English for Academic and Professional Purposes 

SVDPA eCLASSROOM 

READING ACADEMIC 
TEXTS 
 
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CS_EN11/12A-EAPP-Ia-c-1 - CS_EN11/12A-EAPP-Ia-c-10 

 
 
An academic text is a reading material that provides information which includes 
concepts and theories that are related to the specific discipline. 
 

Structure of an Academic Text   

● Introduction  
● Body   
● Conclusion  
 

Purposes in reading an Academic Text 

● To locate a main idea 
● To scan for information  
● To identify gaps in existing studies   
● To connect new ideas to existing ones  
● To gain more pieces of information 
 
  

 
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● To support a particular writing assignment   

● To deeply understand an existing idea  
 

Common styles in writing an Academic Text 

● State critical questions and issues 
● Provide facts and evidence from credible sources  
● Use precise and accurate words while avoiding jargon   
● Take an objective point of view  
● List references  
● Use cautious language 

The Academic Writing Process 

1. Posing a question 
2. Problematizing a concept 
3. Evaluating an opinion 
4. Answering the question posed 
5. Clarifying the problem 
6. Arguing for a stand 
 
The following should be considered: 
● Content 
○ Clarity of the purpose
○ Relevance of supporting points 
○ Knowledge on the subject matter 
● Structure 
○ Coherence and logical sequence of the ideas 
● Language and Style 
○ Word choice
○ Sentence construction 
● Mechanics 
○ Grammar 
○ Punctuations 
○ Capitalization 
○ Formatting 
○ Documentation

5 Parts of an Academic Text 

Title 
The title of an academic text is sometimes followed by a subtitle to give the reader a 
clearer idea of its contents especially if the title is not explicit and literary. 
  

 
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Introduction
The introduction should provide everything the reader needs to know in order to
understand your aim as well as why the aim is important. 

Body 
The body contains the discussion of the content presented in the introduction. The 
body is usually divided into section and subsection to make the structure clear to the 
reader. 

Summary
Also known as the conclusion, the summary restates briefly the content of the text. It 
also shows that the text has contributed to the understanding of the content. 

Bibliography or References 
Any sources of information used in the text needs to be listed.

Glossary 
The glossary is a list of important terms from the text along with their meanings. 

Appendix 
An appendix contains additional material relevant to the content of the book. It can
include raw data or further explanation of ideas referenced in the text. 

Index 
An index is a list of key names and terms and the pages where they can be found. 

The Language of Academic Writing 

Academic writing in English is linear; it has one central point or theme with every part
contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its 
objective is to inform rather than entertain. 
  

 
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Academic language is the language of school and it is used in textbooks, essays,

assignments, class presentations, and assessments. Academic language is used at all
grade levels, although its frequency increases as students get older.

It is also the language of the workplace — for example, the language used to write a 
business letter as opposed to a casual email to a coworker.

"BRICKS AND MORTAR" 

● Bricks = key vocabulary words and concepts 
● Mortar = language chunks

Example: Even though bats have wings, they are not birds.
In this sentence, the bricks are the key vocabulary words in bold: 

● Even though ​bats ​have ​wings, ​they are not ​birds​.

"Even though" means that two items are similar, but they are not the same. In this 
case, bats and birds both share a similar feature (having wings), but they are not the 
same animal. 

Same Words, Different Meanings 

For example: “Table” 
● ​Lunch table (Social language)  
● ​Periodic Table of Elements (Science) 
● ​Table of Contents (ELA)   
● ​Multiplication tables (Math)
● ​To table (delay) the discussion (Social Studies)

A wide range of vocabulary is of course important, but you must use the right word, 
and shorter ones are often better than longer ones. 

Avoid everyday, informal language, especially colloquial expressions and slang. 

● Hi folks. 
● Greetings to all people. 
● We wanna use it, but we messed it up. 
● We were going to use it, but we couldn’t handle it well.

Avoid spoken language that is naturally full of hesitations, repetitions, grammatical 

errors and unfinished ideas. Sentences should be complete and ideas arranged into
paragraphs or sections.​ ​Aim for perfection in your grammar and spelling.
  

