Contributed by Gil Waldron

THK

Construction and Reconstruction

or

The Human Body.

A MANUAL OF THE THERAPEUTICS 01 EXERCISE.

IIV

EUGEN SANDOW.

WITH A FOREWORD BY

SIR ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE

LONlM>N

JOHK BALE, SOS'S AND DAN I Kt.SSON, LIMITED tyti, CHEAT

TITCHFIKLO STKKICT, OXFORD s T K F h l . \V t-KANCIS GRIFFITHS, 34,
MAIOK.N LANE, STIMM*. W.C
1907.

то

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION

FOR

WHOSE GENEROUS SUPPORT OF HIS

S YSTEM OF P HYSICAL C ULTURE THE AUTHOR CAN

NEVER BE SUFFICIENTLY GRATEFUL

THIS WORK . IS DEDICATED

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FOREWORD.

In the course of a fairly busy literary life, in which I have essayed том things within the scope of
a writer. I have never once had the experience of getting between an author and his audience by saying
a few words in advance. There is an obvious impertinence in the intrusion. And yet here I find myself
not only doing this very thing, but even going out of my way to volunteer for it I can only excuse
myself by my conviction of the good work, the national work, which Mr. Eugrn Sondow has dune in
this country, which makes it a duty to say a word, when one can, on its behalf.
If there were any antagonism between matter and spirit the uw would be very different. If it
could be shown that the body developed at the expense cither of the mind or of the character, then
physical degeneration might be accepted as the price which the human race mast pay for its menial
and spiritual advance. But the facts arc the very opposite. Vice and ignorance are the companions of
uglinrss. That which is physically beautiful stands in the main for that which is mentally sane and
spiritually sound. The classic ages of Greece, which showed the highest intellectual average seen in
this world in a single population, produced also the finest physical types which the sculptor has ever
committed to marble. The man who can raise the standard of physique in any country has done
something to raise all other standards as well.
This maintenance of the standard of physique is accomplished in most continental countries by
that service in the army which gives every adult some years of hard work and gymnastics. I still shrink
from the thought of compulsory service in this country, but the one great argument to set against its
many disadvantages is this very fact that it would fill out and straighten our degenerates, and to ihut
extent improve our national
Ite. J efficiency not merely in war but in the work of peace. Such a departure from our national
traditions can never be effected in cold blood from within, and will only result under the pressure of
some evident and imminent danger from without But could we not meanwhile get the good without
the evil, could we not get the physical improvement without the military s e r v i c e I believe that we
could, and that Eugen Sandow is the man to show us the way.
The strength of a nation is measured by the sum total of the strength of all the units which (arm
it It is a truism that anything which raises any portion of a man. his body, his character, his
intelligence, increases to that extent the strength of the country to which he belongs. Therefore, since
the State is so interested in these matters, it has every reason to examine into them and to regulate
them. The truth is an obvious one. but it is only within our own lifetimes that it bis been practically
applied. " Parents may do what they like with their children. A man may do what he likes with
himself" So ran the okl heresy, which ignored the fact that the State must look after the health of its
own component parts. Then came the Education Act of 1870. It was a great new departure. What it
said was: "No, your mind is not your own. It belongs to the State. You may wish to keep it ignorant. But
ignorant minds are a danger to the State. Therefore we must forte у00 to keep yourself in better order."
That is as far as we have got yet in State ownership of the individual. But it is evident that the same
principle may be applied to the body as well as the mind.
In the days to come the State will—and should—assert its port ownership in the body of every
citizen. We may well eliminate one of our £2,000 a year sinecures, and have in its place a minister of
physical education with his proper staff of inspectors, who will find the material for a system of
national gymnasia The adult will then be compelled to care for his body as the child for his mind, and
it will be much to the advantage both of the individual and of the State Such an inspector would have
a certain scale of heights, weights and che*t nuraMirrments approaching the healthy normal. He
would have the power of accosting the obvious offender, and of saying to him: " Your back. sir. is too
rounded, your chest is too cramped, your knees arc too bent. You arc not an efficient physical unit of
this State." The remedy is simple and not onerous. For a month the culprit would be ordered to place
himself for half an hour a day in the hands of the public gymnastic instructor. At the end of that
month his case would be reconsidered. If he failed to obey the ruling of the inspector, a magistrates
order and a fine would be the consequence. Such is the direction in which we should go if we desire to
achieve thr better results of conscription without the worse.
Meanwhile Mr. Eugen Sandow and his schools arc doing something—as much as a great expert
can do—to fill this national want. He has first arrested the attention of our public, shown it the
pristine perfection of the human body, and systematised the methods by which it may be preserved. It
is my appreciation of the national quality of his services, and .the really vital aim towards which they
have been directed, which must be my excuse if for a moment I have intruded upon the patience of
bis readers. It is my firm conviction that few men have done more for this country during our
generation than he. and that his gymnastic schools have appreciably improved our physique. Every
word which he writes upon the subject deserves the most careful consideration not only of the general
public, but also of the medical faculty with whom he has always loyally worked.

L'ndtnham, Hiudktad. ARTHUR СОМАМ DOVLE.

 A RECENT PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR
INTRODUCTION.

Mv principal object in writing this book, has been not so much to call attention to my system of Curative
Physical Culture—that I have done in former books—as to call the attention of the public and of the medical
profession to the fact that in curative exercise we have a new therapeutic of great value, which when once it is
adopted into the curriculum of hospital schools, and into the practice of the general practitioner: when, that is to
say it is studied experimentally by the skilled pathologist, clinically and in the schools by the medical student, and
adopted by the medical profession generally as a recognised therapeutic, may have, nay must have, curative results
as yet undreamed of, even by those medical men who have most warmly advocated it
In this book, therefore. I have endeavoured to explain the known physiological effects of bodily exercise, and
to formulate a theory as to the particular physiological effects of curative exercise prescribed with a view to the cure
of specific ailments. This theory I do not wish to advance dogmatically, but rather that it may serve, perhaps as a
basis for, at least as a clue to, a perfectly scientific theory of the physiological effects of curative exercise, which can
only be formulated by a skilled pathologist who has also made a close practical study of the effects of such exercise
upon the human body, especially when the prevailing conditions are pathological.
By means of my system of curative exercise I have been able, with the sanction and often with the active co-
operation of the medical profession, to cure so many of the commoner ailments, even in their severest form, that I
have not to plead for the recognition of my system atinitio. But I feel that the time has now come when the system of
which I am the inventor and founder, if it is to do all that I feel sure it ought to do
[ xtt. J
in the alleviation of human suffering, mutt be still further elaborated, and elaborated by medical men. who. by their
special education, their practical experience in the diagnosis of disease, and their innumerable opportunities, arc
necessarily in a far more favourable position for testing and elaborating my system than I myself can possibly be. I
say this in no spirit of mock modesty. I know my own qualifications, and in certain directions I should undoubtedly
claim that tiny were unequalled ; but if I know my qualifications, I also know my limitations; and it stands to reason
that although I have for years made a study of physical develop ment by means of exercise, and although I have had
thousands of sufferers (Kissing through my hands for curative exercise treatment and successful as such treatment
has been, I shall never have the opportunities which naturally fall to the lot of the medical profession generally, and
can never acquire the knowledge possessed by the professional pathologist; which knowledge and opportunities,
together with the practical knowledge and experience which I possess of the dcvclojKncnt of the body and the
stimulation of the organic functions by systematic exercise, will be necessary before a strictly scientific theory of
curative exercise can be formulated.
I have said that in curative exercise we have a new therapeutic; but of course I am fully aware that the medical
profession has long recognised the value of exercise. Indeed from the very earliest times we fmd exercise prescribed
by the physician; but from this conventional and somewhat vague recognition of the value of exercise generally, a |
> r r t . . t under>.tauding of such a system as mine is a far cry, and although I gladly admit that every medical man.

