An Assignment on Respiratory System and Sound making

System (Amphibia, Reptiles and Aves)

Course Title: Animal Diversity-IV (Higher Vertebrates)

Assignment No: 01

Course No: 202

Submitted To:
Shamia Farhana Shoma

Assistant Professor

Department of Zoology

Jahangirnagar University

Savar, Dhaka- 1342

Submitted by:
Group-2

Group Members (Session: 2018- 2019)

Roll No+ Class roll Reg. No Name
191901(1347) 20192449607 Tonima Akhter Akhi (Group leader)
191903(1349) 20192449609 Muntahena Ruhi
191920(1371) 20192449632 Anika Shithi
191944(1391) 20192449651 Ibnul Saad Sakal
191947(1378) 20192449638 Arif Ahmed
 2

INDEX

Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Respiratory system...................................................................................................................................... 3
Respiratory system of Amphibia ........................................................................................................... 3
Respiratory System of Reptiles .................................................................................................................. 8
Respiratory system of Aves ...................................................................................................................... 10
Sound making System............................................................................................................................... 14
Sound System of Amphibia .................................................................................................................. 14
Sound System of Reptiles ..................................................................................................................... 15
Sound System of Aves ........................................................................................................................... 16
References .................................................................................................................................................. 17
 3

Introduction
Oxygen consumption and discharge of carbon di-oxide is a fundamental activity of every living
organism. Oxidation is a continuous process in living cell. During oxidation consumption of O2
occurs and it ends in the production of energy, heat and CO2 .This CO2 being a toxic substance,
needs to remove from the body and cells in order to live. This consumption of O2 and release of
CO2 is basically known as respiration. (Kotpal, 1992). In amphibian such as frog respires through
skin, lining of the bucco-pharyngeal cavity and the lungs. Lungs are used only when the need of
oxygen is great.

Respiratory system
Respiratory system of Amphibia
The process of gaseous exchange (O2 and CO2) and utilization of oxygen to breakdown food to
release energy is called respiration. Respiratory system is comprised of the organs that help in the
consumption and supply of excess carbon dioxide. Branchial respiration occurs in case of tadpoles
or larval stage. Branchial respiration takes place by means of external gills.

The respiratory system has many functions:

• It helps inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe out).

• Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when exhale.
• Delivery of oxygen to the cells.
• Sound production.

Respiration in adult frog occurs through 3different ways:

 Cutaneous respiration: It takes place through moist surface of outer skin.

 Buccal respiration: It takes pace through lining of bucco-pharyngeal cavity.
 Pulmonary respiration: It takes place through lungs.
 4

Fig: different ways of respiration. From-

https://img.brainkart.com/extra2/GSOdgtu.jpg

I. Cutaneous respiration in frog

Skin is very important organ for respiration. The respiration through skin is called
cutaneous respiration. Cutaneous respiration takes place all the time, whether is in or out
of the water. When the frog is under water or hibernating, it is the only mood of respiration.
There is rich supply of blood in the skin and it is the permeable to gases. Oxygen must first
dissolve in a moist surface before it diffuses into blood. This is also one of the reasons for
frogs to stay near water and keep their skin moist. The mucus gland also secrete mucus so
that the skin doesn’t dry out of water. Movement is not required in cutaneous respiration
as skin remains exposed to air or water.
II. Buccal respiration in frog
Simply known as mouth respiration. In buccal respiration on land, the mouth stays
permanently closed while the nostrils remain open. The floor of the buccal cavity is
alternately raised and lowered. It allows the air to be drawn into and expelled out of the
buccal cavity repeatedly though the open nostrils. The glottis remains closed during buccal
respiration. It is done so that no air enters or leaves the lungs into buccal cavity. The mucus
epithelial lining pf buccal cavity is rich in blood capillaries which absorbs O2 in the air and
gives out CO2.

