Defining Learning

Ang and Joseph 1996

• learning comes from being able to detect an error (or a
mismatch) and being able to correct those errors
• the detection may come from an internal trigger such as
question or insight or form an external trigger such as a
change in the environment

Argyris 1976
• the detection and correction of errors, and error as any
feature of knowledge or of knowing that makes action
ineffective
 MacKeracher 2007
• interactive, constructive and transformative process
• takes place when an individual makes sense of his or her experiences,
derives meaning from such sense-making, and changes himself or herself in
the process

Starkey, Tempest and McKinlay (2004)

• occurs both a conceptual and operational level
• involves the process of acquiring knowledge, skill, or both, and
is manifested through behaviors
• not simply about what information people acquire, but also how
they understand, process, and apply this information that makes
something “learned”

Defining Learning
 How do Adults Learn?

individuals go through a cycle of learning

where they experience an external stimuli, observe and
reflect on what they have encountered, come up with
generalizations to form new knowledge, and then
apply the new knowledge
 refers to teaching children and
associated with dependent learners and subject-
centered learning

the art and science of teaching adults

emphasizes the value of the individuals’ experiences
and independence in the learning process and focuses
on the application of knowledge in real life
Self-concept and Self-directedness
Learner’s Experience
Readiness to Learn
Learning Orientation
 Aware of their needs, identities, and
roles
 Intrinsically motivated
 Independently responsible for
learning
 Being lifelong learners
 The richest resource for learning
 Learning topic is perceived relevant
and useful
 Use a problem-centered,
performance-centered, or task-
centered paradigm
 describe how individuals learn and like
to learn determined by how the individual
perceives and process information, and how
they subjectively interpret the learning
elements and situation
• Sensory - facts or concrete data
• Intuitive - theories and principles
• Visual - visual data
• Verbal - written or auditory material

• Active - try things out and work with others

• Reflective -introspection and thinking things through

• Sequential - linear
• Global - holistic and use systems thinking
 Classroom Training
It refers to the traditional method of learning that is often
associated with being lecture-based, face-to-face, and the instructor- or
facilitator-led. Classroom training often involve lectures or lecturettes and
structured learning experiences.

It involves focused content being presented to participants in an

orderly and stuctured manner.

Learning Methods
 It uses the principles of group dynamics, and applies inductive
learning approach in order provide participants with a “structured
experience” from which to learn. Learning occurs as the participants undergo
the experiential learning cycle which the participants trigger their
“experience” and is then processed to gather their insights and learnings on
its relevance to the workplace. The “experience” can be any of:

Is a scheduled, large and formal meeting of people form a particular

profession or expertise.
 Is designed for self paced learning. Interactions are
commonly anchored on game-based activities or simulations, but
may also include tutorials, practice exercises, case studies, etc.

The act of learning online and making use of electronically

networked technology as a medium to connect the learners to the
content.

Is described as the use of handheld devices such as mobile

phones, smartphones, media players, and game consoles, together
with the wireless access, to facilitate, enhance, and extend the
reach of learning.
 Assessment
Individuals also learn based on feedback given to
them about their behavior. Through different assessment
methods and tools, information about an individual’s core
values and skills is collected for further development. Some
common assessment tools and methods include:

Involves multiple trained observers making

judgments about an individual’s behavior based on how they
perform in specifically developed assessment simulations.
Includes intelligence tests, personality tests, and
preference tests that help measure an individual’s
capabilities
A process by which an individual’s
performance is evaluated vis-à-vis a standard set of
criteria
Involves comparing an individual’s
characteristics or behavior to an ideal, exemplar, or
standard
 The advantage of learning to job experiences is that individuals are
able to build their capabilities, while simultaneously performing their jobs, and
this minimizes the need for them to be away from their work to learn. However, to
maximize learning, organizations need to make sure that the job experiences are
carefully planned and that the employee’s progress and learning is monitored.

