 20 measurement 70 2.3. More reactions of the alkenes 22 71 Analysis of scientific data 70 Revision questions 24 = 72. Accuracy in measurements re 73° Standards 4 Chapter 3 A variety of functional —" arouse ty 26 Chapter 8 Titrations and ————————— gl tri lysis 76 31 Alcohols 260 ‘Lau! ob ; 3.2 Halogenoalkanes 23 81 Principles of titrations 76 33 Carbonyl eonipeunds 30 82 Titrimetric analysis: back titrations 78 3.4 More about carbonyl compounds 32 strati ech 8.3. Redox titrations 80 3.5 Carboxylic acids 34 - 3.6 Esters 36 8:4 Someuses of titrations 82 “ mar sod 8.5. Titrations without indicators 84 3.7 Saponification and biodiesel 38 pa . 3.8. Testing for functional groups 49 86 Gravimetric analysis (1) 86 8.7 Gravimetric analysis (2) 88 Chapter 4 Aromaticcompounds 42 Chapter 9 Spectroscopic methods 90 41 Some reactions of benzene 42 91 Electromagnetic rad 90 | 4.2 Methylbenzene and nitrobenzene 44 9.2 Beer-Lambert’s law 92 f 4.3 Phenols and dyes 46 9.3. Ultraviolet and visible Revision questions 48 spectroscopy 94 = rrr eiai(ia‘= °°» © ‘ontents 9.4 More about ultraviolet spectroscopy 9.5. Infrared spectroscopy 9.6 Analysing infrared spectra 9.7 Mass spectrometry ; 9.8 Mass spectrometry and organic molecules Revision questions Chapter 10 Separation techniques 10.1 Introduction to chromatography 10.2 More about chromatography 10.3 Applications of chromatography 10.4 Raoult's law and vapour pressure 10.5 Principles of distillation 10.6 Azeotropic mixtures and other distillations 10.7 Steam distillation 10.8 Solvent extraction 10.9 Distillation and solvent extraction: applications Exam-style questions - Module 2 Module 3 Chapter 11 Aluminium 111 Locating chemical industry 11.2. Aluminium production 11.3 More about aluminium Chapter 12 Petrolet 121 The petroleum industry 12.2 More about petroleum fractions 96 98 100 102 106 108 108 10 12 14 16 118 120 122 124 128 128 130 132 134 134 136 138 Chapter 13 The chemical industry 13.1 Ammonia synthesi 13.2 The impact of ammonia 13.3 Ethanol 13.4 The impact of ethanol 13.5 The electrolysis of brine 13.6 The halogen and chlor-alkali industry 13.7 The production of sulphuric acid 13.8 The importance of sulphuric acid Revision questions Chapter 14 Chemistry and the environment 141 The water cycle and water purification ‘Water pollution Ozone in the atmosphere The carbon cycle Global warming The nitrogen cycle Acid rain 14.8 Pollution from fuels 14.9. Controlling pollution 14.10 Saving resources 14.11 Solid waste and the environment Exam-style questions - Module 3 14.2 143 144 14.5 14.6 14.7 Data sheets Glossary Index 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 74 176 178 180 182 186g ‘Introduction ‘This Study Guide has been developed exclusively with the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC*) to be used as an additional resource by candidates, both in and out of school, following the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE®} programme. It has been prepared by a team with expertise in the CAPE® syllabus, teaching and examination, The contents are designed to support learning by providing tools to help you achieve your best in CAPE® Chemistry and the features included make it easier for you to master the key concepts and requirements of the syllabus. Do remember to refer to your syllabus, for full guidance on the course requirements and examination format! Inside this Study Guide is an interactive CD that includes answers to the Exam-style and Revision questions and electronic activities to assist you in developing good examination techniques: (On Your Marks activities provide sample examination-style short, answer and essay type questions, with example candidate answers and feedback from an examiner to show where answers could be improved. ‘These activities will build your understanding, skill level and confidence in answering examination questions. ‘Test Yourself activities are specifically designed to provide experience of multiple-choice examination questions and helpful feedback will refer you to sections inside the study guide so that you can revise problem areas. This unique combination of focused syllabus content and interactive examination practice will provide you with invaluable support to help you reach your full potential in CAPE® Chemistry.Learning outcomes (On completion of this section, you should be able to: © explain the occurrence of carbon compounds in terms of bonding understand the terms “tetravalency’ and ‘catenation’ = understand bonding in carbon compounds in terms of hybridisation and resonance. Didyou know? Carbon compounds usually containing hydrogen and perhaps some other elements are often «called organic compounds. About 200 years ago the Swedish Chemist J, Berzelius divided chemicals into ‘two groups: organic and inorganic. Most organic compounds burn or char (go black) when heated. Most inorganic chemicals just melt. Figure 1.1.2 The structure of ethane. The ‘molecular orbitals formed from sp” hybrids allow each bond to be a6-bond, Bonding in carbon compounds The variety of carbon compounds Carbon forms many more compounds than any other element. This is partly because, once formed, the carbon to carbon (C—C) single covalent bonds are very strong in comparison to other single covalent bonds. : C=C = 350KJ mol; N—N = 160k}mol"; 0-0 = 150k} mol It takes a lot of energy to break these strong bonds, so the compounds formed are stable. Bond energis (see Unit 1 Study Guide, is Hybridisation in carbon compounds Carbon is in Group IV of the Periodic Table. It exhibits tetravalency. covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two electrons, one = each atom. Carbon can form four bonds because one of the 2s electrons in the carbon atom is transferred to a 2p orbital to give the four unpaired electrons necessary for forming four bonds (Figure 1.1.1) 2 _yinpairedelectrons elt tt A Et «| TD ae siocrons four unpaired electrons Figure 1.1.1 a The electron configuration of carbonin the ground state; b The electron configuration of carbon when about to form covalent bonds Each electron can form ‘equivalent sp? orbitals The promotion of a 2s electron requires energy. But this is more than compensated for by the energy released when four bonds are formed with other C (or H, O or N) atoms. The four unfilled C atomic orbitals can be thought of as being mixed so that each has } s character and 3 p character. 1 These ‘mixed orbitals are called sp’ hybrid orbitals. These orbitals overlap to form single bonds between carbon atoms and other carbon atoms or between carbon and H, O or N atoms. These are ¢ bonds (sigma bonds} (see Unit 1 Study Guide, Section 2.9. Figure 1.1.2 shows the formation of these bonds in ethane by the combination of separate atomic orbitals. In ethene, one singly occupied 2s orbital and two of the three singly occupied 2p orbitals in each carbon atom hybridise to make three sp? orbitals, These have similar shapes to sp? orbitals. These sp? orbitals form o bonds which are arranged in a plane making a bond angle of ' approximately 120° with each other, ‘The remaining 2p orbitals from each carbon atom overlap sideways to form ax bond (Figure 1.1.3)