III. Pulmonary respiration

It is also known as lung respiration. Frog respires through lungs when it lives on land. Frog
is more active during locomotion, swimming in water, during leaping and jumping, the
demand of oxygen increase .The breathing that takes place on land in the atmospheric air
by the help of lungs is called pulmonary respiration. As the lungs are poorly developed in
 5

frog the inadequate supply of O2 obtained through lungs is supplemented through moist
skin and buccal cavity.
Organs associated with pulmonary respiration are-
a) Respiratory Tract
b) Two lungs
a)Respiratory tract: The passage through which air enters and leave lungs is called
respiratory tract. It consists of external of-

 External nares
 Internal nares
 Bucco-pharyngeal cavity
 Glottis
 Laryngo-tracial chamber
 Two bronchi

Fig: Respiratory tract. From-

https://mspearrow.weebly.com/uploads/3/7/6/1/37619393/9128940_orig.jpg

b)Lungs: The lungs are ovoid in structure. Lungs are a pair of thin walled, oval, hollow, soft and
spongy elastic sacs. They are situated in the anterior part of body cavity on each side of the heart.
 6

They are pink in color. The wall of lung is made up of three layers. The lung is protected by
outermost layer called peritoneum. Below this, there is a connective tissue consisting of blood
vessels and muscles fibers. The innermost layer is made up of very thin and flattened ciliated
epithelial cells. The inner surface is divided into series of small chambers by irregular septa called
alveoli or air sacs. The alveoli greatly increases the surface area to air for gaseous exchange. Lungs
are highly vascular and lined with mucus secreting goblet cells. The mucous keep the inner surface
of lungs moist for efficient absorption of oxygen.

From-https://img.brainkart.com/extra2/GSOdgtu.jpg

Mechanism of Respiration in frog:

Pulmonary respiration occurs in between buccal respiration. Here buccal cavity acts as a force
pump. The action of two special sets of muscles brings the rhythmic up and down movements of
the floor of buccal cavity.

 Sternohyal muscles: these muscles are attached at the lower end to the sternum and at the
upper end to the undersurface of cartilaginous hyoid apparatus embedded in the floor of
the buccal cavity.

 Pterohyal muscles: these muscles are attached below to the upper surface of hyoid
apparatus and above to the squamosal bone of skull. (Karki, 2020)

The whole process consists of two steps.

 7

1) Inspiration
2) Expiration

Inspiration:

This process by which lungs are filled with air is called inspiration. It is the inhalation
or intake of fresh air from atmosphere into the lungs for gaseous exchange. The passage of air
from outside into the bucco-pharyngeal cavity is called aspiration. The process by which lungs are
filled with fresh air is called pulmonary inspiration. The frog closes its glottis and mouth while
drawing air into the lungs. In this phase, nostrils remain open. Now, the sternohyal muscles
contract. This contraction allows the hyoid apparatus and the floor of buccal cavity to be lowered.
The buccal cavity is enlarged and the air is drawn into the buccal cavity through the nostrils. Now,
the glottis opens and the mentomeckalian bones of lower jaw push upwards the premaxillae bones
of upper jaw. This closes the nostrils. Then, the pterohyal muscles contracts which raises the hyoid
apparatus and the floor of buccal cavity. The reduction in volume of buccal cavity forces the
compressed air through the opened glottis into the two lungs.

Expiration:

The process of removing of air from the lungs to outside is called pulmonary expiration.
It is the exhalation or giving out of carbon dioxide from lungs back to the bucco-pharyngeal cavity
through glottis and to outside. In this process the glottis closes when lungs are filled with air. For
some time, air is held in the lungs during which buccal floor is repeatedly raised and lowered to
carry on buccal respiration. Soon, the glottis opens. The air in the lungs are driven out into the
buccal cavity by lowering its floor. It is aided by the elasticity of lungs and contraction of the body
muscles. The glottis closes when the buccal floor is raised again. Now, the air is expelled through
the opened nostrils to outside. This process by which the lungs are emptied is called expiration.
 8

Fig: Mechanism of pulmonary respiration, from-

https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/respiratopn-in-frog.jps

Respiratory System of Reptiles

Reptiles are completely terrestrial animals. They breathe air through their nostrils and air enters
the lungs through the pharynx, glottis and trachea. The wall of the lungs is thrown into pocket-like
alveoli in whose walls there are blood capillaries. It is inside these alveoli that exchange of gases
takes place. Both inspirations as well as expiration are brought about by ribs and intercostal
muscles.