 
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Avoid Some Aspects of Informal English 

● Don't (do not!) use contractions (eg it's, he'll, it'd etc): always use the full form (it
is/has, he will, it would/had). 
● Do not use colloquial language or slang (eg kid, a lot of/lots of, cool). 
● Always write as concisely as you can, with no irrelevant material. 
● Generally avoid "phrasal verbs" (e.g. get off, get away with, put in etc): instead, 
use one word equivalents. 
● Avoid common but vague words and phrases such as get, nice, thing. Your 
writing needs to be more precise.
● Avoid overuse of brackets; don’t use exclamation marks or dashes; avoid direct 
questions; don’t use “etc”. 
● Always use capital letters appropriately and never use the type of language
used in texting! 

Structure Your Writing Carefully 

● Make sure you write in complete sentences.
● Divide your writing up into paragraphs. 
● Use connecting words and phrases to make your writing explicit and easy to 
follow. 
● Check your grammar and spelling carefully.

Make Your Writing Formal And Impersonal 

● Avoid too much personal language (I, my, we etc). 
● Be objective rather than subjective. 
● Avoid making sweeping generalizations. 
● Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones. 

For example, instead of:

Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned. 

Write: 

The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.

Hedging/Avoiding Commitment 
● Avoid overuse of first person pronouns (I, we, my, our) 
● Use impersonal subjects instead (It is believed that ..., it can be argued that ...) 
● Use passive verbs to avoid stating the ‘doer’ (Tests have been conducted) 
● Use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose.
● Use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely,
unexpectedly. 
● These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using 
personal language.
  

 
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● Use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re saying. 
● Use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to
avoid making overgeneralisations.

Differences in Complexity: Oral vs. Written 

Spoken
You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they’ll 
be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter 
how bad the weather gets.

Written 
The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train
running in the most adverse weather conditions. 

Formality 
Academic writing is relatively formal.

In general, this means that you should AVOID: 

● Colloquial words and expressions: stuff, a lot, thing

● Abbreviated forms: can’t, doesn’t, shouldn’t 
● Two-word verbs: Put off, bring up 
● Subheadings, numbering, and bullet points 
● Asking questions

Precision 
In academic writing, you need to be ​precise ​when you use information, dates, or 
figures.​ ​Do not use “a lot of people” when you can say “50 million people.”

Objectivity 
Written language is, in general, objective rather than personal.​ ​It, therefore, has fewer
words that refer to the writer or the reader.​ ​This means that the main emphasis
should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to
make, rather than you.

​For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives ), rather than 
verbs ( and adverbs ).
  

 
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Compare these two paragraphs 

1. ​The question of what constitutes “language proficiency” and the nature of its 
cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the 
areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. 
Research have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing
more “communicative” ( e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the
grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language
proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language
skills. 
2. We don’t really know what language proficiency is, but many people have
talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us
to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how 
language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating,
not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it. 

Which is More Objective?

In general, ​avoid​ words like I, me, and myself. A reader will normally assume that any 
idea not referenced is your own.​ ​It is, therefore, unnecessary to make this explicit. 

● Don’t write: “In my opinion, this is a very interesting study.” 

● Write: This is a very interesting study. 

Avoid “you”​ ​to refer to the reader or people in general. 

● Don’t  write: “You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago.” 
● Write: “It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago.”

Examples:

● Clearly, this was far less true of France than…

● This is where the disagreements and controversies begin… 
● The data indicates that…
● This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that… 
● ​…very few people would claim
● It is worthwhile at this stage to consider… 
● Of course, more concrete evidence is needed before…
● Several possibilities emerge… 
● A common solution is… 

Explicitness 
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the
responsibility of the writer in English to make clear to the reader how the various 
parts of the text are related.​ ​These connections can be made explicit​ ​ by the use of 
  

 
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different signaling words.​ ​Academic writing is explicit in several ways. It is explicit in 
its signposting of the organization of the ideas in the text.