A combination of different learning methods to achieve the learning objectives. Dimensions of blended
learning include combinations of self-paced and live, collaborative learning, which consists of learning through
self-study and knowledge sharing with other learners. With the adaptation of technology in training programs,
blended learning now is typically associated with the blending of offline and online learning—the combination
of the traditional classroom-based, face-to-face learning methods, and computer-based or online learning.
Among the challenges and limitations of blended learning include the need for skilled learning facilitators who
can manage the learners’ needs.
 Strategic Learning and Development
It is important for organizations to continue growing and
evolving in order to survive in an ever-changing environment. Today, the
demand on organizations is for strategic learning and development-that
is, learning initiatives should be aligned to organization directions, for
the organization to ensure its future.
 Ateneo CORD Framework for Strategic Learning and
Development
To sustain learning and make a strategic component of an organization, strategic
learning and development has to be anchored on the vision, mission, values, and strategic of
the organization.
An organization must determine its direction and what it needs to effectively
support its direction. This is followed by an analysis of the gaps between an organization's
current and disired performance.
An organization needs to recognize that they are not independent entities, but
rather, one system working within a bigger system, and therefore, external factors, such as
the political landscape, economy, social concerns, and etc. will be critical for an
organization to perform effectively.
An organization should consider the implications of internal factors such as, the
organization's financial capability, policies and procedures, physical and human resources,
and etc. in designing learning and development interventions.
Designing a learning and development intervention involves crafting of the
learning objectives, and it needs to be specific and mesureable, and describe what the
participants are expected to do or be capable of as a result of the intervention.
Kirkpatrick and Phillips and Zuniga 2008
Strategic Learning and Development evaluation can occur at 5 levels:

The recipients' attitudes, perceptions, opinions, beliefs, thoughts and feelings toward the intervention
is assessed.

Tests, simulations and skill practices help assess wether the recipients have gained any new
knowledge or skills from the intervention.

Looks at the change of behavior as a result of the intervention and whether what has been learned is
translated into actual application in the workplace.

The intervention's impact to organization performance is assessed. Evaluation at this level typically
measure output increases, time and cost savings and quality improvement.

Assesses the monetary value and benefit of the intervention in regards to the costs associated with
it.
 Developing Learning Organization

Ang and Joseph 1996

has the “structural characteristics of an organization
that has the ability to learn”
Senge 1941
“where people continually expand their capacity to create the
results they truly desire, where new expansive patterns of thinking
are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where
people are continually learning how to learn together”
 Developing Learning Organization

Canada Public Service Agency 2007

an organization where the employee-learner acquires information,
processes and interprets it, and converts it to knowledge employee-learner
dialogues with other members of the community about this knowledge, and
together they come up with new ways of doing things how an organization
responds to such knowledge that determines the organization’s extent of
learning
Arygris and Schon 1978
double loop learning involves detecting errors and correcting them
to modify the “organization’s underlying norms, policies and objectives”
knowledge acquired by individuals must be translated in terms of
organization’s systems, process, and policies in order to institutionalize
learnings into the organization’s culture
 Organizational Learning defined.

occurs when individuals within an organization experience a problematic

situation and inquire into it on the organization’s behalf

the process by which an organization improves or changes something, either in

cognition or behaviour of organization members

means or actions that an organization takes to learn

deliberate reflection and planning will help organize and sustain one’s efforts
and resources, thereby ensuring a bigger chance of attaining organizational
acceptance

efforts must be geared towards integrating the societal values of the

employees into the organizational values of the corporation while, at the same time,
translating corporate values into individual values
 Learning Culture
refers to how an organization views and encourages a
collaborative learning experience such that it contributes to its being
concerns the learners’ perception of how supportive the organization is
towards learning

1. the leader who supports the learner

2. the organization that allows managers to support the employee-
learner
3. the employee-learner
Leaders as role models, coach, and mentors