Respiratory Passage:

The respiratory organs include a pair of external nares, nasal chambers, internal nares, glottis,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The external nares lie a little in front of eyes. They lead into
nasal passages or chambers, which open into the roof of the buccal cavity. The glottis is located
behind the tongue and it opens posteriorly into a short chamber, the larynx. It is less prominently
developed than in many of the Amphibian. Its walls are supported by a cricoid and a pair of
arytenoid cartilages. The larynx opens into a narrow, elongated cylindrical tube, the trachea. Its
wall is supported by a large number of small cartilaginous rings, the tracheal rings. The trachea is
bifurcated into two narrow tubes in the thorax, the bronchi. Each bronchus enters into a lung.
 9

Respiratory Organ:

The lungs are elastic, elongated sacs, the right lung is slightly larger than the left one. The walls
of the lungs are folded into ridges giving the appearance of a honeycomb. These ridges are much
closer and more numerous towards the anterior end than towards the posterior end of the lung.
These chambers are called alveoli where gaseous exchange occurs. In the distal part of the lungs,
such chambers are absent. This posterior part of the lung is considered as reservoir for the residual
air.

From –https://ourreptileforum.com/community/attachment/-
png.66517/
 10

Respiratory Mechanism:

In Calotes versicolor (garden lizard) respiratory mechanism is different from amphibians. This
mechanism is more effective. Lungs of garden lizard are better developed. The respiration is only
pulmonary occurring only in lungs. These mechanism is provided by the ribs and their intercostal
muscles. At the time of inspiration, the muscles pull the ribs outwards, enlarging the body cavity.
As a result the lungs expand. Fresh air enters into the lungs from outside through nostrils.
Inspiration is immediately followed by another process called expiration. During expiration, the
muscles pull back the ribs inwards. The ribs returned to their original position. Consequently, the
body cavity is reduced, the lungs are pressed and their foul air goes out through the same passage.
(E.L. Jordan, 1965)

Respiratory system of Aves

The flight activity of Avian requires more supply of oxygen. The respiratory system of Avian
(birds) is more complicated than other groups of vertebrates. Respiratory system is highly
developed and respiration occurs by lungs (pulmonary respiration). Lungs are small in size.
Respiratory system comprises of respiratory tract, respiratory organs, air sacs.

1. Respiratory Tract:
The respiratory tract consists of nares, nasal sacs, glottis, larynx, trachea, syrinx and
bronchi.
a) Nares and nasal sacs: The external nares or nostrils are a pair of slit-like oblique
apertures occurring at the base of upper beak and are overlapped by a swollen
sensitive skin, the cere. The external nares open into short olfactory or nasal sacs
which remain communicated to the pharynx by internal nares or choanae.
b) Glottis: There is a slit like opening situated on the floor of bucco-pharyngeal cavity
called glottis. It is just behind the root of the tongue. It communicates pharynx to
the larynx.
c) Larynx: Larynx is the anterior most part of the trachea. It is expanded, voiceless
chamber and greatly reduced in birds. The larynx is supported by a triangular
cricoid cartilage and arytenoid cartilages. There are no vocal cords. Larynx of birds
do not function as sound producing organ. Larynx opens into trachea.
d) Trachea: The trachea is a long, cylindrical and flexible tube running backward
through the neck. It occurs beneath the esophagus and is displaced to the left in the
middle region by the crop. On entering the thoracic cavity it expands into a syrinx
and then divides into two bronchi, one for each lung.
e) Syrinx: syrinx is the sound producing organ of birds called sound box. It is situated
behind the trachea. It’s a round or oval like shape. Very small in size this sound box
is most important to produce sound.
 11

f) Bronchi: There are two bronchi continued from the syrinx running for a short
distance enters into the lungs. Each bronchus made up of cartilaginous rings and up
to its distal or posterior end.

