TSUNAMIS – A LARGE SCALE EARTH AND OCEAN PHENOMENON

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

BS-GEOLOGY-5A

Submitted By: Sabahat Fatima

Submitted to: Sir Masood Anwar

Enrollment: 01-161171-096

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

BAHRIA UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD CAMPUS

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 ABSTRACT
A tsunami is a set of waves that is produced in oceans and can be caused by any disruption or
disturbance of the ocean floor. The triggering events includes geological processes e.g,
underwater earthquakes, submarine landslides or volcanic eruptions especially at Mid Oceanic
Ridges.

They cause colossal disasters of life and property. It has been known to cause huge
catastrophes. The effects of a tsunami have been sapped until the recent past. Scientists have now
succeeded to supplemented the tsunami warning system outside the rims of Pacific Ocean.

The Tsunami at Indonesia in 2004 had caused many governments to take necessary measures to
eradicate the impact of tsunamis. The hazard awareness programs have been directed at a much
slower rate and there is a need to stair up the standards of warning, be ready for evacuation and
preventive measures must be brought up.

The discussion involves the generation of a natural tsunami, several processes related to
generation and evaluate the hazards related to it that severely affect the lives of masses. It will
also assist in understanding the potentially risky areas which are at the verge of being effected by
tsunamis,dovetailing of a tsunami with other hazardous processes around the globe and how the
coastal communities get culminated by such Tsunamis. The tools, being used includes
educational awareness, warning systems and internationally cooperation is done on the platform
of Global Earth Observing System of Systems.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

Title Page i
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Figures iv

1 Introduction 6
1.1 Landslide Induced Tsunamis 6
1.2 Earthquake Induced Tsunamis

1.3 Regions at Risk of Tsunamis 9

2 Effects from Tsunami 11

3 Mitigation and Warning Systems 12

3.1 Mitigation 12
3.2 Detection and Warning 13
3.2.1 Structural Controls 13
3.2.2 Tsunami Run-up Maps 14
3.2.3 Land Use Planning 14
3.2.4 Probability Analysis 15
3.2.5 Educational Programs 15
3.2.6 Tsunami Ready Status
16

4 Personal Adjustment, Perception and Future Frontiers 17

4.1 Adjustment and Perception 17
4.2 Future Frontiers 18
4.2.1 Forecasting Tsunami Impacts 18
4.2.2 Human Response Simulation 18
4.2.3 Real Time Remote Sensing 19

CASE HISTORY – INDONESIAN TSUNAMI 19 &20

CONCLUSION 21

REFERENCES 22

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

1.0 Idealized diagram showing the process of how a tsunami is produced 7

by an earthquake.
2.0 Distant and Local Tsunami 9
3.0 Landslide produced giant waves. Trees are removed by erosive force 10
4.0 Destruction caused by Tsunami 11

5.0 Tsunami Warning System Working 13

6.0 Tsunami run-up 14

7.0 a person versus a tsunami 18

8.0 Map showing the path of tsunami produced by a 9.1 Magnitude 20
earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia on Dec 26th, 2004

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A tsunami is a term first used by Japanese to characterize a sudden displacement of water

column in vertical direction prompt by perturbation of the ocean floor. They have been realized
as a natural hazard that has the potential to transform into a catastrophe and generate destruction
several miles away from its focus point. They may occur by various geological processes
including sudden subsidence of a sea floor by movements along a fault, submarine landslides
caused by an earthquake, submarine volcanic eruptions on the Mid Oceanic Ridges. In most
atypical cases, an extraterrestrial object from our solar system such as an asteroid or a comet
may strike an ocean body. The mega-tsunami caused by an asteroid impact may produce ocean
wave of magnitude 100 times greater than the wave caused by an earthquake. It can, therefore,
put the lives of millions of people at severe risk. Earthquake induced tsunamis are treated as
common.

1.1 LANDSLIDE INDUCED TSUNAMIS:

Landslides have been thought to produce considerable tsunamis in the past.

Submarine Landslide:

These landslides can occur under water where they are known as submarine landslide.

Earthquake induced Landslides:

They can also occur on the surface when a large volume of rock mass fall into sea from
mountains. These landslides are induced by earthquakes.