1. play a big role in influencing how a culture is formed

2. responsible for creating the learning environment
3. need to direct the organization where it wants to go, how it wants to get there, and what
changes they are willing to make
4.need to be clear on what learning is define a compelling vision with actionable strategies and plans

refers to the act of directing another person to improve their proficiency in a certain
competency by providing encouragement and advice; is perceived to be more hands-on, practical, and
structured, and focuses more on solutions and actions, tasks, performance, and development

refers to achieving learning and development for further growth and advancement through the
relationship between the mentor his/her protégé; is more of a free-form partnership between two people
with the mentor being more capable, experienced, and senior
Aim – identifying the goal of the employee-learner
Assess – evaluating where employee-learner are vis-a-vis their
goals
Affirm – providing the employee-learner with positive feedback
about their current performance
Advance – identifying the employee-learner’s areas for
improvement
Act – determining what they can do to reach their goals and
determining what support they will need
Achieve – monitoring what they have committed to doing and
identifying other support they would need
 Rewards and Reinforcements

the organization itself can through its systems and structure,

provide employee-learners with an incentive to pursue learning because
desired behaviour is likely to be produced as long as the desired reward is
present to reinforce it

care should be taken in giving too much external rewards because

the presence of the external rewards may weaken a person’s intrinsic
motivation towards an activity
 Song and Hill 2007
in order for learning to occur in organizations, people must be
intrinsically interested in learning
learners’ self-direction may differ depending on the contexts they are in

Bhagat, Kedia, Harveston, and Triandis 2002)

Braman’s (1998) study found that there is a strong relationship between
readiness for self-directed learning and the cultural dimension of individualism,
described as “a social pattern that consists of loosely linked individuals who view
themselves as independent of collectives and who are motivated by their own
preferences, needs, rights, and contracts”
 Canada Public Service Agency 2007
the key is how the organization can harness the power of Filipino employees’
collectivist nature while helping them become self-directed learners
the organization should encourage and develop a culture of self-directedness among
its people and be encouraged to have an open dialogue with other members of
community
Jeong 2004
suggested that for a learning organization to work, traditional hierarchical
organizations must be reconfigured into a team-based organization

Ellis, Porter, Moon, West, Hollenbeck and Ilgen 2003

team-based organizations have flat structures to allow more fluid lines of authority
and creative dialogue
individuals have the opportunity to share their experiences with fellow team members
which can lead to changes in the team’s collective knowledge and skills, therefore
resulting in team learning
Sharing – entails communicating or distributing knowledge, competencies, opinions,
creative thoughts, routines, or behaviour among the members of the team
Construction – refers to developing shared knowledge and building shared meaning
within the team; constructive conflict refers to a discussion or dialogue that stems
from differing which leads to further communication and eventual agreement
Team Reflexivity – refers to a process of reflecting on shared mental models about
the team’s reality, goals and methods, then reconstructing them
Team Activity – refers to team members working together to achieve the team’s goals
Boundary Crossing – involves the process of “sharing” with individuals outside the
team with other teams
Storage and Retrieval – refers to a process of saving the results of the previous
team’s learning process (that is, shared knowledge, developed plans, habits, etc.) in the
software and/or hardware of the team for later use or review
 Evaluating Learning
Minton (2000)
Sustaining momentum means continuously
monitoring and evaluating initiatives and seeking ways to
improve them; therefore, the organization must:
a. understand the changes the learning will bring to the
organization,
b. determine the role learning plays in the organization’s
strategy,
c. ensure that leaders and support systems are in place to
sustain the program, and
d. ensure that the organization’s stakeholders, which
include the individual learners are ready
Payos (2010)
• Research tells us that any behavior is driven by a need that has to be satisfied.
Basic needs include the person’s physical needs such as their sustenance and
security needs that point to their desire to live in a safe environment.
• The force that drives a person to satisfy a need is called motivations and it
constitute “those psychological processes that energize.”
Robbins and Judge (2011)
• There are three elements that should be noted in studying motivation:
1. The intensity of the effort exerted
2. The directions towards which the effort is aligned
3. The persistence of the person to reach the goal.
Corpuz (2000)
• Defines work motivation as “willingness to exert a high level effort to reach
organizational goals.
 Most Popular Need Theories
Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Maslow’s Theory rank five level of needs:
Basic (Physiological)
Safety
Affiliation
Self-Esteem
Self- Actualization
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Similarly groups rank needs according to physiological and safety
(existence), belongingness (relatedness), and the higher-ranking esteem and self-
actualization (growth).
David McClelland’s Need Theory
Suggested that people have learned needs that they developed as a result of
their interaction with others.
 Theories of Motivation
Adam’s Equity Theory of Motivation
Posits that people maintain a fair relationship between the performance and
rewards in comparison to others.
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Assumes that behaviour results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain.
Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory
Locke found out those individuals who set specific setting, difficult goals
performed better than those who set general, easy goals.
Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model
It state that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical
psychological states, in return influencing work outcomes.
Understanding Filipino Work Motivation