As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your

reader how various parts of the text are related.​ ​These connections can be made by the 
use of different signaling words.

For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to 
change, make it clear:

The Bristol 167 was to be Britain’s great new advance on American types such 
as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range
to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in
Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious
difficulties. 

If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make
it explicit:

While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it 
was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow 
was realized. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much
smaller in current ( 1980s ) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries. 

If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so:

Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist
system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to have 
preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of
production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and 
his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord’s control 
of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical 
Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local 
community are all important.

If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear:

He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband 
and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and 
more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary
education at the Canadian Mission School.

If you are giving examples, do it explicitly: 

This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy,
between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous
bishop of Down and Connor, Dr. Philibin, refused for most of his period of
leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.
  

 
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Accuracy 
Academic writing uses vocabulary​ ​accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow 
specific meanings.​ ​In academic writing, you need to be accurate in your use of 
vocabulary.

Do not confuse, for example, “phonetics” and “phonology” or “grammar” with

“syntax.”​ ​Choose the correct word, for example, “meeting,” “assembly,” “gathering,” 
or “conference.” 

Hedging 
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your
stance on a particular subject or the strength of the claims you are making.​ ​Different 
subjects prefer to do this in different ways.​ ​A technique common in certain kinds of 
academic writing is known by linguists as a “hedge.” 

It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual,

simply to convey facts and information.​ ​However, it is now recognized that an
important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often 
called “hedging” or “vague language.”

Language used in hedging:

Introductory Verbs 

● Seem
● Tend
● Look Like
● Appear To Be 
● Think
● Believe
● Doubt
● Be Sure
● Indicate 
● Suggest 

Certain Lexical Verbs 

● Believe
● Assume
● Suggest 

Certain Modal Verbs 

● Will
● Must
● Would
  

 
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● May
● Might
● ​could

Adverbs of Frequency 

● Often
● Sometimes 
● Usually

Modal Adverbs 

● Certainly 
● Definitely
● Clearly 
● Probably 
● Possibly 
● Perhaps 
● Conceivably 

Modal Adjectives 

● Certain
● Definite 
● Clear 
● Probable 
● Possible 

Modal Nouns

● Assumption
● Possibility 
● Probability 

That Clauses 

● It Could Be The Case That 

● It Might Be Suggested That
● There Is Every Hope That

To Clause + Adjective

● It May Be Possible To Obtain 

● It Is Important To Develop
● It Is Useful To Study

 
  

 
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Responsibility
In academic writing, you must be responsible for and must be able to provide
evidence and justification for any claims you make.​ ​You are also responsible for
demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.​ ​This is done by
paraphrasing and summarizing what you have read and acknowledging the source of 
these information or ideas by a system of citations.   

Gleaning Information From Your Text Structures 

Pre-reading

● Scan the book by looking at the front and back cover, reading any blurbs 
on them and on the first pages.
● Skim the table of contents to get an idea of the content. 

Reading   

● Focus on the reading task. 

● Read the piece quickly to get an idea of what the book or article is about. 
● Highlight difficult words or sentences. 
● Ask questions, jot down and answer them at the convenient time.

Post reading 

● Summarize what you have learned from the reading task.

● Write an outline or notes on the reading task to make it easy to review
the reading in the future. 
● Reflect on and “own” the text.

Text Structure refers to how information in a passage is organized. Five common 

patterns of text structure are:

Cause and Effect

● An action and its results are explained. 
○ Cause: Students did not learn the material. 
○ Effect: They performed poorly on the test.

Compare and Contrast

● Tells how things are similar and different. 
○ Apples and oranges are both fruits that have skin. 
○ Orange skins are not eaten and oranges have more juice than apples.
  

 
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Problem and Solution 

● A problem is presented with an answer on how to resolve. 
○ Problem: Private property is being spray painted with graffiti. 
○ Solution: Require a license to buy spray paint. 