For example, a 7.1 magnitude of earthquake struck the offshore region of New Guinea.

After a short time, the tsunami waves arrived at the shore with very less response time. The

villages across the coastal region were devastated and 2000 or more people were killed. The
waves were 15m high . This colossal surge in height of the wave corresponds to a submarine

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landslide in the nearby area generated by an earthquake. The epicenter of the earthquake was
only 50km away from the shore. This devastation was produced by a combination of two factors:

 Earthquake
 Submarine landslide.

Another famous tsunami wave produced by landslide was recorded in Alaska in 1958. 7.7

Magnitude of earthquake produced a submarine landslide that contributed about 30.5 million m3
of rock mass falling into the sea. It caused the water to rise by 534m in the bay.

(Fig 1) : Landslide Induced Tsunami causing serious damage.

1.2 EARTHQUAKE INDUCED TSUNAMIS:

An earthquake is also a major cause to produce tsunamis coastal areas when there is an
unanticipated movement along fault line, either upward or downward, on the ocean floor.
Earthquakes may also be a triggering factor to cause submarine landslide where large volumes

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of loosely cemented particles or sediments move down the slope and create turbulence in water
body. Movement of seafloor is the most usual in all of the above cases.

An earthquake having magnitude of 7.5 is considered to be carrying enough potential to cause a

damaging tsunami. The movement of sea floor generates disturbance in the water column from
the ocean floor to ocean surface. The process that takes a tsunami to fall on the shore generally
consists of four stages:

 Increase in water column:

Earthquake rupture in the ocean floor compels the water upward causing the water column to
level up that initiates the tsunami. Elongated domes of water are created parallel to the fault.
When a dome collapses, a tsunami wave is produced and they radiate outward just as we
throw a stone into a pond or a lake.

 Increase in velocity in deep ocean:

The velocity of waves in the deep ocean is very rapid and their wavelength is quite greater. The

Mathematical formula for the velocity is given by:

v = square root of (g x h)

where:

g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the mean height of water column in the deep ocean.
Average ocean depth is about 4000m and g is universally constant that is equals to 10m/s. So
putting these values to find velocity, we get wave velocity to be around 200m/s.

 Decrease in velocity at Shore:

The velocity of the tsunami wave decreases when it approaches the shore because the water

depth beneath a tsunami also levels down. The wave speed near the shore can decrease to about
45km per hour. Therefore because of decrease in velocity that the wavelength of wave also
decreases. The water column thus raises its height when water slower down and as a
consequence to this effect, the height of the wave increases.

 Run-up:

Run-up is the term that is used to describe the movement of a tsunami that has moved inland.
The water then moves back in the ocean once it arrives inland creating a irregular or turbulent
flow. Occasionally Edge waves are also produced that travel parallel to shore back and forth. The
magnitude of the incoming third wave may be larger than these two waves when they interact in

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such a way that it increases or reinforces the magnitude of the third wave. The processes may
continue up to several hours.

(Fig 2) Earthquake induced Tsunami

1.3 REGIONS AT RISK OF TSUNAMI:

The geographical location of a coast from tsunami sources such as the submarine landslides and

earthquakes describes its susceptibility to the risk factor. For example, coasts that are situated

close to the sources of earthquakes like a subduction zone or at Mid Oceanic Ridges are

identified as potential areas capable of producing earthquakes that will generate a tsunami. A

subduction zone that can generate an earthquake of 9.0 magnitude is regarded as major.

These areas include:

I. Cascadia Subduction Zone in the North West Pacific Ocean

II. Peru-Chile Trench along South Western South America
III. Subduction off the Japan’s coastline

Examination of the Global Tsunami Hazard map tells us that majority of the zones

capable of generating a tsunami surround the Pacific Ocean commonly referred to as Ring of

Fire. The other parts may include Mediterranean and North Eastern side of the Indian Ocean.

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(Fig 3) Hazardous Tsunami at Coastlines.

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 CHAPTER 2

REPURCUSSIONS OF TSUNAMI

The out-turns of Tsunami are

 Primary
 Secondary.