2. Respiratory Organs: Respiratory organs of birds include a pair of lungs and air sacs.
a) Lungs: The lungs are bright red, small, compact, slightly distensible, being solid,
spongy, highly vascular organs. They differ from those of other vertebrates in that
they do not store air. They lie in the pleural cavities which are separated from the
peritoneal or abdominal coelom by an oblique septum. The dorsal surface of the
lungs is closely applied to the ribs and thoracic vertebrae and has no peritoneal
covering. Their ventral surface is free and covered by a special fibrous peritoneal
membrane called pleura or pulmonary aponeurosis. Small fan-like muscles called
costopulmonary muscles arise from the junction of vertebral and sternal ribs and
are attached to the pulmonary aponeurosis. The bronchus entering a lung from the
antero-ventral side does not branch immediately as in other tetrapoda and is called
primary bronchus. Within the lung, it loses its cartilaginous rings and continues up
to its distal or posterior end, and is called mesobronchus. The mesobronchus gives
off branches to air sacs and also gives off several secondary bronchi which may be
distinguished as dorsal, ventral and lateral according to their position. The
secondary bronchi (dorsal and ventral) then branch into tertiary bronchi or
parabronchi.
 12

From –https://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/airsacs_12

b) Air sacs: In birds there are 9 air sacs. They are,

I) Inter clavicular: a single median and triangular air sac connected with both
lungs. It is situated in the angle between two limbs of furcula. It gives off
an extra clavicular and humeral air sacs.
II) Cervical air sacs: A pair of small cervical air sacs arises anteriorly, one
from each lung. They lie at the base of the neck, dorsal to the interclavicular
and alongside the vertebral column. They give out minor saccular branches
in the neck.
III) Anterior thoracic air sacs: A pair of air sacs lies ventral to lungs,
overlapping the posterior thoracic air sacs.
IV) Posterior thoracic air sacs: A pair of small posterior thoracic air sacs, lie
in front of abdominal sacs.
V) Abdominal air sacs: Abdominal air sacs originates from the distal end of
each lung. Each abdominal air sac lies along the dorsal wall of the abdomen,
ventral to the kidneys, amongst the coils of the small intestine.
 13

From-https://www.notesonzoology.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/07/clip_image006-42.jpg

Function of Air sacs

The air sacs are thin reservoirs of air which communicate with bronchi on the one hand and with
the pneumatic cavities of the bones, on the other hand.

 Accessory Respiratory Organs: The air sacs are not respiratory organs but they help in
respiration. They act as bellows forcing their air into the lungs for ventilation at each
expiration to completely renew the air in the lungs, thus, there is no “dead space” of
unrespired air in the lungs. But, it is claimed that the anterior air sacs are expiratory
(interclavicular, cervical and anterior thoracic) and they are more active during flight. The
posterior air sacs are inspiratory (posterior thoracic and abdominal), they are more active
when the bird is not flying.

 Lightness: The air sacs also act as balloons giving buoyancy in flight and reducing the
specific gravity of the bird due to the contained warm air. This view is no longer supported
now.

 Temperature Regulation: The air sacs also help to maintain and regulate body
temperature acting as a cooling device by losing body heat through internal evaporation,
i.e., water vapours diffuse from the blood into cavities of air sacs and pass out through the
lungs, accompanied by loss of body heat.

 Flight: The best flying birds possess most highly developed air sacs which confirm their
association with flight.
 14

Respiratory Machanism

In pigeon and other birds the expiration is an active process and not inspiration as in other
vertebrates. The lungs have a large internal respiratory surface.

i. Breathing at Rest: In a resting pigeon during inspiration, the respiration is brought

about by costopulmonary or intercostal muscles (inspiratory) which lowers the
sternum, the air sacs expand and the lungs are compressed, thereby increasing the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. It reduces the pressure on the lungs. Air is drawn into
the posterior air sacs through the mesobronchus. At the same time air present in the
lungs enters into the anterior air sacs. Thus, in inspiration a large amount of air goes
from secondary bronchi into the air sacs. Expiration is brought about by movements of
abdominal muscles (expiratory) which raises the sternum compressing the air sacs and
expansion of lungs. By compression of posterior air sacs their air is forced into the
lungs through recurrent bronchi, and the stale air of anterior air sacs enters the
mesobronchus, trachea and finally out through the nostrils.
ii. Breathing during Flight: During flight, the sternum and ribs become immovable to
brace the wings, and the ordinary method of inspiration and expiration by intercostal
and abdominal muscles respectively is abandoned. The air movements in and out of the
lungs are done by the elevation and depression of the back with the help of the wing’s
strokes. The faster a bird flies, the more rapid is the air circulation and gaseous
exchange in the lungs.In birds the air is constantly renewed and passes several times
over the respiratory epithelium of air capillaries, because of intercommunicating
system of tubules.