specialist or practitioner, who has hod practical experience of the benefits derived from such exercises as I prescribe,
baa fully endorsed their value, I venture to think that medical men should themselves be able to prescribe curative
exercise for their patient*.
In speaking of curative exercise as a new thenqteutic 1 have also had in my mind the fact that the physiological
effects of such exercise, arc often quite unlike the known physiological effects of ordinary exercise, such as is derived
from the movements of ordinary life or from sports and recreative games. So great is this difference between the two
forms of exercise that most of the deductions made by students of the physiological effects of ordinary exercise, иге
quite worthless when applied to curative exercise, and the physiological assumptions of writers who have only had
experience of recreative exercise, are in most cases flatly contradicted hy the results obtained by such a system as
mine. 1 particularly wish to impress this fact upon my readers, as writers upon the physiological effects of exercise
dogmatise generally upon such effects, when their illustrations are gathered principally from cases of more or less
violent effort made by unskilled and untrained persons accustomed to a sedentary life. I admit the great value of
such physiological examinations, in that they show the dangers which attend a sudden and violent engagement in
recreative games by those who have hitherto led sedentary lives: but as I do not consider that such games have any
claim to be regarded as exercise in the sense in which I use the word, I must protest against the physiological effects
of such games being ascribed to true exercise, the physiological effects of which arc always beneficent, and cannot
from their nature, if properly prescribed, be harmful to anyone.
It is such writers, accurate no doubt as they are when their data are taken into consideration, who are
responsible for a common assumption that even curative exercise is only suitable for the comparatively robust, or
that at any rate convalescence must necessarily be reached tieforc the sufferer from any disease can possibly derive
benefit from such a system as mine. Of course there are cases of extreme muscular atrophy following a fever when
exercise is obviously out of the question, but it is very rare indeed that it may not be usefully employed in the cure of
disease. My system can be adapted to the strength, age, sex, and condition of health of the individual patient, as
well as directed to the cure of the particular complaint from which he or she may be suffering. Nor is confinement to
bed itself an obstacle, for in co-operation with the physician in attendance I myself have prescribed exercises, which
can be jierformcd in the recumbent position, even in eases, when owing to general weakness the patient ha* had to
be assisted in their performance by the nurse, and even under these apparently disadvantageous circumstances the
beneficent results have been rapidly noticeable
Again, it is often supposed that when bodily exercise » ordered by the physician, such curative exercise can be
secured by the practice of
I «V 1
some sport or recreative game. This, however, is absolutely contrary to my experience, as it is also contrary to the
known physiological effects of unaccustomed effort. I have gone into the matter fully in the course of this book, I>ut
1 may say here that there is no recreative game and no sport which can possibly have the desired curative effect, the
movements involved in games and sports being in the first place too partial, and in the second place being directed,
not to the development of the body, but to the development of the game. Any curative exercise must involve, not
only movements specially directed to stimulate the affected organ or organic system, but must also include
movements of the whole body ; and all these movements must be consciously performed , that is to say, the mind
must co-operate with the body if the result is to be curative.
Again, when a patient of sedentary habits and iKcupation is ordered exercise, and it is assumed that sports and
games can provide it. not only-will there be little chance of improved health, there will always be a positive danger
of overtaxing the strength. Persons of sedentary habits suddenly adopting an active life, are apt to attempt the
impossible, and in endeavouring without any preliminary training to emulate the feats of endurance and effort of
their seasoned companions in the sport or game, arc far more likely to permanently cripple their bodies than to
improve their health ; and it is quite possible for such persons to preserve for some time an appearance of
robustness, before the undue strain which they have put upon one or other of the internal organs makes itself felt.
Whereas when the patient ordered exercise adopts such a system as mine, the physician is in a position to know that
when he prescribes curative exercise, the exercise will be such that overstrain will be impossible. As will be seen in
Chapter I., exercises such as I prescribe, notwithstanding the fact that violent effort at no period enters into their
performance, ore so carefully graduated that the gentlest possible movements arc the preliminary to a course which
never requires any strain, and by means of appliances the earlier exercises arc exactly adjusted to the age. sex.
strength, and condition of the patient, so that the natural aptness of most people to let their will outrun their
strength is guarded against from the start. Besides as will be seen as this book is read, the aim of a true system of
curative exercise is to exercise the will as well as the muscle, and this cxcr.ise of
[xvL J the will is not to be secured in any other way than by systematic exercise consciously performed with the
development of the body and the stimulation of its functions firmly fixed in the mind of the performer.
Before I leave this part of my subject, I wish to refer again to the uselcssness of physiological deductions made
from data supplied by the bodily movements involved in recreative games and the ordinary movements involved in
common avocations, being applied to true curative exercise. I particularly wish to refer to Dr. Fernand Lagrange's "
Physiology of Bodily F.xercise," a work which, when the facts upon which it is founded arc taken into consideration,
cannot be praised too highly, yet which from the standpoint of a system of curative exercise such as I have elaborated,
w ill prove most misleading. In this work there is to be found a mass of most valuable information founded upon
close, accurate, and skilled observation, such skilled observation as I should indeed be delighted to have applied to
my system ; but there is one aspect of the book which I find unsatisfactory, although Dr. Lagrange must not of course
be blamed for not possessing one kind of knowledge which did not enter into the scheme of the book. He took his
facts as he found them, and the researches he founded upon those facts are most enlightening. Unfortunately,
however, he is a physiological expert, but not an expert in the bodily exercises from which he draws his physiological
conclusions, and he therefore in places seems to assume that because certain actions are generally performed in a
certain way, that therefore that way is necessarily the correct way. For instance, in Chapter II.. under the heading
"Movements," there arc two passage* uimn effort called " The Porter and His Load," and " Too Hard a Nut" To take
the porter first. Dr. Lagrange says:—

"The porter who wishes to raise a load on to his shoulders, first grasps it, and then, before raising it from the
ground, fie stops for a moment as if to prepare himself fur the movement. This short period la occupied by
important preliminaries. Before performing the movement he must take a deep breath. A great quantity of air
t\ drawn into the lungs, and the glottis immediately closed to present its exit, the chest expands. The ribs arc
Ihus everted and raised, but at the same moment there is an energetic contraction of the abdominal muscles,
winch lends to depress them. The *ir in the chest thus undergoes д vigorous compression, and Ihe wall* ol
I svn. )
s the thorax, pu'hed upward* on the one hand, and pulled downwards on the other, are rendered motionless by
the umultaneou* action of the two opposite forces to which Ihcy are exposed. The fixing of the thoracic walls is the
object of this strife between the antagonistic forces of respiration, in which the inspiratory muscle* are opposed to the
expiratory, and which, in physiological language, is known as effort. The ribs, being motionless for the moment, can
give a fixed and solid point of application to all the muscles attached to them, and in particular to the great muscular
masses which move the arms, the vertebral column, and the pelvis; these muscles then contract vigorously, and the
load is raised. As soon as the muscular action is completed, the chest empties itself. The air which wa« retained I - .
briskly expelled, with the production of a kind of murmuring sigh, which indicates the end of the effort.And this
murmuring sigh with which the effort concludes is not only physiologically but emotionally justified; for if the load
in question be not well within the (xiwer of the porter to lift, then the porter has indeed been at death's very door.
I have, of course, no doubt whatever that Dr. Lagrange's excellent description of this effort is the result of
acute observation and accurate knowledge, and that it precisely corresponds with the facts. I have also no doubt
whatever that that is precisely how the porter did lift the load, and how many porters arc still lifting loads. But Dr.
Lagrange fails to point out. and I venture to think docs not even know, that that is precisely the way in which a load
should not be lifted. Here I speak with authority, and I think this instance proves my point, that before a perfect
theory of the (ihysiological effects of curative exercise, or for the matter of that, of any bodily movements whatever,
can be formulated, the physiological and pathological expert must add to his knowledge of the body and its
functions, normal or diseased, the knowledge of physical culture by means of exercise, which I have myself acquired
through long years of study and experience.
Let us see for a moment what the jwrtcr did; and then let us sec what he ought to have done.
First, he took a deep breath, which he held during the effort. This deep breath he took by inflating the upper
part of the lungs, to do which the muscular actions of the thorax as described by Dr. Lagrange are necessary, the
diaphragm is drawn up and the abdomen contracted. But
[ xviii. ]
 CHAP. I
Exercise

Construction and
Reconstruction of
the Human Body

CHAPTER I.
EXERCISE.

ВКГОНЕ I attempt to deal with the therapeutic effects of exercise, I propose to

explain precisely what I mean by exercise, and why the exercise 1 advocate is so
beneficial, I may even say essential, to health. By exercise I mean certain movements of
the body prescribed with the definite intention of correcting some especial defect, of
curing some especial complaint, or of invigorating the whole body. I have given the
three reasons for prescribing exercise, because although the third is always included in
the first and the second, it very often happens that although there is no especial defect
or complaint the whole body needs strengthening.
Needless to say. such exercise must be founded upon sound physiological
knowledge, upon practical experience of iu effect in particular cases, and it must never
be such that it will overtax the strength of the patient. It must, in fact, be prescribed in
precisely the same way that any other therapeutic agent is prescribed ; that is to say, not
only must the general effect of the exercise be understood, but the exercise must, in
every case, be adapted to the age. the constitution, the condition of health past and
present, the habits and avocations, and the general bodily development of the patient.
The object of curative exercise is not primarily to develop the muscles, but
i [•1
rather to cure and prevent specific diseases, to rectify genera! weakness, or to produce
general health by stimulating functional activity.
Of course, all exercise of the body, so long as it does not overtax the strength, is
beneficial; but it cannot be said that any recreative exercise, or any exercise involved in
manual labour, is all that the body needs. All such exercises arc partial, and not one of
them brings every muscle of the body into play, and the result is a lop-sided
development and an uneven distribution of health-giving movement throughout the
whole body. To put my argument in a sentence, the usual movements of the average
man or woman arc insufficient to give the whole body the exercise it requires, and what I
may call " artificial " movements are necessary if the whole body is to be affected.
Watch any work of the handicraftsman, or any sport of the sportsman, and it will
at once be seen that in no case are all the movements of which the body is capable gone
through. Watch an animal in a state of nature, and note the almost infinite variety of
bodily movement which takes place. Now an animal in a state of nature which is able to
procure its necessary food hardly ever dies except of old age, unless it is killed by an
enemy or meets with some accident. No doubt the period of time in which old age is
reached varies, but this point, which I shall refer to later, has nothing to do with the
matter at present under discussion, which is the normal health of an animal in a state of
nature. May we not presume that its bodily exercise, which is so continual and so
perfect, is to a great extent the cause of its sound health ?
Man, however, has gradually lost the pressing necessity for these movements. The
erect posture, no doubt, first made many needless; and by needless I, of course, mean
needless in the pursuit of his ordinary avocations ; for there is no movement of which
the body at any time is capable that I would venture to say was needless if perfect health
is to be secured. In another chapter I shall deal with the adaptation of all living things to
their environment; but I may say here tli.n during adaptation unfit individuals arc
eliminated, and it is practically this natural elimination that the physician of all ages has
been called upon to check so far as he is able.
To return, however, to my present argument, modification of modes of life have
gradually affected mans need of movement, till to-day some
I• J
 СНА Г. к