Primary effects:

It includes water striking at the shore and cause erosion and flooding. The strength of this water
is massive that nothing can withstand it. The wave energy can considerably erode beaches and
the vegetation on the coastal areas as well as it destroys property & life. These effects reduce in
magnitude as we move far from the shore inland. The water then moves back in the ocean
leaving behind human and natural debris all along.

Secondary effects:

It includes those that arise after some time in minutes, days or weeks after the incident has
taken place. In cities close to the shore, fire may start when natural gas pipelines are leaked or
ruptured. Freshwater resources may get polluted by the incoming salt water from the tsunami.
Vegetation may also get destroyed. Several diseases may spread when people consume that
polluted water. Waterborne diseases like malaria and cholera may originate.

A pneumonia disease may occur caused by inhaling the bacteria that were present in the muddy
saltwater. Lung infections may developed that transformed into paralysis.

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Tsunamis are interconnected with other natural hazards like submarine and near shore

earthquakes and landslides and explosions close to MORs underwater and occasional impacts of

asteroid. Tsunami waves also change the morphology of a coast through erosion or by sediment
deposition.

FIG 4 : Destruction caused by Tsunami

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 CHAPTER 3

MITIGATION AND WARNING SYSTEMS

3.1 MITIGATION

Plenty of precautionary measures can be followed up to lessen the impact of tsunamis. They

include:

 BUFFER ZONES:
Creating buffer zones by planting trees along a coastline. This will reduce the impact of

tsunami waves.

 Building Codes:
Building codes should be strictly regulated to withstand the effect of a tsunami. Other

buildings can be moved inward in land areas because they are less likely to get destroy.

 Warning System:
Effective warning and evacuation plan to avoid loss of life.
 Risk Analysis:
Identify the risk involved to our community by tsunami.

 Refrain from development near to the areas that inundate to minimize the effect in future.

3.2 DETECTION AND WARNING:

Our first step is to detect the earthquakes that are produced in the offshore that are responsible
for tsunami. A distant tsunami can be detected in the ocean and its arrival time can be calculated
in minutes. This system operates effectively in the Pacific Ocean. A tsunami warning system
generally has 3 components:

I. Seismographs are used to locate the depth and magnitude of the earthquake that is
generated in the ocean.

II. Automated tidal gauges to measure abnormal rise in the mean sea level.

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III. Sensors that are connected to floating buoys.

The sensors measure the pressure that is generated by the water column which passes above

them during a tsunami. A signal is being sent to the warning center by the satellite that is
connected to that sensor. Tsunami arrival time is certainly calculated with the help of that tidal
gauges.

FIG 5: Working of Tsunami Warning System

3.2.1 Structural Controls:

The designs of the building that are crucial or higher can be engineered to reducethe impact
from an upcoming tsunami. Appropriate building codes are adopted for a better structure that can
threshold the effects of massive tsunami because even a 1m or 2m high tsunami wave can cause
enormous damage to the coast.

3.2.2 Tsunami Run-up Maps:

This map shows that the level up to which the water has now moved inland. The procedure is
quite simple. A community may create a hazard map that can identify potential places along

coastline that are most susceptible to be inundated by the water when a tsunami strikes. Many

cities in the world have created their Tsunami run-up maps and this will continue in the future.

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 FIG 5: Tsunami Run-up Map for susceptible area

3.2.3 Land Use Planning:

It’s not practical to move recreational areas inward land but one way to rectify the effect of
tsunamis is to grow vegetation cover that can serve as a buffer zone to reduce the velocity of
incoming tsunami wave of medium magnitude. We have a lot of development along a coast for a
variety of reasons that include tourism etc., so coastal angiosperms that provide protection
against such tsunamis and are removed or destroyed and make the land more vulnerable to be
eroded as a tsunami wave hits that area. These mangroves are replaced with high rise buildings,
houses, hotels and recreational spots that are located very close to the shore. It is therefore
suggested that land use in coastal areas may be done inland behind a coastal forest cover.

3.2.4 Probability Analysis:

The risk of an event is notioned by the magnitude of its probability with the consequences.
Therefore if we could estimate the probability of a tsunami, we can effectively calculate the
hazards it may cause. It involves the evidence from the past that can help in the hazard
estimation. It can, however not help in future probabilities of a tsunami.

