Current Electricity Chapter (1) : Direct Current Electric Current

Current Electricity
Chapter (1): Direct Current
Electric Current:
The rate of flow of charge through the conductor is defined as
electric current.
charge flow (q) q ne
i.e. Current (I) = = =
time taken (t) t t
Where, n = number of electron and
e = charge of an electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Its S.I unit is Ampere (A) or coulomb/second
Its C.G.S unit is stat-ampere.
It is a scalar quantity.
[1A = 6.25 × 1018 electrons/sec = 3 × 109 Stat-Ampere]
Current density(𝐉⃗ ):
The current per unit area is defined as the current density.
I Current flow
i.e. J = =
A Area
It is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is A/m2 .
Note: Current density is a vector quantity but current is scalar

quantity. The difference is that the current density describes
how charges flow at a particular point and its vector direction
tells us about the direction of flow at that point. But current
describes how charges flow through an extended object such as
wire.
Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Email: brijsingh707@gmail.com
Physics lecturer at Shree Secondary technical & vocational School, Dharapani, Dhanusha , Nepal
Former Physics Lecturer at Nepal Adarsha School/campus Syangja Waling Nepal
1
Former Secondary Science teacher at Everest Academy School, Lalbandi, Sarlahi
1
Drift velocity(𝐯𝐝 ):-
The average velocity with which free electrons get drifted
(Shifted) toward the positive end of conductor under the
influence of an External Electric field
i.e. I = nevdA
Q. (1) Discuss how current is established in a conductor when

it is connected across source emf (electromotive force). Derive
relation 𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝐯𝐝 where symbols have their usual meanings.
Or, Electron gas model of current
Or, Relation between electric current, drift velocity and
current density:-
2076, 2075, 2074, 2071, 2069, 2068, 2060 (4marks)
Consider a conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A

through which a current I is flowing. Let V be the applied
potential difference across the ends of conductor. The electric
field ⃗⃗⃗
E is directed from left to right.
From the definition,
q(charge)
Electric current ( I) = .................. (1)
t(time)
Where q = charge flows through wire in time t.
Also, From Quantization of charge, q=n’e …………(2)

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2
Where, n’ is total number of electrons and
e is charge of electron
If number of free electrons per unit volume is n then
n′
n=
V
Or, n’ = nV=n(Al)= nAl ……..(3)
Where, V is volume of the conductor i.e.V= Al
Now, Use (3) in (2) then we get, q = nAle ........... (4)
Let t be the time travelled by electron with average velocity
(i.e. drift velocity) vd to cross the conductor of length (l) then,
l length(l)
t= ………..(5) ( since, drift velocity vd = )
vd time(t)
Use equation (4) and (5) in equation (1):
nAle nAle
I= = l = nAvd e =nevdA…….(6)
t ( )
vd
∴ I = nevd A, ................... (6)
I
Also, vd = ……(7)
neA
From the definition of current density,
I nevd A
J= = = nevd ...................(8)
A A
J
Also: vd =
ne
This is the required relation between them.
eVτ
Note: Drift velocity is also given as vd = and E=V/l
ml
Where, e= charge of electron
V = potential difference
m = mass of electron
l = length of conductor
τ = average relaxation time
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𝐕 ∝ 𝐈 → 𝐎𝐡𝐦′ 𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐰
Ohm's law: [ ]
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 → 𝐎𝐡𝐦′ 𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
{Discovered by German physicist, George Simon Ohm}
Statement: "The current following through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends
provided that physical conditions (temperature, strain etc) of
the conductor remain same".
i.e. V ∝ I
Or, V = RI = IR
Where R is proportionality constant called Resistance of the
conductor.
The main application of ohm’s law is used when building
electrical devices. Most appliances need a certain amount of
voltage and current to operate. Ohm’s law can tell you how
much resistance you need to establish a certain current with a
certain amount of voltage .Resistors are very important in
electric circuits.
Its applications in our daily life activities:
Conventional domestic fan (speed controller), electric heaters,
electric kettles and irons, design of electric devices(laptop,
mobile phone etc requires dc supply with specific current), fuse
design. etc.
Ohmic and non-Ohmic-conductor:

Ohmic Conductor:
➢ The conductor which obeys ohm's law is called Ohmic
conductor.
➢ For examples: copper wire, metal, resistors etc.
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➢ The graph for V and I for Ohmic conductor is linear (shown
in fig (1)).
➢ The resistance of Ohmic conductor is called Ohmic
resistance.
➢ It has constant resistance.
Non-Ohmic Conductor:
➢ The conductors like CuSO4 solution, Silver nitrate solution
etc do not obey Ohm's Law. Such conductors are called
Non-Ohmic Conductor (Fig (2).
➢ For Examples: Diode, semiconductor filament bulb, etc.
➢ Resistance of Non-ohmic conductor is called Non-Ohmic
resistance.
➢ It has variable resistance.
Resistance:
The property of a material to obstruct the flow of electric
V
current is called Resistance. i.e. R =
I
Where, V is p.d. across the conductor and
I is current following in it
Volt
Units of resistance: or Ohm i.e. Ω.
Ampere
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5
Fig: Symbol of resistance
Note: Different between resistance and resistor

The property, by virtue of which a material opposes the flow of
current through it, is called Resistance and any material that has
some resistance is called a resistor.
Conductance (G):-
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its
conductance.
1
i.e. G =
R
It's unit is Ω−1 or, mho or Simen (S).
Resistivity or Specific Resistance(𝛠):

→Experimentally, it is found that,
a) Resistance of conductor is directly proportional to its length
i.e. R ∝ l .........(1)
b) Resistance of conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of it.
1
i.e. R ∝ .....................(2)
A
Combining equation (1) and (2): we get,
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l
R∝
A
l
or,R = ϱ
A
Where ϱ is proportionality constant called resistivity or Specific
resistance.
RA
or ϱ = ...........................(3)
l
If l = 1 unit and A = 1 square unit then ϱ = R
∴ Resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit
cross-sectional area is called its Resistivity.
The S.I unit of resistivity: Ohm-metre (Ω. m)
It don't depends on shape and size
It depends on the nature of the material and temperature of
the conductor.
Conductivity (𝛔):
The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its
conductivity (σ).
1 l
i.e. σ = =
ϱ RA
It's S.I unit: Ω m−1 or mho. m−1 or Simen. m−1
−1
Relation between, ⃗𝐉 (current dinsity) and Electric field (E):

We have, V =IR
V
or, I =
R
V VA
or,I = ϱl =
( ) ϱl
A
I 1 V
or, = ( )
A ϱ l
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or, J⃗ = 𝛔E
⃗⃗⃗ , Where, 𝛔 = Conductivity
This is known as vector form of Ohm's law.
Effect of Temperature or Resistance/Resistivity (2marks)

→ Let R o be resistance of the conductor at0o C.
and R θ be resistance of the conductor at θo C, Then,
Change in resistance (R θ − R o )is
a) Directly proportional to initial resistance i.e.
(R θ − R o ) ∝ R 0 ...............(I)
b) Directly proportional to change in temperature
(R θ − R o ) ∝ (θ − 0) .......(II)
Combining equation (I) and (II)
(R θ − R o ) ∝ R 0 (θ − 0)
(R θ − R o ) =∝ R 0 θ
Where, ∝ proportionality is constant called temperature
coefficient of resistance.
∴ R θ = R 0 (1+∝ 𝜃) ................(III)
Similarly for resistivity:
∴ 𝜚𝜃 = 𝜚0 (1+∝ 𝜃) ............... .(IV)
Where 𝜚𝜃 is resistivity at 𝜃 𝑜 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜚0 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 0𝑜 𝐶 .
Explain the theory (a) Series (b) parallel combination of

resistance in an electric current.
Combination of Resistors: [2069,2068,2064 4 marks]
(I) Series Combination of Resistors:
Resistances are said to be connected in series combination
when they are joined end to end, so that same current flows
through each of them.
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𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
Here, 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 } … … … … … … … … … . (1)
V3 = 𝐼𝑅3
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
(I)I is same in all resistors
[ ]
(II)V is not same in all resistors
(III)V = V1 + V2 + V3
In this type of combination of resistors
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Or, V = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
V = I(R1 + R 2 + R 3 ) .............................(2)
If Req is effective or equivalent resistance then
V=I Req .....................(3)
From (2) and (3):
Req= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ................. .(4) (For 3 resisters)
(II) Parallel Combination of resistors:

Resistances are said to be connected in parallel when all the
positive terminals are connected at one point and other all
negative are connected to other point; so that the voltage is
same for all resistors.
For parallel combination:
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a) I is not same in all resistors. i.e. I = I1 + I2 + I3
b) V is same for all resistors.
V
I1 =
R1
V
We have: I2 = R2 . .................................. (1)
V
I3 =
R3
}
For parallel combination,
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V
= + +
R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1
= V [ + + ]………..(2)
R1 R2 R3
If Req. is the equivalent resistance is this combination then
V= I Req
V
Or, I = … … … … … … … . (3)
Req
From (3) and (2):
1 1 1 1
= + + ............ .(4) (For 3 resistances)
Req R1 R2 R3
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NOTE: For two resistors:
1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
R1 + R 2
=
R1 . R 2
R1 . R 2
R eq = … … … (5)
R1 + R 2
1 1 1 1
For n-resistors: = + + ⋯…….+ … … … … … . (6)
Req R1 R2 Rn
For n-identical resistors,

1 1 1 1 n
= + + ⋯…….+ =
R eq R R R R
R
∴ R eq = … … … … … … (7)
n
Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is a device which is used to detect current in an
electrical circuit. It is sensitive and can be used in bridge circuits.
Ammeter:
It is a device used to measure the electric current flowing
through a closed circuit. It is the low resistance device and is
connected in series with a resistor to measure electric current.
Its symbol

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Voltmeter:
It is a device used to measure potential difference between two
points in the circuit. It is a high resistance device and connected
in parallel with resistor to measure potential difference
between its ends. Symbol
Define Shunt. Describe its use in converting galvanometer into

an ammeter? [2076, 2066, 2063, 2057] 4 marks
Shunt: It is a resistor of small resistance connected in parallel
with a galvanometer to convert it into ammeter.
If shunt resistance is 1Ω and galvanometer resistance is(n −
1)Ω, then fraction of current that flows through galvanometer
1
is . This is principle of Shunt.
n
Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter:

Let us consider a galvanometer of
resistance G is connected in parallel with
shunt of small resistance S. Let I, Ig and ( I-
Ig) be the current flowing through
ammeter, galvanometer and shunt
respectively.
Now, p.d. across shunt =( I- Ig)S ……(1)
and p.d. Galvanometer = IgG ...........(2)
Since, Galvanometer and Shunt are in
parallel combination,
So, p.d. across shunt = pd across
Galvanometer
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( I- Ig)S = IgG
Ig G
S= … … … … … … (3)
( I − Ig )
This is the value of shunt to be connected
in parallel with a galvanometer to convert
it into ammeter, of range (0-I) Ampere
GS
Also, Resistance of ammeter =
G + S} (4)
GS
and p. d. across ammeter = I ( )
G+S
Define Multiplier. How can you convert galvanometer into

voltmeter? [2074] 4 marks
Multiplier: It is a resistor of high resistance connected in series
with a galvanometer to convert it into voltmeter.
Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter

→ Let us consider a
galvanometer of resistance 'G'
is connected in series with a
multiplier of resistance 'R'. Let
Vg , VR and V be the potential
difference across
galvanometer, multiplier, and
voltmeter respectively and Ig
be current flowing through
them.
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Now, P.d across galvanometer
=Ig G .........(I)
p.d. across multiplier = Ig R
..................(II)
Since, Galvanometer and
Multiplier are connected in
series combination, then
Total p.d. = p.d. across
galvanometer + p.d. across
multiplier
i.e. V = Vg + VR
or, V = Ig G + Ig R
or, V = Ig (G + R)
V
:. R = − G … … … … (III)
Ig
Equation (III) is required value of resistance of multiplier to be
connected in series with the galvanometer to convert it into
voltmeter range (0-V) volt.
For resistance of Voltmeter R v = G + R, … … … . (IV)
p.d. across voltmeter =Ig (G+R) ............(V)
Potential divider:-
The resistance can be arranged in series to provide a known
fraction of a given potential difference. The arrangement is
called Potential divider.
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The current following through
the given arrangement is
V
I= , … … … … … … (1)
R1 + R 2
Now, p.d. across R1 i. e.
V1 = IR1 =
V
( ) R1 … … … … (2)
R1 +R2
P.d. across R 2 i. e.
V2 = IR 2 =
V
( ) R 2 … … … … (3)
R1 +R2
adding (2) and (3)
VR1 + VR 2
V1 + V2 = ( )=V
R1 + R 2
Hence, this arrangement is a
potential divider.
Ohmmeter:
It is a device used to measure
resistance. It consists of a
meter, a resister, and a source
connected in series. The
resistance R to be measured is
connected between terminals
X and Y.
When R=O, meter gives full
deflection.
and when 𝑅 → ∞, it gives no
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deflection. For any value of R,
defection in meter scale gives
the value of R.
The End
Chapter (2): Heat and Power

Electrical Heating: Joule's Law
Q. State Joule's law of heating and verify it experimentally.
Q. Deduce an expression for heat developed in a conductor
due to the passage of an electric current. [2076, 2076, 2075,
2056] 4marks
The phenomenon of the production of heat in a resistor by flow
of an electric current through it, is called heating effect of
current or Joule's heating.
The heat developed in a conductor is
a) Directly proportional to the square of the current passing
through the conductor
i.e. H ∝ I2 , … … … … … (1)
b) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor i.e.
i.e.H ∝ R, … … … (2)
c) Directly proportional to the time of flow of current.
i.e. H ∝ t, … … … … … (3)
Combining (1), (2) and (3): we get H ∝ I2 Rt
1
i.e. H = I2 Rt ................. (4)
J
Where, J is Joule's Mechanical equivalent of heat.
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In S.I system of unit (J=1) so, H = I 2 Rt ............ (5)(J=1)
This is the mathematical form of Joule’s law of heating
In CGS system, J=4.18 Joule/calorie.
Experimental Verification of Joule's law of Heating:

This law can be verified in the
lab by using Joule's
calorimeter.
The resistance coil R is
enclosed in a copper
calorimeter containing water
2
up to of its volume. The ends
3
of R are connected to the
heating circuit as shown in fig.
A stirrer and a thermometer
are inserted through holes in
the lid. A is the ammeter to
measure the current and V is
the voltmeter to measure the
potential difference across R
and Rh is the rheostat to
change the current.

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a) To verify H ∝ I2 (law of current)
Let w be water equivalent of calorimeter and𝜃1 is the initial
temperature of water. Keeping R and t constant, the current
𝐼1 𝑖𝑠 passed for time t and final temperature is noted as 𝜃2 so,
quantity of Heat developed
𝐻1 = 𝑤(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) … … . (𝐼)
Similar procedure is repeated
for 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , … 𝐼𝑛 and respective
heat produced is noted as
𝐻2 , 𝐻3 … 𝐻𝑛 .
𝐻
It was found that 2 is constant
𝐼
2
i.e. 𝐻 ∝ 𝐼
Here, 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼2 ∴ 𝐻 ∝ 𝐼2
(b) To verify H ∝ R (Law of resistance)

The same current I is passed for same time 't' through different
resistance R1, R2.........Rn and the corresponding quantities of
𝐻
heat produced are noted as H1,H2,.......,Hn It was found that 1 =
𝑅1
𝐻2 𝐻𝑛 𝐻
= ⋯… → = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅2 𝑅𝑛 𝑅
→𝐻 ∝ 𝑅