of us uuy remain practically in the same position for hours, using, maybe, but one set of
muscles, and those, so far as health-giving movement is concerned, comparatively
unimportant. Numbers of people use the muscles of the upper part of the body almost
exclusively ; others, on the contrary use the muscles of the arms and chest and back but
rarely, and the muscles of the legs continually. In fact, instances of this partial exercise
might be multiplied indefinitely.
It is this partial exercise which brings about an impoverished bodily condition, for
which properly prescribed exercise is the only rational cure. Some of the most valuable
movements of my curative exercises are movements which in the whole course of his daily
avocations, both of work and sport, a man may never be called upon to use These
exercises, especially such as affect the whole trunk, not only bring into play the unused
muscles, but they must inevitably affect directly all those organs of the body, and all the
cells of which those organs are com posed, which he in the path of the movements. These
points I have brought out more in detail in the chapters devoted to exercise, and the
various organs and cells of the body.
There is another characteristic of curative exercise which distinguishes it from the
exercise involved in labour and recreations. In all the move menu of our daily life the
movements are not in themselves the objects of our thoughts. We think of the walk and
not of the walking. In a game our minds arc fixed not upon the movements we make and
the effect of such movement* on our bodies, but upon the effect of the movements upon
the course of the game we are playing. In a handicraft it is the same, the mind is fixed, not
upon the movements and their effects upon the body, but upon their external effects
alone. In curative exercise the reverse is the case. One of the essential points of my system
is the cultivation of the will power. The mind of the patient is concentrated upon the
muscles and parts of the body brought into play by the movements made. The result of
this mental concentration is such that 1 am enabled to prescribe exercises which occupy
but a few minutes a day in their performance, and yet are sufficient to give the body that
full variety and extent of movement it needs if a healthy condition b to be secured and
maintained

[J 1
Exercise with Apparatus CHAP. I.

PRACTICAL

NOTES OH

CURATIVE

EXERCISE.

\.— Witk

Affarmiu

t.

Th
e first
performa
nces of
the
curative
exercise
are with
apparatu
s, and for
the
followin
g reasons
:—
The
most
importa
nt thing
to be
avoided
when the
course of
exercises
is begun,
is
overstrai
n. The
beginner
, if left to
himself,
without
the
checks
which
apparatu
s
imposes,
is apt to
put more
force
into each
moveme
nt than
his
bodily
conditio
n
warrants
; and if
this were
allowed,
the
result of
the
exercises
would be
negative
and the
patient
exhauste
d If
properly
performe
d the
exercises
may tire the patient, but
although feeling tired he will
also feel fresher and better in
health after the exercises than
before. The common
experience of everyone will
bear witness to this natural
inclination to overtax the
strength. A heavy box. we will
say. has to be lifted, and.
without thinking, one
unaccustomed to such work
will endeavour to lift it, and
possibly succeed, though
often at the expense of a
rupture, and nearly always at
the expense of a severe strain
upon the heart which leaves
the victim exhausted.
The use of apparatus,
however, effectually
counteracts this natural
tendency to overwork the
unaccustomed muscles. The
strain is precisely regulated by
the resistance of the
apparatus, and the
movements can he measured
with such exactness that over-
exertion becomes impossible.
For instance, the patient
knows that the apparatus is to
be extended to a given point,
no more and no less. If not
extended to that point, he
knows that more power must
be put into the work; if
extended beyond that point,
he knows that less power must
be exerted Thus he is able to
strike the precise mean of
force essential, if the exercise
is to be really curative This
mean, I need hardly say, varies
with each individual patient,
according to his needs, his
constitution, and the existing
condition of his health.
The use of apparatus is
also necessary for the first
strengthening of the will
power; for, as I have already
said, the importance of the
exercise of will power cannot
be over-estimated. The
apparatus strengthens the will
by regulating the movements;
for each movement must be
directly controlled by the will
of the performer, or the
extension of the apparatus
I4J
Exercise without Apparatus СНАГ. I.

will be too little or too great. Although as a general rule, as I have pointed out, the natural
tendency is to overdo the movement, it frequently happens that the will is weaker than the
body, and enough force is not at first put into the movement But in cither case, the
correspondence of will and muscular force is aimed at and secured BY the use of apparatus,
which by registering the extent of each movement, calls into play both the will and the
muscle, unul their correspondence is perfect.

II.— Without Apparatus.

The patient being proficient in exercise with apparatus, the apparatus ts discarded and
the movements controlled by the mind alone; just sufficient force and no more being put
into each movement, as is prescribed. By force, I mean, the exact prescribed contraction of
the muscles brought into play. This force, will s*ary with each patient Under this port of the
treatment the beneficial effect of the exercise upon the body generally, or upon the organ
and function particularly needing stimulation, becomes most marked.
The patient being proficient in the exercises without apparatus, another stage in the
SYSTEM is reached; at which stage the power of both will and muscle is brought into full
play. The patient now sets each group of muscles separately and consciously, and holds
them in the contracted position without movement This forceful stationary contraction of
the muscles has a powerfully stimulating effect upon them; and when perfection of control
over the muscles is reached in this way. the lesson becomes indelibly fixed in the mind, and
exercise thereafter becomes an unconscious habit.

III.—Tit Habit ofExtrciu.

The last stage of exercise when once this perfection of habit is reached is practically
continuous, and in the majority of cases no further recourse to set exercises is needed It
must not. however, be understood when I say that the exercise becomes unconscious, that
the movements arc no longer controlled by the will. On the contrary, by unconscious
exercises 1 mean that every movement of the body being consciously performed,
(SJ
The Habit of Exercise СИЛГ. I.

txtrciti is undergone unconsciously. For instance, one who has reached this stage will not
make any movement that is not forceful. The body will be held and moved not, as it were,
accidentally, but always with a purpose. The habit of exercise will have been acquired, and
there is no habit so health-giving or so enduring. Sometimes I have heard a man who has
reached this last stage, on doing some unaccustomed muscular work after a long abstention
from any set course of exercise, say: " 1 have not done anything like this for years (or months,
as the case may be), and yet I do not feel fatigued. How do you account for that ? " My
answer to such a question is this: "You have acquired the habit of exercise, all your
movements arc purposeful ; you are always aware of your body, and all these years or
months you have been exercising unconsciously, and your present fitness for apparently
unaccustomed muscular effort is the result" Or again, sometimes a man will say : " My
muscles are quite hard and yet I икс no especial exercise I " And in that case die
explanation is the same, the exercise is continuous but unconscious, in fact, habitual.
That this is no imaginary effect of a perfect system of exercise may be understood by
everyone who has the opportunity of comparing the habitual movements of those who have
thus learnt to control their bodies with the movements of those who have learnt no such
lesson. The movements and even the repose of those who have not been taught the control
of their bodies are haphazard and slovenly ; their movements arc lax and their repose is
huddled How different are the movements of those whose bodies have been projxrrly
exercised. Every movement is nicely adjusted to its purpose, decisive and forceful: their
bodies arc elastic, they walk with an air of assured case, and they stand easily and firmly in
well-balanced attitudes. In repose it is the same : the body rests perfectly and solidly, and no
part rests at the expense of another part ; the chest remains expanded and no organ is
placed in a cramped position; and so in movement and repose there is always exercise,
unconscious, but nevertheless exercise, because every movement or set of the muscles is
directly controlled by the will. Work to such is pleasurable, and they get the full amount of
pleasure out of their recreations.
It may be objected that those who have acquired this habit of exercise
l«l
Expanse WITHOUT APPARATUS

The Habit of Exercise CHAP. I.

are still handicapped by only having to make the partial movements required in ordinary
life. The objection, however, is unsound. Those who have acquired the habit of exercise
perform movements that are not called for by their work or recreations. They feel the bodily
need of such movements, and the movements result. It is the same with them as with one
given to twirling his moustache. There is continuous conscious play of the muscles, there is
gratification in their play, and all their movements arc consciously made and enjoyed The
walking is enjoyed as much as the walk, and the movements of a recreative game are in
themselves a source of interest. The muscles in this case, as the moustache in the other, are
"twirled" for the mere pleasure of "twirling" them.
Let a man or woman once acquire this habit of unconscious exercise, and health, I
maintain, will assuredly come with it and be retained by it. Of course, accidental illnesses
will happen to the best regulated body, but all the ordinary ailments will be held at bay by
the purposeful movement and the purposeful repose of the perfectly healthy body.
 It will be found of great assistance to the rapid acquirement of this habit of exercise if.
when the patient is proficient in all the exercises here described, that is to say. when the will
has obtained perfect control over the whole muscular system, an occasional ten minutes or
so be devoted to exercise while the mind is detached. For instance, a muscle may be set to
its fullest and held while the mind is allowed to think of other and preferably pleasurable
things for a while, returning now and again to consideration of the muscle to sec if it is still
obeying the order. In the same way a movement may be ordered by the will, and the muscles
left for a while to perform it Gradually it wilt be found that even while the performer is
apparently thinking only of other things, there is a sub-consciousness of the set muscles or
the moving limb ; and this sub-consciousness is really a short cut to the habit of exercise I
have already described This double exercise of the will will be found a source of amusement,
and will relieve the monotony of the exercise It is a form of exercise which I often practise
myself, and from which I believe all who arc absolutely proficient in systematic exercise may
derive benefit. But of course, such an exercise is not for the beginner, who will require
exclusive concentration of the mind U|x>n the muscles exercised, if the full benefits of the
exercise are to be obtained.
(71
Relaxation

Relaxation снлг. i.