Following steps are taken for probability analysis:

 Potential Sources:

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 Identification of potential sources that can generate earthquakes. It is also necessary to

calculate the uncertainty of an earthquake.

 Wave Phenomenon:
Establish the relationship that will reinforce or reduce the waves as they radiate from the
area from which they originate.
 Probability Analysis:
Use of probability analysis for tsunamis similar to the ones being used for earthquake
hazards keeping in fact the information that tsunamis can generate from multiple
sources.
 MONTE CARLO SIMULATION:
Statistical technique is an analysis model that is used for future tsunami predictions when
the area being observed has not undergone a considerable geological event in the recent
past.

3.2.5 Educational Programs:

Information about tsunamis do save lives. It has been observed in the past that people or
communities who were aware about the physical indicators and risk related to the tsunami,
reduced their fatalities by various amount.

Japan had experienced a local tsunami back in 1993 that killed around 15% of the population
living in that coastal areas. Similar magnitude tsunami struck New Papua Guinea in 1998 and the
life loss was of 40% which shows that Japanese were well informed, trained and educated
about post tsunami evacuation preparedness.

It is important to tell coastal people about:

(a) Tsunami Watch: A tsunami watch is informing people that earthquake that could potentially
generate tsunami has occurred.

(b) Tsunami Warning:

A tsunami warning is informing people that a tsunami is detected and that is radiating across the
ocean and is coming towards their coast. There is a lot more to be done on the international level
to educate the people facing immense tsunami probabilities.

3.2.6 Tsunami Ready Status:

A community should be prepared in order to avoid the effect of a tsunami on a large scale.

(1) An emergency operation center is to be established working for 24/7 round the clock.

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(2) A community should have several ways to receive warnings from tsunami centers such as
the National Weather Service or the Canadian Meteorological Center or the Coast Guards.

(3) Alert notification to the public is required

(4) Emergency drills must be carried out for Tsunami evacuation practice

(5) Organize seminars on national and International level to aware people of the hazards

associated with the Tsunamis.

Several communities living in the coastal areas around the world have developed TSUNAMI

READY STATUS including in the U.S. and the Canada.

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 CHAPTER 4

PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT, PERCEPTION AND FUTURE FRONTIERS

4.1 ADJUSTMENT AND PERCEPTION:

People generally do not know about the warning signs about the approaching tsunamis or they

often do not know how to act under such conditions. From that perspective, following

adjustments are to be adapted.

I. When a person feels an earthquake on a beach or a coastal area, he must

leave that place as

soon as possible.

II. The ocean will recede if the trough of the incoming tsunami wave reaches
to the coast first.

III. A tsunami generally consist of several waves with interval of an hour that
strikes the coast.

Therefore, it is suggested to stay away from vulnerable areas.

IV. The communities along a coast must be informed with a loud siren of an
approaching tsunami

wave.

V. It is advised not to go down on the beach to see the incoming wave when
tsunami warnings have been issued because they may be seen as very
small from a distance. But as they come closer, they are usually up the
order of about 15m high compared to the average height of a man

as 6ft.

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 Fig 7 An Indiviual & Tsunami

4.2 FUTURE FRONTIERS

The Sumatra 2004 tsunami has explained that there is a need to examine the processes leading to
a tsunami. A tsunami forecasting system involves input from the past for human response
simulation. The experience has suggested that remote sensing can play a significant role in this
regard.

4.2.1 Forecasting Tsunami Impacts

In order to achieve considerable advancement in the future forecasting of tsunamis, three

dimensional models are required that can simulate the effect of tsunami forces in real time and
then to learn that how those forces interact with artificially prepared structures and different
objects that can move. In this regard, wave tank experiments can be used, precise observation is
also necessary to monitor these effects. In this way, we would be able to design such structures
that can withstand the effect of tsunami wave. The research in this regard should be made public
and then made part of international global tsunami warning system.