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c)To verify H ∝ t (law of time)
The same current I is passed through same resistance coil R for
different time t1,t2 .................tn and quantities of heat produced are
noted as H1,H2..................Hn
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
It was found that 1 = 2 = ⋯ … … … = 𝑛 So, = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡𝑛 𝑡
→𝐻∝𝑡
𝜃 ∝ 𝑡, Since 𝐻 ∝ 𝜃 … . 𝐻 ∝ 𝑡
From all the above three laws we get
𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡
Application of heating effect of current
(I) It is used as safely fuse
(II) It is used in Electric Heater and Electric Iron
(III) It is used in Electric Wielding.
Electric Power:
The rate at which appliances convert electrical energy into other
forms of energy is called its electric power.
W = P × t = (IV) × t = VIt Joule
Workdone(W) VIt
: . Electric power (P) = = = VI
time taken t
: . P = IV
P = I2R
(:. V=IR Ohm's law)

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V2
P=
R
Electric Energy:
Circuit df Current flow ug{ u/]s]f Workdone nfO{ g} electric
energy elgG5 .
The total workdone by the source of emf in maintaining an
electric current for a given time is called electric energy
consumed in the circuit.
Electric energy E = W = Pt = I2 Rt Joule
Note: 1KWh = 3.6 × 106 Joule
Q.1 Define Emf(electromotive force, terminal p.d.(potential

difference) and internal resistance. How they are related?
[2070, 2069] 4 marks
Electromotive force (Emf or E):- Its S.I. unit is Volt (V)
→ The Force required to move charge (electron) in the circuit is
called Electromotive force.
→ The potential difference between two terminal of a cell in an
open circuit is called the emf.
→ Batteries, electric generators, solar cells etc are sources of
emf.
→ It is used in open circuit
→ It is cause of potential difference
→ It depends upon internal resistance of cell.
→ It is greater than potential difference during discharging.
Terminal potential difference (V): Its S.I unit is volt (V)

→ The potential difference between two terminals of a cell in a
closed circuit is called its terminal p.d.
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→ It is the amount of work-done in moving the unit charge from
anode to cathode in a closed circuit.
→ It is used in closed circuit.
→ It is an effect of electromotive force.
→ It depends upon external resistance of the circuit.
→ It is greater than emf during charging.
Internal Resistance of a cell:

→ The resistance offered by the source in a closed circuit is
called internal resistance (r)
→ It is always in series with external resistors of resistance (R)
→ The internal resistance of a cell of emf depends upon
a) Distance between the electrodes
b) Nature of electrodes and electrolyte
c) Area of electrodes (inversely)
d) Nature, temperature (inversely) and degree of electrolyte
used.
Relation between emf (E), Terminal p.d. (V) and Internal

resistance (r):
Or, Circuit formula
→ Let us consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is
connected in series with key K and external resistor of resistance
R and in parallel with a voltmeter V as shown in fig.

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When circuit is open (Fig a) , no current is drawn from the cell
and reading shown by voltmeter is equal to emf of cell.
When circuit is Closed (Fig b), current I is drawn from the cell
and reading shown by voltmeter is equal to terminal p.d.(V) of
the cell.
Now, from fig( a): E = I (R + r)
E
or, I = , … … … . . (1)
R+r
Also, E = IR + Ir
or, E = V + Ir … … . . (2) Where V = IR
E
Now, V = IR = ( ) R using (1)
R+r
R+r E
or, =
R V
r E
or, 1 + =
R V
r E
or, = −1
R V
E
∴ r = ( − 1) R ,
V
This is required expression for internal resistance of cell.
Note: (I) When r = 0, E=v
(II) When R = 0, V =0 and E = Ir
(III) For discharging current, E = V+Ir and E>V
(IV) For charging current. E = V-Ir and V>E