RELAXATI
ON.
Ap
art,
however,
from the
various
exercises
of the
body,
there is
an
exercise
of the
will
which is
as
valuable
as any of
the
exercises
of the
muscles,
and is
most
importa
nt in the
case of
nervous
breakdo
wn and
insomni
a. This
exercise
is the
precise
reverse
of all the
exercises
I have
yet
describe
d, and
consists,
not in
moveme
nts, but
in
relaxatio
n of the
whole
body.
This
relaxatio
n, when
perfect
(that is
to say.
when
not only
all the
muscles
are
relaxed,
but
when
even
thought
ceases),
results in
sound
and re-
freshing
sleep.
There
has been
some
discussio
n lately as healthy
to whether out-of-
sleep is door
merely the pursuits,
physiologic parti-
al result of cularly
bodily colonials
fatigue, or engaged
whether it in sheep-
is a mental farming
act and the or cattle
arguments ranching
generally , can at
have tended any
to prove moment
that it is a and
mental act. under
This view I almost
am any
prepared to conditio
endorse ; ns,
for if sleep throw
is not themselv
always a es into a
mental act. state of
and I perfect
should say muscular
that it is, it relaxatio
can n, and
incontestab sleep like
ly be proved children.
to be a If any of
m e n t a l act my
in the readers
exercise I have
am about to seen
describe. such
In sleepers
relaxation and will
exercises compare
the patient the utter
consciously loosenes
relaxes s of their
every bodies,
muscle of and the
the body. peaceful
Of course, expressio
skilled n of their
tuition is faces,
required, with the
and some muscular
little and
practice nervous
before tension
perfect exhibite
relaxation d even in
can be sleep by
secured at those
will, but it who lead
is a mental sedentar
effort of y lives,
which all they will
may acquire at once
the power. see the
To illustrate value of
what relaxatio
perfect n as a
relaxation health
amounts to, restorer.
let us take a Now by
case of its systemat
natural ic
acquiremen exercise
t It will of the
often be will this
found that relaxatio
men who n can be
have secured
adopted by those
Relaxation

whose lives This is

are the
sedentary, normal
and who conditio
suffer from n of
business persons
and other who lead
worries, sedentar
provided of y lives;
course, that but of
they also course,
systematica in cases
lly exercise of
their bodies insomnia
in the and
manner nervous
which I break-
have down,
the
already
conditio
described
n is
In the
consider
ordinary
ably
course of
worse,
things,
and the
those who
demand
lead
of the
sedentary
body for
lives, and
rest may
do not
not be
systematica
heeded
lly exercise
at all, the
their
brain
bodies, being loo
never busy, or,
secure may be,
perfect rest too
of the body. weary to
The perform
fatigued the
body warns mental
the mind act
again and required;
again that which is,
the time as it
has come to were, to
rest it, but switch
the brain is off the
busy, and nervous
the order to energy,
си А г. I. and
allow
sleep is not
both
given. The
itself and
demand of
the body
the body
to rest.
becomes
But, as I
emphatic,
have
and at last
said, this
the mind
lost
reluctantly,
power
as it were,
can be
consents.
regained
But the
by
mental act
exercise.
is not
Graduall
complete;
y the
and the
control
sleep is also
of the
incomplete.
will over
There is still
the body
tension of
is
the body,
restored
and still
. and as
tension of
it can
the mind,
order
and the rest
this or
is
that
necessarily
muscle
more or less
to move,
inadequate.
so it can
order this
or that CHAPTER П
muscle to
relax ; and PHYSICAL
the sleep DKCFNKR
that was ATION,
lacking is R ACIAL .\
NI>
secured and
INDIVIDL
secured in a AI.
fuller and
completer So
degree than much
was the case
interest
before the
is taken
attack.
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Forward to CHAPTERS II & III Please read this disclaimer
in the
Havin
question
g now
of the
defined
what I physical
mean by degenera
exercise, tion of
and having the
given the nation,
reader a and
general idea there is,
of my at the
system. I same
shall now time, so
proceed to much
explain the confusio
need and n in the
effect of public
exercise in mind as
detail; but to what
whenever I this
refer to " physical
exercise * degenera
throughout tion
the book I really
must always means,
be that in
understood this
to mean the chapter I
"exercise" I shall
have endeavo
described ur to
in this define "
chapter, physical
that is to degenera
say, tion," to
properly explain
prescribed its cause,
systematic and to
exercise suggest a
devised to
remedy.
meet the
Firs
especial
t, then,
needs of
what do
each
we mean
individual
by
patient.
physical
degenera
tion ?
Now I
take it
that
what
people
usually
mean
when
they
speak of
physical
degenera
tion, is
that the
populati
Relaxation