In understanding the motivations of Filipino employees, it is

important to consider what is important in their lives as this may
guide their work activities and goals. A central feature in Filipino
culture is the sense of familism. The family interest is foremost in
making decisions on the type of work that one engages in; thus, Filipino
overseas workers may give more importance to the economic gain for
their families over their personal feelings of separation.
Job Analysis and Evaluation
Organizations would do well to perform a job analysis to
clearly identify the tasks, resourcs, and behaviors required by the
job. One of the outcomes of a job analysis is a job description. A job
description gives detailed information regarding the job such as the
tasks to be completed, procedures to be observed, responsibilities
involved, required resources, and the expected output/s. Compensable
factors are the factors that the company is willing to pay for such
as knowledge, accountability, reasoning, communication, and working
conditions.
Milkovich, Newman, and Gerhart 2014
Some of the methods by which jobs can be evaluated are through:

Ranking method - orders the jobs from highest to lowest based on a global
definition of the value of each job.
Classification method - groups job descriptions according to class (for
those that have similar jobs) and grades for those that are similar in
difficulty but can be considered different)
Point method - assigns values and weights to each compensable factor and
a total point is then generated for the job.
Factor Comparison method - compares the jobs according to factors to
arrive at a numerical value which are then summed up to arrive at pay
rates. (Milkovich et al. 2014)
Utilizing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators
According to Franco, intrinsically-motivated people are those
who work “for the love of it”. They feel satisfied and they enjoy the tasks
and challenges that their jobs bring.
Sources of Motivation:
talents and abilities
promote their learning development
essence and quality
Extrinsically motivated people rely on factors outside of themselves.
Sources of Motivation:
rewards, promotion, merit increases, fringe benefits
rank or recognition
work setting (workspace design and availability of technology)
 Total Rewards for Filipino Employees
Milkovich et.al (2014)
Total rewards refer to all the rewards that the employer gives to the
employee, which include all forms of financial returns, benefits, tangible services, and
intangible returns that employees receive.
Martires (1988)
Two main parts of an employee's compensation:
1. Financial remuneration or cash - includes a person's base pay, merit pay, and individual
incentives.
a. Base pay - cash compensation that an employer pays for the work
performed
b. Merit pay - performance-based increment to the base pay which can
substantially increase it in the long run
c. Individual incentives - given on the achievement of objective, pre-established
performance standards such as commissions.
2. Indirect financial compensation
includes pay for time not worked, services, perquisites, and protection
programs given to the employees that are either mandated by the government or at
the discretion of the company.
The study of Martires (1988) says that a growing trend in the crafting of a
benefits program in an organization is the flexible benefits (aka cafeteria plan)
where in an employee is given freedom to choose the benefits he or she would like to
avail of from a list provided by the company (turo-turo or pointing style).

Non-financial Incentives or Relational Returns – workers are able to build their

own network among their peers which can benefit them in the long term
Watson Wyatt Worldwide (2009)
The flexible benefit programgives the organization a better control on
cost while making the employees more aware of the benefits that they receive.

