Q1: How we used seismic refraction and electrical resistivity method in hydrologic

investigations?

The most useful application of all geophysical methods is the interpretation of the geologic
structure and stratigraphy.

Electric resistivity method

The electrical resistivity method has been a valuable tool used in the discovery of ground‐water
recharge facilities with percolation capacities in excess of 100,000 acre-feet per year. The
procedures used in doing the field work and the methods of plotting the data are described
using a typical area where studies were made. Correlations of soil types, recharge rates, and
resistivity data for Santa Clara ‐County are included. Ground‐water level data from observation
wells are used to measure the regional and long‐term effects of the ground‐water recharge
program. Electrical resistivity surveying methods have been widely used to determine the thickness
and resistivity of layered media for the purpose of assessing groundwater potential and siting
boreholes in fractured unconfined aquifer. The electrical resistivity method is used to map the
subsurface electrical resistivity structure, which is interpreted by the geophysicist to determine geologic
structure and/or physical properties of the geologic materials. The electrical resistivity of a geologic unit
or target is measured in ohm-meters, and is a function of porosity, permeability, water saturation and
the concentration of dissolved solids in pore fluids within the subsurface. The purpose of a DC electrical
survey is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution of the ground, which can then be related to
physical conditions of interest such as lithology, porosity, the degree of water saturation, and the
presence or absence of voids in the rock. The basic parameter of a DC electrical measurement is
resistivity.

Seismic-refraction

Seismic method measures the reaction of geologic bodies to artificially induced vibrations. These
vibrations are detected at various distances from the source of energy by means of a large no of
seismometers called geophones. The vibrations are recorded on magnetic tape.

Seismic-refraction approaches have been widely use in mineral, petroleum, and engineering
investigations and to some extent, for hydrologic uses during past 25 years. Current advances in
sound sources, equipment, and computer interpretation techniques makes seismic refraction
techniques an effective and efficient means of gaining subsurface data in hydrologic studies.
Aquifers that well-defined by one or more high seismic velocity surfaces, such as glacial or
alluvial deposits in consolidated rocky valleys, limestone or sandstone underlain by igneous or
metamorphic rock, or saturated unconsolidated deposits overlain by unsaturated unconsolidated
deposits, are suitable for applying seismic refraction methods. These techniques allow the cost-
effective assembly of subsurface data and provide the base for more effective collection of
subsurface data by aquifer tests or test drilling and results in developed hydrologic studies. It
emphasizes use of this method in hydrologic investigations and describes the planning, field
procedures, equipment, and interpretation procedures needed for this kind of study.
Seismic refraction is a useful tool in hydrologic investigations:

Identifies stratigraphy

● Identifies the depth to water table

● Non-intrusive: No contaminated soil to dispose of or equipment to clean

❖ Inexpensive and time saving compared to borehole drilling

❖ If we can measure the velocity of seismic waves versus depth, we can define the water table
and infer the stratigraphy at depth without intrusive method.

Q2: What is the importance of boundary conditions in Flow Net Analysis?

No Flow Boundary:

Ground water can't pass a no stream boundary. Neighboring stream lines will be corresponding to
a no-stream boundary. Boundaries, for example, impermeable arrangement designing cut off
structure.

Consistent Head Boundary:

The head is the equivalent wherever on the boundary it represents to an equipotential line. Flow
lines cross at right point, energizing or release surface water body.

Water Table Boundary:

Present in unconfined springs, water table isn't a flow line or not an equipotential it is line where
head is known. In the event that there is recharge or discharge over the water table, flow lines will
be at diagonal point. In the event that there is no recharge over the water table stream line can be
corresponding to it

Q3: How borehole geophysics is helpful in hydrogeology?

The purpose of this borehole is to provide hydrologists, geologists, and others who
have the necessary training with the basic information needed to apply the most
useful borehole-geophysical-logging techniques to the solution of problems in
ground-water hydrology. Geophysical logs can provide information on the
construction of wells and on the character of the rocks and fluids penetrated  by
those wells, in addition to changes in the character of these factors with time Borehole
geophysics is the science of recording and analyzing measurements of physical properties made in wells
or te Probes that measure different properties are lowered into the borehole to collect continuous or
point data that is graphically displayed as a geophysical log.
Geophysical logging

1. Gamma ray

2. Neutron log

3. Sonic log

4. Resistivity

5. Self potential log

st holes.

Q4: Write a short note of how we solve out pumping well data by using the Theis Method?

Charles Vernon Theis (1900-1987) was the primary hydrologist to develop a careful
numerical model of transient movement of water to a siphoning splendidly by seeing
the physical likeness between heat stream in solids and groundwater stream in
penetrable media.

The Theis (1935) game plan (or Theis nonequilibrium method) introduced an
imperative gadget for choosing the water controlled properties (transmissivity and
storativity) of nonleaky limited springs. Examination with the Theis method is
performed by planning the Theis type curve to drawdown data plotted as a
component of time on twofold logarithmic tomahawks.

Arrangement alternatives.

variable siphoning rates

numerous siphoning wells

numerous recognition wells

somewhat penetrating siphoning and recognition wells

limits of limits

plot on a logarithmic paper of W(u) versus u, known as the type curve is prepared.Values of drawdown
(s) are plotted against values of r2/t on logarithmic paper of the same size and scale as the type
curve.The observed time-drawdown data are superimposed on the type curve, keeping the coordinate
axes of the two curves parallel and adjusted until a position is found by trial whereby most of the plotted
points of the observed data fall on a segment of the type curve.Any convenient point is then selected
and the coordinates of this match point are recorded.With values of W(u), u , s and r2/t thus
determined, S and T can be obtained .

Q5: Discuss the principles of Groundwater Flow?

Ground water moves from one region to another to eliminate energy differentials. The flow of ground
water is controlled by the law of physics and thermodynamics. Groundwater is the water contained in
interconnected pores below the water table. The depth of the water table or groundwater depends on
the make-up of the aquifer. In some areas of Florida, it is as shallow as three feet below ground surface.
In dry areas such as Arizona, the groundwater may be 200 feet below ground level. Groundwater speed
and flow characteristics determine how dissolved contaminants flow through them. Flow. When rain
falls, water soaks into the ground and drains down through the subsurface soil until it reaches the water
table. Gravity causes water to flow horizontally from areas of higher elevation to areas of lower
elevation

Q6: How we reduce agricultural pollution give your own opinion?

The main sources of agricultural pollution belong in these three categories: widespread contamination
of pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals into neighboring lands and waters. “Nutrients like nitrogen
and phosphorus are essential for growing crops, but they can also trigger algal growth in rivers, lakes,
and bays” (Swanson, 2013). The toxic pesticides are killing non-intended organisms and affecting human
and other animal life in the ecosystem, and fertilizers are disrupting the marine areas by adding excess
nutrients to these supplies. In order to manage these sources of agricultural pollution, there needs to be
set plans to deal with each individual threat. Cultivation management, first of all, such as strip cropping,
allows for separation of fields and higher efficiency so that contamination is lowered and yield is
maximized. Secondly, toxic management of pesticides is a plan to treat weeds and pests with non-
chemical based formulae and the correct usage and dosage of commercial pesticides, differentiating
between types of pests, temperature, humidity and other factors to maximize efficiency and minimize
usage.

Lastly, fertilizer excess and nutrient excess should undergo an industrial process to monitor fertilizer and
cattle waste, by creating designated structures to store and allocate waste and fertilizer as nutrients for
farmlands rather than letting the animals roam free spreading waste in the open.