on generally to time,
is becoming be
unfitted to modified
its mode of by
life. But it artificial
will, I selection
think, be . It
easy to stands to
demonstrat reason
e that this is that no
a totally matter
wrong what the
interpretati conditio
on. All ns of life,
living the indi-
things, viduals
from the best
meanest fitted for
insects to those
the conditio
mightiest ns will
and noblest survive
race of and will
men, arc perpetua
continually te the
becoming race; and
fitted for such
the life they individu
are forced als, no
to live. Of matter
course, I how
assume that unfavour
the theory ably in
of evolution some
by means of respects
natural they may
selection is compare
now with
universally other
accepted. individu
But, even als,
among surviving
people who under
accept and other
understand and
this theory, easier
it is often conditio
assumed ns,
that natural cannot,
selection in one
halts at the sense, be
frontiers of called
civilisation, physicall
and that y
thereafter degenera
some other te, if
and they
different, attain
but the
unexplaine health
d, system of necessar
evolution y to their
takes its survival
place, or and
that reproduc
physical tion.
evolution I to ]
itself
ceases.
As a
matter of
fact,
evolution
by natural
selection
never
ceases,
though it
may, of
course,
from time
 To use two illustrations which have already been used in this connection, and which cannot be bettered - The
sewer-rot lives in perfect health in an environment which would, at first thought, be considered impossible for a
in.nnm.il to survive in; and the poorer class of Chinese in China live quite comfortably under conditions which
would mean death 10 a European. They have, in fact, been naturally selected to survive under such conditions;
and we cannot say that they have degenerated in any but a comparative sense. As compared with the stalwart races
who live in the open air. the poorer Chinese would seem degenerate; but taken in conjunction with their forced
mode of life, it must be admitted that they arc admirably adapted to it.
We therefore sec that what we call physical degeneration is really the gradual adaptation of a people to what we
may call a vicious environment ; and we shall easily understand that if we desire to alter or " improve " a people, we
must start upon our work indirectly by altering or improving the conditions of life under which that people lives.
Alter the environment, and natural selection will do the rest.
When we speak of physical degeneration, we should therefore understand that we really mean a falling away
from some recognised, if ill-defined, standard of physique, which we have ourselves fixed ; and when I write of
physical degeneration. I mean this falling away from a recognised standard. If this standard is to be reached |
>crmanently, then the conditions of life must be made suitable for such a standard. In some sort this is already
understood, and improved sanitation, and improved dwellings for the urban worker, are steps in the right direction.
Something more than, and something quite different from, this improvement of environment is, hosrever.
demanded, and rightly demanded. But we have seen that only by such improvement of environment can a race be
improved. Have we therefore arrived at an emptuu. Not at all I
If the race cannot be " improved " by other than the indirect means mentioned above, the individuals of which
that race is composed undoubtedly can be. Such physical improvement of individuals will not be transmissible to
their offspring, except in so far as a healthy father and mother, even though their health may have been acquired, will
to some extent transmit their general health to their children. The question of
t «« J
the possibility of transmitting acquired characteristics is no doubt still debatable, but the weight of evidence is
certainly against such possibility, and I for one hold to the theory that such transmission of acquired characteristics,
be they defects or improvements, is impossible. The idea that certain diseases are hereditary has lost ground, and
although famities may be discovered likely to acquire certain diseases, it is no longer maintained that more than this
likelihood of acquisition is hereditary. When, therefore. I speak of checking physical degeneration, I mean checking
the physical degeneration of individuals.
In the course of the adaptation of a race to a changing environment, individuals necessarily suffer in health and
In appearance, and some system of therapeutics becomes necessary to counteract, as far as possible, the effects of
this adaptation by natural selection ; this elimination, not necessarily of the worst, but of the unfit. In former ages,
although this eternal process of adaptation was always going on. it proceeded so gradually that its process was
practically unfclt by any particular generation. Recently, however, the changes of environment have become more
rapid, and the call upon individuals to adapt themselves, or be eliminated, has been too sudden and too peremptory
to be overlooked. The conditions of life in the west of Europe and America, at any rate, have changed more in the
course of the last century than, we may almost say, in the course of the ten centuries preceding, and the changes,
even during this century, have continually increased in velocity and in violence.
An Englishman of the time of the Conqueror, could he have returned to England in the reign of George the
Third, would have had less cause for amazement than would a contemporary of George the Third who returned to
London to-day. The marvellous multiplication of aids to locomotion, and of aids to the transaction of business or
pleasure; the enormous growth in site and number of the large towns, with its corollary of a concentrated population
breathing an impurer air. and having less and less opportunity for heolthy exercise, as the need for healthy exercise
grows greater and greater; all these changes—many of them violent, and roost of them rapid—have naturally been
responsible for a crop of new diseases, and a great aggravation of the older complaints. There has been no time for
the old gradual and imperceptible adaptation, and the demand upon the individual has been, as I have already said,
violent and peremptory. All classes have suffered. A sudden change in the habits of the rich may be as serious from
the health point of view as a sudden change in the conditions of life of the poor | and it is therefore imperative that
science, which is responsible for the change, should at least alleviate, if it cannot remove, the effects of the change it
has to suddenly brought about.
Any alteration, or, as we should probably call it, any improvement in physique of the race can only, as I have
already pointed out, be effected indirectly by an alteration or improvement in the conditions of life. In other words,
the characteristics of a race are only permanently altered by natural or artificial selection ; and artificial selection
such as that adopted by the breeder of animals, is not within the regions of practicability. Therefore, what is called
the physical degeneration of a race, as a race, is beyond the reach of therapeutics. Hut the degeneration of each
separate individual of the race can undoubtedly be checked. Parents whose physical development has been improved
by artificial means may not transmit this physical improvement to their children, but the children can in turn be
treated as the parents were treated and their physique improved. By improved physical development I mean, of
course, improved development of muscles or organs, and such improvements, I hold, are not transmissible. although
it is more than probable that the resulting sounder general health will be transmitted. So that although the race will
necessarily still be gradually adapted to its environment, a condition of bodily development may be secured to each
individual by artificial means, not at variance with the conditions of the environment, but not arising from it. and
therefore not likely to be brought about in the ordinary course of nature. To give an illustration of my meaning Let us
imagine that a race of agriculturists was suddenly called upon to become a race of manufacturers, and was conqielled
to leave farming and an open-air life, to crowd into a town, and to work under the worst conditions of manufacturing
life. We will suppose that these people bad no knowledge of physical culture, formed no Standard physical
development, and had not the assistance of any system of therapeutics. Natural selection would at once begin to
eliminate the unfit for such a life ; and perhaps the very individuals whom we should consider, according to our
standards, the pick of the race, would sicken and die off. until gradually, from the individuals best fitted for
[ 41
an urban manufacturing life, a race vastly different from its ancestors would be evolved. We should probably say that
the race had degenerated, but for all that, these degenerate people, being perfectly fitted to the environment, would
live and perpetuate the race, and ever become more and more fitted for the conditions of the life they were forced to
live.
Let us now suppose that during this period of "degeneration " this race had been permitted to live and work in
peace; but that at last they were threatened by a far less numerous but far stronger and more warlike agricultural
race. The less numerous but more warlike people, being, we will suppose, unable to crush the more numerous
townsmen, make a series of raids on the town, which the inhabitants defend to the best of their ability. The weaker
townsmen would be continually destroyed, as only the stronger would be able to defend themselves successfully; and
after these raids had continued over many generations, a change would be observed in the physique of the urban
race. It would have become stronger, for the weak would have been continuously eliminated. Artificial as this
elimination would seem, it would, after all. be merely natural selection at work.
We will now suppose that when their warlike neighbours first threatened our towndiving race, these townsmen
had been wise enough to see that some system of physical culture was necessary if they were not to be continually
harried. Some, or all of them, would at once begin to train their bodies, and a marked " improvement" in the
physique of the people would soon be noticeable, but this improvement would not be transmissible, for it would
have been acquired, and would not have been evolved, as in the other case, by the elimination of the unfit for
warfare. In fact, the physical culture would prevent this very elimination of the unfit individuals, which is Nature's
method of adapting a race to its environment.
Asa matter of fact, the whole history of the therapeutic art is the history of a war between man and natural
selection, and although so far as heredity is concerned, natural selection is almost omnipotent, the individual
victims of its law against the survival of the " unfit " have been continually rescued from its toils. By "unfit," of
course, is understood not the unfit in the conventional sense, but the unfit in the sense of their being out of
harmony with the surrounding conditions. To illustrate my meaning, let us take again the case of the life lived by the
poorer classes of Chinamen in China. Under such
[ 4 1
Ph у ileal Degeneration CHAP. II.

conditio
ns the "
fittest"
(as we
should
say) of
Europea
ns, the
most
perfect
in
physique
and
health,
would be
unfit,
and
unless
artificiall
y aided
to
withstan
d the
unaccust
omed
conditio
ns of life,
would be
swiftly
eliminate
d
It
will
therefore
be seen
that what
a rational
system of
therapeu
tics must
do is
this, it
must
enable
the
individu
al to
withstan
d the
effects of
his
environ-
IN ' ut.
and this
has
hitherto
been
effected
in a
curiously
inept
manner.
The
environ
ment has
first been
allowed
to
overcom
e its
victim,
and then
when the
victim is
what we
call ill.
science
has come
forward
with a remedy fur the CHAPTER Ш.
illness; a remedy, as we
may say. for the symptoms STRUCTU
but not for the cause of RAL
the illness. Under the EFFECT
OF
conditions of life
EXERCISE.
obtaining a century ago.
the weakness of such a
BEF
system, though apparent,
ORE
was not so serious, for
illness was then far more dealing
often acute than chronic, with the
and the little chronic effect of
illnesses (that are exercise
ultimately so serious) upon
which especially afflict particula
the modern man and r parts,
woman were organs,
comparatively rare. and
Nervous complaints, for tissues of
instance, and chronic the body,
indigestion are peculiarly
I propose
modem in their
to deal
prevalence and their
with its
persistency. No one
effect
doubts for a moment that
upon the
it is modern conditions of
life which produce these body
modern complaints, and generally.
it can hardly be First, 1
questioned that such shall take
illnesses and their more its
serious resultants are the structura
means by which natural l effect;
selection, if left to itself, secondly,
would eliminate the its
"unfit" for modern function
conditions of life. al effect;
What is therefore and
wanted in a rational thirdly,
system of therapeutics, is
its moral
a cure or alleviative for
effect.
these complaints, based
By
on a knowledge of their
the
primary causes. What, we
structura
must ask, is there in
l effect of
modern conditions of life
exercise I
likely to cause die
complaints which arc mean its
known to arise from such effect
conditions f Now I upon the
maintain that the most develop-
striking feature of ment of
modern conditions of life the form
likely to cause disease is and
the lack of bodily carriage
exercise, and I think that of the
in the following pages I body.
shall be able to prove, to This
the satisfaction of every structura
candid reader, that my l effect
system of curative has been
exercises is the most known
rational system of for ages,
therapeutics that has yet and it
been discovered, and that was
its general adoption is
probably
imperative if "
brought
degeneration," or, as I
to the
would rather call it,
pitch of
complete physical
perfectio
adaptation to a vicious
n by the
environment, is to be
athletes
prevented
of
ancient
Greece.
In fact,
this
I «I )
effect of
exercise
is to clearly understood
that it is hardly necessary
to refer to it here, except
to explain its bearing
upon its allied functional
effect, an effect that has
always been vaguely
believed in. but had never
been scientifically
demonstrated until I
introduced my curative
system.
The curative
importance of what I call
the structural effect of
exercise can easily be
overlooked until it is
pointed out that upon the
form and carriage of the
body depends to a very
great extent the
functional activity of its
organs and tissues. In the
perfected body, the body
whose grace and
symmetry at once strike
us when we look upon an
ancient Greek statue, we
have only to notice the
proportions of the figure
to understand, if we have
any knowledge of
anatomy, that all the
internal organs must be
supported and carried as
they should be. The just
external proportions
show us that the bodily
cavities arc also jusdy
proportioned, that the
lungs and heart have the
necessary space in which
to do their work, and that
the viscera are duly
supported and held in
their proper position by
strongly developed
abdominal muscles.
There is obviously neither
undue constriction nor
muscular flabbiness, but
throughout the whole
frame a perfect
 MISS ODELL AS SHE APPEARED AT THE PALACE THEATRE.

Mis* Odcll WAS li.tiucd by die AuUiur.

Structural Effect of ciur.