Sound making System

Sound making system is closely related to respiratory system. Each of the four classes of tetrapods
has species which use sound. In vertebrates, sounds are in general produces through larynx.
Terristrial and semi aquatic vertebrates primarily produce sounds with the larynx located at the top
of the trachea but the Aves produce sounds through syrinx. (Fitch, 2006).

Sound System of Amphibia

The sound of frogs are produced by larynx. Vocal sac, the sound-resonating throat pouch of male
frogs and toads (amphibians of the order Anura). Vocal sacs are outpocketings of the floor of the
mouth, or buccal cavity. Frogs display three basic types of vocal sacs: a single median throat sac,
paired throat sacs, and paired lateral sacs. (Lateral sacs are located just rearward of the angle of
the jaw on each side of the head.) All three types, whether single or paired, open into the buccal
cavity by paired slits. Each slit is located on either side of the base of the tongue. Calling frog
typically inflates his sac or sacs prior to calling or simultaneously with the production of the first
 15

call. The sac is inflated with air from the lungs. If another call is forthcoming and the male frog is
not in the process of calling, air is still held in the sac. Sound is produced by a controlled rush of
air through the larynx and across its vocal cords. The resulting sound vibrations are amplified by
the resonating qualities of the vocal sac or sacs. Unlike vocalization processes of many other
vertebrates, frogs broadcast sound without expelling air. Air does not exit the mouth; rather, it
cycles back and forth between the buccal cavity and lungs.

Fig: Frog sound production system

Sound System of Reptiles

Sound production of reptiles are similar with amphibian. Both sound are produce from vocal sac.
It is the located in the buccal cavity and also it is the part of the respiratory tract. The lizards are
the lowest vertebrates to have a well-developed spatial differentiation of the cochlea in which
different regions respond to different frequencies of tone. The problem of tonal discrimination has
been somewhat solved in frogs, in which the differential responses to tones by the two papillae
may provide some information concerning the pitch of sounds. The mechanism in frogs, however,
is a poor one, as it can give only crude and uncertain cues at best.
 16

Sound System of Aves

Birds make sound by syrinx. It is a respiratory tract and again sound production organ. It is also
called sound box. It is formed by the dilation of the last three or four tracheal rings and first half
rings of each bronchus .Wide specious part of syrinx is called tympanum, inner mucus membrane
of which forms cushion like thickening bar of cartilage called the pessulus extends dorso-ventrally
inside the tympanum and supports an fold of mucus membrane, the membrane semilunaris. The
mucous membrane of inner walls of each bronchus forms an internal tympaniform membrane and
an external tympaniform membrane associated with the outer wall. The sound is produced by the
vibrations of the semilunar membrane as the air is forcibly expelled from the lungs. (Stein, 1973).
The pitch of the voice is altered which change the tension on the semilunar tympaniform
membranes and so the pitch of the sound.
 17

References
E.L. Jordan, P. V. (1965). Chordate Zoology. In P. V. E.L. Jordan, Chordate Zoology (p. 368). S.
Chand & Company LTD.

Fitch, T. (2006). Production of Vocalization in Mammals . In T. Fitch, Production of

Vocalization in Mammals.

Karki, G. (2020, 9 7). Respiratory system of Frog. Retrieved from

https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com: https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/respiratory-
system-of-frog/

Kotpal, R. (1992). Modern Textbook of Zoology: Vertebrates. In R. Kotpal, Modern Textbook of

Zoology: Vertebrates. Rastogi Publication.

Stein, R. (1973). Sound Production in Vertebrates: Summary and Prospectus. In R. Stein, Sound
Production in Vertebrates: Summary and Prospectus (pp. 1299-1255).