4.2.2 Human Response Simulation

A very little research has been conducted in relation to human response simulation. There is a
need to construct a new model to monitor the response of humans to this menace. In United
States, several programs related to education had been meaningful in spreading awareness
among people but they have failed to model the ultimate response of a human to these threats.
People who live on the coast of Washington know about a tsunami but they do not know the
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concrete steps needed to overcome their effect. It represents that educational programs are to be
made effective around the world.

4.2.3 Real Time Remote Sensing

The images taken from a satellite demonstrate the use of information that is sensed remotely.
This data may serve for recovery and rescue operations around the world. It can also tell and
evaluate the extent up to which damage has been caused by such tsunamis.

CASE HISTORY - INDONESIAN TSUNAMI

 On the day of December 26th, 2004, a 9.1 magnitude earthquake in the Indian Ocean
produced the biggest tsunami in the past four decades that had killed over 250000 people
in matter of hours.
 The earthquake occurred on the west coast of Indonesian Island named as Sumatra. In
this case, the Indian and Australian plates were being subducted beneath Burma micro
plate.
 Burma plate slipped about 20m along the thrust fault in the subduction zone. Since the
displacement was large, geologists regarded this earthquake as ‘Mega thrust Event’.
 Disturbance of the seafloor displaced the water over and ultimately a series of waves
were generated.
 The Indian Ocean had no warning system ready as compared with the Pacific Ocean
warning systems due to which hundreds of thousands of people were killed.
 Tourists in the coastal areas in Indonesia and Thailand did not know what to do when a
tsunami is generated. They could not evacuate the coast in time.
 A 10-year old British girl was able to sense the incoming Tsunami wave because she had
learnt in her school lesson that prior to an approaching tsunami, the sea level recedes
quickly and abnormally. This is the indication that a tsunami wave is likely. She managed
to evacuate along with her mother and other tourists nearby.
 Elephants were also trumpeting when the earthquake took place because it is believed
that animals have sensory ability to hear sound waves with very low frequency called

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 infrasonic sound. They also moved inland giving nearby tourists that an unlikely event is
likely to happen.
 The reports that were published after this tsunami mentioned that there is a need to
educate people at national and international levels about the hazards related to Tsunamis
to remain updated and informed and a warning system may be established in other parts
of the world just like Pacific Ocean to allow people to be informed of an approaching
tsunami.
 After that incident, a tsunami warning system was developed in the deep ocean to
monitor the changes in the seafloor and the earthquakes that are produced underwater.
 The geologists have warned that another massive tsunami could be generated by an
earthquakes off the coast of Indonesia in coming decades.
 In a nutshell, it may be said that with improved warning systems and evacuation plan, the
lives and property of millions of people could have been saved.

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 (Fig. 8). Map showing the path of the tsunami produced by an M 9.1 earthquake off the east
Coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, on December 26, 2004.

CONCLUSION

It is extremely important to accept that a tsunami is a rapidly growing hazard that the world is
facing and it has a lot in common with other ongoing hazards. So, it must be seen with reference
to other global hazard programs.

Secondly, the general public requires the advanced technology that are scientifically
proven and tested. Standards are necessary to protect the interests of general people. Long-term
solution is required for the policy making. The standards that are developed must be maintained
and monitored by a universally recognized scientific organization.

Thirdly, what we need is a comprehensive plan and preparedness that involves protection,
training, awareness, recovery, practical drills and a lot of research. The most famous global
warning system for the tsunami is GEOSS.

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 REFERENCES

BOOKS
E. Keller (Pearson – 2011), Introduction to Environmental Geology 5th edition, Page 222 - 245

JOURNALS

SPRINGER - Edward Bryant, Tsunami: The Underrated Hazard, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 2001.

SPRINGER – Tsunamis: A large scale Earth and Ocean Phenomenon, Satish R. Shetye.

JSTOR - Tsunami: Scientific Frontiers, Mitigation, Forecasting and Policy Implications

Author(s): E. N. Bernard, H. O. Mofjeld, V. Titov, C. E. Synolakis and F. I. González
Source: Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol.364,
No. 1845, Extreme Natural Hazards (Aug. 15, 2006), pp. 1989-2007
Published by: Royal Society
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25190311
Accessed: 02-12-2018 09:30 UTC

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