Cauton (2012)
A study conducted in 2002 with employees of a multinational IT company
in the Philippines showed that the flexible benefits program:
1. Increased their understanding of the benefits that they receive
2. Led to a high positive regard about the program
3. Strengthened their belief that the benefits aptly address their needs.
 Objectives Base Pay Incentive Benefits Recognition Work Life
Programs Programs Programs
Attract right
kind of X X
associates
Retain X X X X
critical
talent
Drive X
performance
Shape desired X X
behavior
Recognize
extraordinar X X Designing a Total Rewards Package
y effort Determining the appropriate mix of financial and relational
Help employee
returns that will help in achieving the organizational’s goals is
meet needs X X a challenge that most companies face. Indeed, drafting a rewards
Improve
package can be considered an art and there is no standard
quality of X template to come up with the most suitable one for any
work-life organization.
 performance is defined as the record of outcomes produced
on a specified job function during a specified time period

job performance refers to employee behaviors that

contribute to task performance in the workplace

performance signifies the competence with which employees

behave or perform tasks that are relevant to the organization
 Proponents Dimensions of Job Performance
Toops (1994) Unity of production
Quality of work
Tenure
Supervisory and leadership abilities
Wherry (1957) Output Quality
Lost time
Turnover
Time or promotability
Satisfaction
Kane (1986) Quality
Quantity
Timeliness
Cost-effectiveness
Need for supervision
Interpersonal impact
Campbell (1990) Job-specific task proficiency
Non-job specific task proficiency
Written and oral communication
Demonstrating effort
Maintaining personal discipline
Facilitating peer and team performance
Supervision
Management or administration
 Performance Management
Regardless of how job performance is defined by
organizations, ensuring that the employees perform is a
critical challenge. Thus, in the recent years, performance
management has received increasing attention as a key
strategy for organizations.
 Objectives of Performance Management
Riggio (2003)
 Performance management can be linked to different objectives. It can serve different
purposes for the employee, the supervisor, and the organization. It can be a way to clarify
expectations, motivate employees by linking their performance to their career advancement,
promotions, and pay increases.
• Performance management should be a system where the supervisor gives feedback regarding
an employee's strengths and weaknesses, and discuss ways to best attain their work goals.
• Performance management can provide information if the organization is recruiting and
selecting the right people, and what interventions to implement to improve employee
performance.
Armstrong (2006)
• For the organization, performance management is a means to align the orgranization's goals
to individual employee goals. It creates a shared understanding of what people are expected
to do, how they should behave in the organization, and what the basis for performance
review, improvement, and development are.
Performance Rewards
Performance rewards are important in motivating and sustaining performance in
employees.
Yao, Franco and Hechanova (2005)
A local study revealed that rewards that matter to Filipinos include cash, travel,
awards, food items, appliances and gadgets, gift certificates, and public recognition.
Preference for rewards may differ by generation or job type.
It is important for an organization to benchmark what competitors offer in terms of
rewards.
Berger and Berger 2011
It is important to look at the link between performance and rewards. There's a
growing trend in using variable pay, bonuses, and incentives to motivate performance.
Supanco (2007)
Intristic/Internal Rewards such as enjoyment, self-satisfaction, self-fulfilment,
choice, and autonomy are what employees value in their work.
To retain key talents, an organization needs to look into designing jobs that have skill
variety, task identity task significance, autonomy, and provide feedback to employees.
Measuring Job Performance
Objective performance criteria are measures of job performance that are
tangible and can easily be qualified. Decisions to retain, promote, or fire people have to
make in every organization.

It is useful to follow the SMART mnemonic in writing clear performance objectives or

targets (Armstrong 2006):
S = Specific/Stretching - clear, unambiguous, straightforward, and challenging
M = Measurable - quantity, quality, time, money
A = Achievable - challenging but within the reach of a competent and committed
person
R = Relevant - relevant to the objectives of the organizations so that the goal of the
individual is aligned to corporate goals
T = Time-framed - to be completed within an agreed timescale

Subjective performance criteria, on the other hand, are those aspects of the job
that cannot be easily seen and are often behavioural in nature.
1.Performance Planning
o begins with clear expectation
o organization objectives and competencies are translated into individual
performance plans
o ensuring the alignment between organizational, group, and individual goals
o facilitates achievement of organizational objectives and highlights employees'
contribution to the overall performance of the organization
2.Performance Review and Feedback
provides a clear scoreboard as well as a mechanism to track performance
Monitoring:
Quantitatively - performance indicators
Qualitatively - critical incidents

Sandwich approach - negative feedback is preceded by positive feedback.