Sequential 
● Information is listed step by step to explain how to do something or how it 
happens. 
○ How to make an omelet 
■ Crack 2 eggs
■ Stir the eggs
■ Add cheese 
■ Cook on one side
■ Flip and cook the other side 

Description 
● Describes something in order of space.
● Describes how something looks.
○ My bedroom has two windows on the west wall. 
○ A bed in the middle. 
○ A television opposite the bed. 
○ A closet by the TV. 

Summarizing Academic Texts 

Summarizing is a powerful reading strategy. It increases comprehension and retention 
of information. When you summarize, you restate the most important information of a
text, using your own words. It is very important to understand your textbooks and 
other readings required by your teachers in your various classes, not only to pass
quizzes and exams, but more importantly to learn from them. One way to test your 
understanding of these texts is by summarizing them.  

Summary
● Condensed version of a larger reading 
● Omits details, and does not include the reader’s interpretation of the original 
 
Key Points to Consider
● Its connection to the source 
● Reader should develop an understanding of the original work 
● Summarizing the text not criticizing it  
 
  

 
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Do’s And Don'ts In Writing A Summary   

Do’s
● Do cite the author’s words if you need them, otherwise it my look like 
plagiarism. 
● Do write in present tense, even if the author has passed away a long tome ago.
● Do understand the original source completely.
● Do make sure you’ve said exactly what the author did when citing his words. 
● Do revise your paper when it is ready. 
Don’ts 
● Don’t include your own examples or interpretations, repeat information given in 
the text but in a shorter frame and in your own words. 
● Don’t insert any of your evaluations or judgments about the text. 
● Don’t grasp all ideas; focus only on the most important points.
● Don’t report on unnecessary details. 

Steps In Writing A Summary 

1. FIRST create an outline 
2. Write the first sentence of the summary: In “TITLE,” AUTHOR VERB THESIS. 
3. Briefly discuss ALL of the major supporting details.  
4. One sentence for the major detail. 
5. Another sentence or two to describe or illustrate it. c. Introduce each with a
transition: “first,” second,” “finally.”   
6. Write a concluding sentence that restates the thesis but in different words.  
 
Caution: Do not copy whole phrases or sentences. Instead, use your own words.   
 
Avoid unnecessary words:
● “This chapter discussed…”   
● “I am going to tell you about…”   
   
Let the author speak. Keep yourself out of it. Don’t say anything like this: “To me, the 
most interesting…” “I was surprised to learn that…” Statements like these indicate a
personal RESPONSE. They do not belong in a SUMMARY. 
 
Thesis Statement 
The thesis statement is the sentence that states the main idea of a text and helps
control the ideas within the text. It is not merely a topic. It often reflects an opinion or
judgement that a writer has made about a reading or personal experience. 
 
Summary Outline 
 
Title: “________________”   
Author:
Thesis (main idea):   
Major Supporting Details: 
  

 
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1.   
2. 
 
Example 
In “Here’s to Your Health,” Joan Dunayer describes how advertisers spend big money 
promoting lies about alcohol. To begin with, they suggest that alcohol is an indication of 
professional success. However, the fact is that heavy drinkers actually perform worse 
at work and in school. Another lie is that drinking makes you sexy. The truth is that
alcohol use can lead to infertility and impotence. Then there is the myth that alcohol
and athletics are a great combination. Certainly we observe this connection on every
sport broadcast. However, any athlete can tell you that alcohol hinders coordination 
and slows you down. Finally, the alcohol industry wants us to believe that drinking
promotes family togetherness and happiness. What they don’t tell you is that it is the
leading cause of domestic violence, crime, suicide, and abuse. How ironic it is that we
toast one another, “To Your Health!”
 
Summary Of A Short Story/Drama 
Steps:
1. Get a subject short story/drama. 
2. Scan the short story/drama for its unfamiliar words and overcome your
problem in meaning about them. 
3. Read the short story/drama thoroughly for its essence in general.  
4. Read the short story/drama for its content. 
5. Write the summary with a beginning, body, and ending. 
 
Beginning 
● Generally comes as the general statement of the essence of the short 
story/drama. 
Body 
● Gives the elements and their respective presentation and discussion in a
capsulated form.
Ending 
● This winds up the short story by stating that the details given are those that are 
to it in its title.