Exercise lit.

adjustment of parts, and the result, as we see, is beauty, and. as we are

entitled to infer, health.
Now we are quite warranted in assuming that this perfection of
form recorded by the ancient Greek sculptors was reached by means of
the system of body culture for which the Greeks were famed; and we are
entitled further to assume that were a nation to keep that ideal of bodily
form before them, and to adopt the same methods of body culture the
same perfection of form might again be attained.
It will at once be objected that the Greeks were able to devote a far
larger portion of their time to body culture than any modem people
could possibly spare, and I am quite prepared to admit that the
objection is valid. But, as I have already explained in Chapter I., it is
quite passible to compress into a few minutes' exercise the necessary
force and movements to attain the condition of body culture which the
Greeks spent so large a portion of their time in attaining. Of course I do
not maintain that such a system of body culture as mine will give any
one who practises it the figure of an Apollo, but I do maintain that by it
the just proportions of any given body can be at least approximated, and
it is this perfect proportion of the body which has so profound an effect
upon the functional activity of the organs. Narrow, flat-chested people
must necessarily have also undeveloped and weak, if not diseased,
lungs. The heart action of such must also be weakened; for, after all, one
of the first necessities for movement of any kind is space in which to
move, and free movement is essential to such active organs as the heart
and lungs. It is the same with the digestive organs, the perfectly
proportioned body, by its very form, assists the digestive process. The
expanded chest means a powerful diaphragm, and the muscular action
of the stomach is thereby assisted. As we shall see when we come to the
chapters dealing with the digestive and respiratory organs, the
condition of this great internal muscle has a direct bearing upon the
functions of the organs with which it is in contact. Again, in the
perfectly proportioned body there is no unsightly protrusion of the
abdomen, and the intestinal passages are duly supported by the
abdominal muscles, and so, again, is digestion facilitated. And so on
throughout the whole bodily system, we shall find that the perfect
structural form invariably accompanies a perfect functional activity.
' [ПJ
 Structural Effect by Exercise CHAP. HI.

The proper carriage of the body, too, which is essential if the perfect structural form is
to be attained, quite apart from its grace and comfort, has also a direct effect upon the
bodily functions, especially upon the circulation of the blood, and that " habit of
unconscious exercise" which in Chapter I. I showed to be the product of my system of
curative exercises, has a continual beneficial effect upon functional activity. Again, as will
be seen in the chapter devoted to " Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage," the proper
carriage of the body it all important if some of the most disfiguring deformities arc to be
cured or avoided.

[ 18 )

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 CHAPTER IV.

FUNCTIONAL EFFECT OF EXERCISE.

I.—Organ и Function.
IN later chapters I shall deal in detail with the known effects of exercise upon the
functional activity of the various organs of the body, and I shall now merely deal with its
effect upon the organs generally. Perhaps the easiest way to arrive at a knowledge of
what exercise can effect in the way of stimulating functional activity, is to make a note of
the ailments to which people of sedentary habits are peculiarly susceptible In this
negative way we shall arrive at the very natural conclusion that that which is caused by
want of exercise can be cured by exercise; and this conclusion, as I shall prove in
subsequent chapters, is fully borne out by the known curative effects of exercise when
applied to these especial complaints.
The common complaints from which persons of sedentary habits generally suffer
are indigestion, liver trouble and constipation, all complaints affecting the digestive
process; weak chests are also commonly found in people who live indoor lives and who
take no regular exercise; headache and insomnia arc also secondary ailments from
which such people very frequently suffer. And the conclusion that such ailments are
directly brought about by sedentary habits is quite substantiated by the known effects
upon such ailments of my curative exercises. These curative effects, as 1 say, arc known;
and as I shall deal with each ailment as I deal with the organ or organs affected by it, I
need not go further into that part of the subject here But as it is obvious that exercise
can only affect an organ and its functions, by affecting the cells of which the organ is
composed, I now propose to advance my theory of the effect of exercise upon cellular
function.
[ i9l
U.—C*/MarFmnttiam,
As every school boy it now aware, the body is entirely composed of living cells and
the products of their vitality. Everyone of these cells has its own individual functions,
quite apart from, or perhaps I should say quite distinct from, the functions of the organs
of which they form port. These cells are of different derivation and of very varied
structure, but they are all alike in that they move, and breathe, and feed, and excrete,
and reproduce their kind. It is to these cells that the blood, in the form of lymph, carries
oxygen, and the necessary nourishment, and it is from them that the blood carries away
their excretions, such as carbonic acid and urea. Now, although the functions of these
cells seem mechanical, every cell has this of non-mechanical in it—it can reject
unsuitable nourishment; it possesses, in fact, a power of choice ; and, as 1 have already
said, it has the power of movement, even when its movements are limited to those
entailed in the absorption of food and excretion of waste products. That these
movements can be stimulated in many ways has been proved again and again in the
laboratory. Now 1 maintain that my treatment, by systematically exercising every part of
the body, must necessarily stimulate the movements of its component cells ; and as the
functional activity of these cells depends upon their power of movement, it stands to
reason that any such natural stimulation as is derived from bodily movements must
affect the cells beneficially.
It must be remembered that the cells which can be said to exercise in the ordinary
acceptance of that word arc very limited in number; and there is only one cell, apart
from the germ cells, which has the power of free movement, namely, the white corpuscle
of the blood, whose movements arc identical with those of an individual organism.
There are a few cells, such as those that have movable attachments (the ciliary cells',
which can be said to exercise directly, if automatically. The other cells arc practically
sutionary, and even when they belong to the classes which continually reproduce
themselves (such as the cells of which the linings and coverings of the organs are
composed, and which are subject to wear and tear), they only move by pressure. It is
hardly necessary in this connection to refer to the effect of exercise upon the cells of the
muscles and ligaments and tendons, for its effect is obvious, and its necessity
I •« 1 CHAP. nr.

assured. Its effect is seen in the growth of the muscles exercised, which growth means
that the cells have themselves grown in size, and possibly in number, though I believe
there is no direct evidence that the cells of the muscles in the adult multiply, except as
the result of an injury. The necessity of such exercise may be estimated by the fact that
disuse of a muscle tends ultimately to its atrophy, or to put it more scientifically, when a
muscle is no longer of service to the body in the struggle for existence it soon begins to
deteriorate. That is. of course, in the history of the race, but the history of the race is apt
to repeat itself in the individual, and a part that should be used and is not used is likely
to degenerate and degenerate cells or those that have lost their functional connection
with the rest of the body are always likely to become the seat of morbid developments.
When we say that persons of sedentary habits are prone to this complaint or that,
we think at once, and naturally, of the whole organ affected by the lack of exercise, but
of course the whole organ is suffering from the weakness of its pins, or some particular
part, and it is therefore to the condition of the component cells of the body that we
must really look if the effect of exercise and the effect of lack of exercise are to be
projicrly understood
Now. I venture to think that it is those cells which arc not immediately involved in
curative exercise to which the exercise is the most useful. This may sound like a paradox,
but I think it will be found to be a truism. Let me put the proposition in another form.
The stimulation of functional activity is of more importance to the health than the
development of the muscles. Now the paradox has disappeared and the truth of the
assertion is apparent I do not of course, undervalue muscular development, nor do I
underestimate its bearing upon the general health; but in curative exercise this
development, while in the nature of things it is inevitable, is subordinated to the more
important stimulation of functional activity. It b what I will call for convenience sake
the subsidiary cells which most need the stimulation of movement The cells, such as
those of the muscles and tendons, are direcdy concerned in the movements of the body,
and are never absolutely at rest. They are always, as it were, on the alert, and in a certain
state of tension or contraction, prepared at any moment to obey
T »« 1
the voluntary orders of the brain, or the involuntary orders of the sympathetic nervous
system. The epithelial cells are always more or less exercised, for as I have already
pointed out, some of them have movable attachments, and all being subject to direct
wear and tear on the surface, have to be continually replaced, and their reproduction
itself brings about an exercise by pressure. This movement by pressure is best illustrated
by the continual formation of the scaly surface of the skin. The cells of which these
scales are composed arc gradually pushed up from below, and change not only their
shape but their chemical constitution, as they pass upward. It is in the bottom-most
layer of the skin that the cells arc actively reproductive. Here they have a cylindrical
form, and as they multiply the new cells press the older upward, and the shape of cells
so pressed changes; they become flatter and flatter, until at last on the surface they are
but dried scales, which can only be recognised as cells after they have been treated with
a chemical solution. These scales are continually worn away and shed, and hence the
process of reproduction and movement upward is perpetual. It is this movement which
I have called exercise by pressure.
Out other cells, such as those of most of the connective tissues, get little exercise
unless it be derived indirectly from the general movements of the parts in which they
are embedded. Now 1 am convinced that, quite apart from the immense value of
exercise as it promotes the circulation of the blood and the lymph, and thus caries
oxygen and nutriment to and carries away waste products from the cells, the individual
functional life of each cell must be beneficially affected by the stimulus of bodily move-
ment, and that it is especially in connection with the stimulation of cellular function,
that the lack of exercise is so apt to throw the whole system out of gear. Again, partial
exercise, such as that obtained in ordinary work or in ordinary recreative games, is of
very little use. In such movements some cells would derive benefit and others would
not. and it is reasonable to suppose that in many cases the cells benefited would
practically be benefited at the expense of those not reached by the movement.
As I have already pointed out in my chapter on Exercise, it is in exercising the
whole body that the principal virtue of my system consists; and it is especially the
movements affecting the whole trunk which give
( »• 1
POSE Ill post iv
Cellular
гилг. iv. Function