Ends the feedback session by expressing their encouragement or belief that the person
can improve.
3. Training and Development
mechanisms to ensure training and development

Methods for developing employees:

o seminars and workshops
o job enrichment - giving additional opportunities to high-potential
employees in order for them to gain experiences competencies outside their
normal work
o redesign and rotation - exposing individuals to different roles in order to
expand expertise
o coaching and mentoring
 Performance coaching
assisting employees to perform better in their
current role
Career coaching
assisting employees in identifying and preparing
for their desired careers or roles
Developmental coaching
process in which leaders assist high-potential
employees in developing certain competencies for
higher roles
4. Performance Rewards
recognizing and compensating employees for good performance

Subjective performance criteria - aspects of the job that cannot be easily

seen and are often behavioral in nature. These represents knowledge, skills,
and behaviors.
Objective criteria - can be seen and counted. But only one aspect of total
performance may be captured.
Ex. Rater
Rewards and recognition can be in various forms including:
pay increase
monetary bonus
job promotion
flattering written annual review
public acknowledgement
personal time off
special projects
 Sources of Performance Ratings
Riggio (2003)
Immediate supervisors are tasked to rate or evaluate their subordinates.
Having different sources of performance rating will likely capture total
performance as people not only work with their supervisors, but also interact with
others. The ratee or subordinate may also be more accepting of the performance
rating and perceive it as reliable if it comes from multiple sources.

Peer rating – given by a co-worker or co-workers

Self-appraisal – given by the rate or subordinate him-/herself
Subordinate rating – given by a subordinate when rating a supervisor or manager
Customer rating – given by customers (may be internal or external clients)
Methods of Performance Ratings
Organizations have utilized various methods to assess performance. In general, these
methods can be grouped into comparative and individual methods. Comparative methods
seek to compare and differentiate various individuals’ performance.

Comparative Performance Method

o Rankings – ranking of individuals from best to worst
o Paired Comparisons – an individual’s performance is compared with another
individual’s performance
o Forced Distribution – assignment of workers to predetermined categories, for
example, from poor to outstanding performers, and organizing them along the
normal curve

Individual Performance Method

o Graphic Rating Scales – use of a predetermined rating scale to rate
performance on certain aspects of the job.
Problems and Pitfalls in Performance Appraisals

Riggio (2003)
Getting performance data from several sources and choosing a method to rate
performance are efforts to make the rating process more objective and less biased. Despite
these efforts, the raters' judgments about performance may still be subject to distortions.
These pitfalls include:
• Leniency/severity errors - occurs when the rater has the tendency to either give high
or low appraisals regardless of actual performance
• Central tendency bias - occurs when the rater has the tendency to give ratings that
are in the middle of the scale
• Halo effects - occurs when a rater gives a positive appraisal based on only one
positive characteristic or action, and ignoring areas where the individual did not do
too well.
• Renency effects - occurs when the rating is mostly influenced by the most recent
performance of the individual, and not considering earlier performance
• Personal biases - occurs when other factors, such as age, gender, race, and physical
attributes, influence the rating
Roles in Performance Management
A successful performance management system rests in
the hands of top executives, line managers, employees, and HR. These
four have different roles to play in the system:
o Top executive cultivate a high-performance culture
o Line managers plays a vital role in performance
management because they ensure that the system is
implemented
o Employees in partnership with their supervisors are in-
charge of
o Human resources support the other groups in developing
and implementing the performance of management system.
Success Factors in Implementing a Performance
Management System

Success factors:
• Gaining commitment of line managers and employees by clearly
communicating the goals and benefits of the system
• Involving line managers and employees in the development of the system
• Equipping line managers with the competencies in goal-setting, giving
feedback, and coaching so that they can implement the system
• Ensuring that the system is simple enough to implement by using
technology and making the forms easy to understand and use
• Institutionalizing a culture wherein performance management is not just
considered an annual activity, but a cycle that should be performed all
throughout the performance period