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Grouping of cell:-
1) Cells in series combination:
When a number of cells are connected in series, the negative

pole of one cell is connected to positive pole of next and so on.
Let us arrangement consists of n similar cells each of emf E and
internal resistance r connected in series with an external
resistance R (fig (I)).
Total emf of n cells in series = nE
Total internal resistance of n cells in series = nr
The current I in the circuit is given by
total emf
I=
total resistance
nE
i.e. I =
R+nr
nE E
Case (I): If R ≪nr then I = = = current due to one cell
nr r
nE
Case (II): If nr ≪R then I = =
R
n times current due to one cell.
Therefore, to obtain maximum current, cells should be connected
in series, if the external resistance is very large as compared to
total internal resistance.
(2) Cells in parallel combination:

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When a number of cells are connected in parallel, all positive
poles are connected to one point and all negative poles are
connected to other point.
Let circuit consists m similar cells each of emf E and internal
resistance r and combination is in series with an external
resistance R.
r
:. Total resistance of m cells =
m
r
Total resistance of ckt = R +
m
If the current I flowing through the combination,
E E mE
I= = =
R + re R + r mR + r
m
1 1 1 m r
(Where = + + ⋯ . . m terms = : . re = )
re r r r m
r E
Case (I) If R ≫ then I = = current due to one cell.
m R
r E mE
Case (II) if R ≪ then I = r = =
m r
m
m times current due to one cell.
Therefore, the cells should be connected in parallel, if total
internal resistance of the cells is very large as compared to the
external resistance.
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(3) Mired Grouping of cells:-
In mixed grouping 'n' similar cells each of emf E and internal
resistance r arranged in series and 'm' such rows are arranged in
parallel. Total number of cells in grouping is mn and they put in
series with an external resistance R. (fig)
The total emf of the cell = nE
nr
Total resistance of the circuit = R +
m
Equivalent internal resistance of cells,
1 1 1 m
= + + ⋯ … … m times =
re nr nr nr
nr
:. re =
m
The current I through the circuit is
total emf nE mnE
I= = =
total resistance R + nr nr + mR
m
mnE
= 2
(√nr − √mR) + 2√mnrR
2
Case (I): The condition for maximum is (√𝑛𝑟 − √𝑚𝑅) = 0
because for I to be maximum, nr-mR=0 →𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅
Case (II) The maximum current in the ckt is

𝑚𝑛E 𝑚𝑛𝐸 𝑚𝑛𝐸
I= = = (∴ 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
2√𝑚𝑛𝑟𝑅 2𝑛𝑟 2𝑚𝑅

25
25
The End

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Current Electricity Chapter (1) : Direct Current Electric Current

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Current Electricity

Chapter (1): Direct Current

Note: Current density is a vector quantity but current is scalar

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Q. (1) Discuss how current is established in a conductor when

Consider a conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A

Also, From Quantization of charge, q=n’e …………(2)

Ohmic and non-Ohmic-conductor:

Note: Different between resistance and resistor

Resistivity or Specific Resistance(𝛠):

Relation between, ⃗𝐉 (current dinsity) and Electric field (E):

Effect of Temperature or Resistance/Resistivity (2marks)

Explain the theory (a) Series (b) parallel combination of

(II) Parallel Combination of resistors:

For n-identical resistors,

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Define Shunt. Describe its use in converting galvanometer into

Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter:

Define Multiplier. How can you convert galvanometer into

Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter

Chapter (2): Heat and Power

In CGS system, J=4.18 Joule/calorie.

Experimental Verification of Joule's law of Heating:

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

(b) To verify H ∝ R (Law of resistance)

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Q.1 Define Emf(electromotive force, terminal p.d.(potential

Terminal potential difference (V): Its S.I unit is volt (V)

Internal Resistance of a cell:

Relation between emf (E), Terminal p.d. (V) and Internal

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

When a number of cells are connected in series, the negative

(2) Cells in parallel combination:

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Case (II) The maximum current in the ckt is

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

Brij Kumar Singh, M.Sc Physics CDP, TU, Kirtipur Nepal 1

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