the stationary cells the stimulation they need. In subsequent chapters I shall explain
how a thoroughness of secretion and excretion is brought about in the various organs
of the body by exercise; and in the same way, it is by exercising the whole body that
the stationary cells are stimulated by the alternate pressure and relaxation caused by
the movements to secrete and excrete more thoroughly ; while at the same time the
blood passages near them also being stimulated, the circulation is affected, and
nutriment is conveyed to them, and excretions carried away from them more
thoroughly than would be the case, if the parts of the body in which they lie remained
permanently in repose. In fact, 1 maintain that the cells of the body are affected by
exercise in precisely the same way that, as I shall be able to prove, the organs of the
body are affected by exercise. They are kept employed by the rush of healthy arterial
blood to them, and by the rush of venous blood from them; and they arc at the same
time stimulated to vigorous action by the alternate pressure and relaxation which is
the effect upon them of the exercise of neighbouring parts.
I have '..,id that each cell has its own individual life, but as the perfect health of
all depends upon the perfect health of each, they cannot be considered separately. The
old fable of the body and its members, in which the limbs are made to complain that
the stomach which docs no work ought not to be fed, applies even more forcibly when
the cells are substituted for the limbs and stomach ; for we frequently find that the
obscurer the work of any group of cells, the more important is the result of their work.
We know very little, for instance, of the thyroid gland, and the work that it has to do;
but we know that disease or removal of this Hide understood organ has the most
disastrous effects upon the whole body. The commonwealth of cells, which we call the
body, may be roughly compared to a colony of bees or ants. Some of the cells have
become adapted for one service and some for another service; all are independent in
one sense, but in another sense they are all dependent one upon another. It is only
when their co-operation is perfect that the health of the whole body is perfect, and
their co-operation is entirely dependent upon the health or perfect functional activity
of each individual cell. This independence and interdependence may alike be
illustrated by a reference to the fat cells. These cells secrete fat, and the use of the
t »ll
fat is in some cases to provide a soft medium in which a delicate organ can rest but in
the main its storage is necessary for the purpose of subsequent combustion by which
heat is generated to enable the body to perform its work. Let us imagine that the fat
cells are in a condition of full functional activity and continue secreting fat: and then
let us imagine that the working cells, such as those of the muscles, are not kept in full
functional activity, and but little heat being required for work, combustion of die
stored fat only lakes place intermittently. By degrees the fat accumulates to such an
extent that it impedes the movements of neighbouring cells and impairs their
functional powers, until whole organs become affected, and all the evils, which we
shall see in a subsequent chapter follow obesity, afflict the body. Such a body may be
compared to a man who had a motor-car which he never used, and who accumulated
cans of petrol till his garage became so full that there was at last no room for the
motor-car, which was allowed to lie idle and rusting outside. I have chosen the fat and
muscle cells to illustrate my meaning, because their interdependence is obvious; but I
am perfectly convinced that as obesity can be rectified by exercise, so it will be found
as our knowledge increases that all the functions of «11 the cells depend upon the
perfect functional activity of each other, and that it will be discovered that the most
obscure diseases, especially such diseases as are caused by the undue activity of certain
groups of cells, are brought about by the undue inactivity of certain other groups; and
that exercise properly prescribed and performed will ultimately prove not only a cure,
but a preventive of diseases to which as yet I have not had the opportunity of applying
it. My theory, in fact, is that perfect animal metabolism can only be secured by perfect
exercise of the body ; and I think that as I have been able to prove the curative effects
of my system in so many specific cases of the simpler ailments, the treatment deserves
to be treated experimentally by those whose opportunities are greater, in cases of the
more dangerous and less understood diseases, especially such diseases as cancer and
tumours, which are recognised as being due to defective and abnormal metabolism.
And there is this to be said of curative exercise, which can hardly be said of any other
untested therapeutic I that experiments in its effect, if conducted by an expert, ore
absolutely safe, and that improved general health would follow, even if the specific
diseases treated were not cured.
( M l
 pose v POPE VI

CHAPTER V. MORAL EFFECT or EXERCISE.

AT first sight there does not appear to be much connection between morals and exercise, but a
moment's reflection will enable us to understand th. i t anything which develops the body, invigorates the
health, and strengthens the will, will also have a profound effect upon the character. Here and there, no
doubt, we shall find strong and healthy people with some moral twist in their characters; but, as a rule, the
man with a strong and healthy body will be found to have a strong and healthy mind. Great strength of
body rarely accompanies cruelty of disposition ; nor does depravity of appetite exist, as a rule,
simultaneously with perfect health. In fact, we naturally expect to find a healthy mind in a healthy body ;
and when unwholesomeness of mind is evident, we shall generally be right in supposing that
unwholesomeness of body is its cause. Mind and body are, in fact, in such close association, that what
affects one affects both. Organic disease frequently enfeebles the will and debases the mind; and. on the
other hand, weakness of mind and feebleness of will are often the direct cause of organic diseases.
Of course, I am not one of those who would excuse immorality because it denotes ill-health ; for all
that, I am prepared to assert that much of the immorality which is the curse of the world arises from
pathological conditions of the body, and may be checked or removed by alleviating the causative
conditions. But far more than such alleviation or cure do I value prevention. Now I shall. I am sure, have
the support of every medical man when I say that, with knowledge and care of the body, the greater
number of the diseases from which mankind suffers
I si] could be prevented, and it therefore follows that if men and
women were trained to understand and care for their bodies, the
pathological conditions of the body which are responsible for
excesses, insanity, and crime would become rarer and rarer, and
in such cases it is far easier to prevent than to cure. Excesses no
doubt may be, and frequently arc, checked by removing the
morbid cravings which prompt them. But the madhouse and the
prison will be emptied by the prevention of insanity and crime,
and not by their cure, and I will dare to say that, had all the
present inmates of our prisons and asylums been trained in their
youth to understand and care for their bodies, nine-tenths of
them might have been saved from the fate that has befallen
them.
I have said that immorality is generally caused by ill-health, but no doubt It frequently happens that
great force of character is accompanied by chronic bodily weakness, and it is an undoubted fact that many
of our greatest men and women have lived noble lives under the most distressing bodily circumstances ;
indeed, instances can be quoted, to the eternal honour of human nature, where, with every possible bodily
disadvantage, the will-power has remained unabated in vigour. But what I wish especially to point out is
this: that although a healthy mind may frequently live in an unhealthy body, it is very rare indeed that we
find an unhealthy mind in a healthy body, and this distinction is most important to my argument that
exercise has a most beneficial effect upon morality. Exercise is really care of the body, and it is impossible
for any one who systematically cares for his body to commit excesses of any kind ; for such systematic care
not only strengthens the body, but the will also, so that while the developing body craves less and less for
unnatural stimulation, the strengthening will becomes more and more able to withstand such unnatural
craving as the body still possesses.
Let us take as an illustration the average youth of average bodily and mental development, and let us
suppose that such an one has not been taught to care for his body. Let us also suppose that the p a r t i c u l a r
temptation that comes in his way is drink, and that he succumbs to it We need not presume that his will is
particularly feeble, but just the average. At first, no doubt, if some direct appeal be made to his mind, he
may be able to revolt from the hold the habit is gaining upon
[«•)
him. We will suppose, however, that cither this appeal is not made, or that the appeal is not strong
enough. The habit gains a firmer and firmer hold. The body degenerates, the craving for the stimulation of
alcohol becomes greater and greater, and the will becomes less and less able to control the body. Appeals
to the mind will now be of no avail. Let us suppose, however, that even as this degeneration is proceeding
an appeal is made to the body, and that for the first time in his life the youth is persuaded to exercise, and
so taught his first lesson in respect for the body. Exercise for a week or two will improve his health and his
will; he will recognise possibilities of physical development, and he wilt quickly learn that his habit of
excessive drinking is opposed to such development. Presently his will will begin to assert itself. Emulation
will be at work. He will see the debasing effects upon his body of his excesses, and he will moderate them ;
and as he gradually regains his health the bodily craving will lessen, the will-power increase, and the habit
will be conquered.
And this is no imaginary case, but one typical of many which have occurred under my own
observation. I have chosen, for obvious reasons, in this instance to give excessive drinking as the example ;
but any other depraved appetite can be treated in the same way, and with the same satisfactory results, and
I hold that for the average man there is nothing which strengthens the will like care for die body. I make it
a rule in such cases to advocate the performance of the exercises before a looking-glass, so that the
development of the body can be watched as it proceeds ; indeed, this is always advisable, for such
watching of the movements inevitably assists the concentration of the mind upon the particular muscles
in use, which concentration, as I have already demonstrated in Chapter 1., is essential if the beneficial
effects of the movements are to be secured.
I have taken for the above illustration a youth of normal constitution j but it will readily be seen that
had the will-power been normal and the bodily condition below the normal, without knowledge of and
respect and care for the body, the degeneration would have been even more rapid, and the need for the
restoration of bodily health even more essential. If appeals for temperance—1 am now-, of course,
referring to temperance generally—were addressed, especially to the young, more from the physical point
of view and less from the purely ethical point of view than is usually the case, I am convinced that the
moral results of such appeals would be infinitely greater. Abstract reasons invariably seem very much less
cogent to the young than concrete reasons, and where bodily excess is concerned, to point to the very
obvious physical result is far more effective than to point to the less obvious, though no less real, moral
result; and in all cases of excess which can be condemned from a physiological standpoint, I strongly
advocate such condemnation. Nor do I consider that by insisting on the physical side of such evils being
kept to the fore, I am undervaluing in any way the direct appeal to the moral faculties; on the contrary, I
believe that upon a healthy physical foundation a far higher sense of honour and truth and kindness and
justice can be buUt up than would be the case were the physical side of the question ignored.
I would tell the young first, not that excess was wicked; for wickedness is an abstraction, and has
been applied by extremists to many things that are venial, and before now to some things that are
praiseworthy; and I have always considered that the use of the word that has been abused so often
sometimes gives the young the false idea that excess is " manly." I would make my first appeal physical.
Thus and thus, I would say, this or the other excess will assuredly affect your body, and I defy any boy, after
such an explanation, to maintain to his own satisfaction that a morbid or diseased condition of the organs
is equivalent to " manliness." This early inculcation of respect for the body, in which the mind, with all its
noble ideas of honour, must, after all. abide, so far from weakening the effect of more abstract teaching,
gives it a firm basis upon which to work. What is it that I am maintaining, but that example, and practical
illustration is worth more than precept; or if not worth more, should at any rate, precede and accompany
it.
I therefore appeal to all who have the care of the young committed to their charge, to see that
knowledge of the body, its proportions, and its functions, should be inculcated early in life, for there is no
knowledge which has a more beneficial effect upon the character. In a general sense, no doubt, the value of
such knowledge is already recognised; and it wants but a little insistence on the point to make people fully
(«*1
aware of its importance in the building up of character. All men who have at any time undergone what is
called "training" will, I am sure, endorse what I say with regard to its general effect upon the morals, and I
am equally sure, that when they have grasped the full effect upon the bodily functions and upon the will of
systematic exercise, they will support me in my endeavour to reach that large part of the population to
which bodily training in any shape or form has hitherto been practically denied.
All 'Varsity men will know from their own experience that the moral degenerates among the
undergraduates arc not to be found among the athletes, and that when the subsequent life of the athlete is
followed up. it is very rare indeed that he is found among the " legion of the damned." that ignoble crowd
of men, who, starting apparently with every advantage, have "gone under." Obscure parson or
distinguished judge, under-paid schoolmaster or wealthy merchant, poor soldier or great leader of men.
whatever the athlete's comparative success or failure in life, he will rarely be found to have lost the self-
respect and the will-power that he acquired when he was taught by those who trained him to respect and
to care for his body.
Nor is this the only illustration that could be given of the known moral effects of exercise. No matter
what the social standing of the man who has been thoroughly trained in the care of his body, the moral
effect has always been noticeable. Fortitude, forbearance, and a sense of fair play have generally been
recognised as the moral attributes of perfect bodily training, and if these moral qualities, which affect
others, arc called into existence by care for the body, the moral qualities which affect the man himself are
equally noticeable. Sobriety and even temper, from the first a necessity, become a habit, and self-respect is
the corollary. The body controlled by the mind, reacts upon the mind, and both are continually
strengthened. We speak of the " upright" man, and the expression can be made to bear a double
interpretation, and the erect attitude of the body taken as an illustration of the righteous mind
I have already referred to the numerous instances which can be given of men and women leading
noble lives and doing great work under most disadvantageous bodily conditions; and, although it would
be daring too much to say that, had they been taught early to care for their bodies, they
1*9]
[joi
could have lived more nobly or done greater work, we may yet believe that much of their suffering might
have been avoided. But of the converse we need have no hesitation in declaring that half the crime and
sorrow of the world would be prevented were all men and women brought to respect their bodies, and to
look upon any excess that impairs their health as a desecration not to be endured.
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CHAPTER VI. Ex excise

FOR MEN.

Тик average healthy man is apt to think that he obtains enough bodily exercise in
the course of his daily avocations and recreations; and as a rule, until some complaint
convinces him of his error, it is difficult to persuade him that something more is
necessary if the whole body is to be exercised thoroughly. How often do we hear such a
man say, " 1 walk so many miles a day." or, " I play golf so many times a week ; how can I
possibly need any further exercise?" I have already explained in Chapter I. what exercise
should really be. if health is to be secured and retained; ! have explained that to meet
modern requirements, the whole number of movements necessary to perfect body
culture have been compressed in my system into a comparatively few exercises, which
occupy bat a few minutes daily in their performance; and I have also explained that when
these exercises have been thoroughly mastered the "habit of exercise " is acquired, and as
a rule no further continuous performance of the series is necessary. I now propose to
explain how this modern necessity for what I may call concentrated exercise has arisen.
la Chapter I., I referred to the perfect health of an animal in a state of Nature, and I
ascribed this perfection of vitality to the great variety of movements of which the animal
is capable, movements which it not only can execute but—<and this is the important
point—movements which it nnat «хосте with velocity and precision if it is to secure its
necessary food, and escape from the dangers to which it is always, more or leas,
subjected. And I have further explained in the chapter on cellular functions what, in my
opinion, is the effect of this continual perfect exercise on the functional activity of the
body.
t Я ]
EXERCISE CH
(or M EN AP.
VI.
No
w I tike
it that
originally
, man
was
capable
of
executin
g, and
required
by the
conditio
ns of his
life to
execute,
almost as
many
move-
menu as
the wild
animal
In fact
we know
that he
still
possesse
s,
rudimen
tary
muscles
which,
once of
use to
him.
have
atrophie
d in the
course of
time, not
of
course,
because
he did
not use
them,
but
because
the use
of them
ceased to
be
necessar
y to him
in the
struggle
for
existence
Once
man was
able to
twitch
his skin,
as many
animals
are able
to twitch
theirs;
we still
occasion
ally find
individu
als who
are able
to move
the scalp
to and
fro, and
instances
are
recorded
of people
who are
able to "prick" introduc
their ears. No ed to-
doubt the use of day all
these muscles was the
lost in a very ailments
remote past; but due to
that there has tack of
been throughout exercise
the ages a very would
steady decrease in soon be
the number of banished
muscles whose н и wji . But
mbio/ultly neeatery to man such a
in the struggle for revival is
existence, I believe impossib
it wilt be quite easy le under
to demonstrate. modem
The use of tools con-
would no dmibt ditions.
have a gradual The time
effect upon the use cannot
of the muscles, but be
the ancient spared,
subdivision of and the
classes, and the necessar
more recent y
specialisation of m ove m e n
different branches ts have
of ihe some work to be
have, concentr
unquestionably, by ated into
making the a few
exercise of all the exercises
muscles less and occupyin
less necessary to g but a
man's daily life, brief
brought about the time, as
need for some in
system of body
culture, which
shall give the
whole body the
exercise it needs, if
perfect health and
а certain ideal
standard of bodily
form are to be
retained together.
It is necessary to
bear this ideal
standard of form
in mind, and also
the fact that even
the most primitive
peoples known to
us have some
medical
knowledge of
herbs or what not
and presumably
the race has thus
been able, from
very early times, to
mitigate the
severity of the
elimination of the
unfit which is the
means by which
Nature selects the
fit to survive under
any given
conditions
Leaving the
very primitive
peoples, however,
and coming at
once to the Greeks,
we find that in
ancient Greece,
care for the body
had been reduced
to a fine art, and
no time devoted to
body culture,
however long, was
considered wasted
by the Greeks. No
doubt if such a
system could be
D
EV
EL
O
P
M
EN
T
BY
M
EA
NS
O
F
T
H
E
A
U
T
H
O
R'
S
SY
ST
E
M

DEVELOP
MENT
BV
MLAN'S
OF THE
AUTHOR'
S SYSTEM
Exercise for Men CHAP, YL

Fro
m the
time of
the
Greeks
until to-
day. we
find no
such
perfect
system of
body
culture in
force at
any time
anywhere
, but it
was not
until a
generatio
n or so
ago that
body
culture in
any form
practicall
y died
out,
although
no doubt
all tbe
time it
was
gradually
dying.
The great
import-
ance of
the war
class in
the
Middle
Ages
enforced
upon all
classes a
vigorous
training
in the use
of arms,
which
training,
no doubt,
compensa
ted to
some
extent for
the
perfect
body
culture
that was
lacking.
But as
standing
armies
gradually
took the
place of
feudal
levies this
almost
universal
training
did not
last.
Meanwhil
e,
commerce was systemati
expanding, and with c body
its expansion the culture,
number of what we although
call sedentary in so far
pursuits increased in as they
number . but there imply a
still remained a vast change
population engaged from
in the more healthy indoor to
pursuit of agriculture open-air
This population, life they
however, in England arc to be
especially, and in encourag
Europe generally, is ed,
as rapidly decreasing and so
as the urban long as it
population is as is
rapidly increasing.
understo
Division of labour,
od by the
beginning with the
players of
division of classes,
such
and sub-classes, and
games
branches of trade,
that more
and even of the same
and
trade, is now
different
becoming
exercise is
international, and
necessary
the manufacturer
for
will soon be of one
health,
nation and the
their
farmer of another.
influence,
The modern facilities
unless, of
of exchange and of
course,
intercommunication
are so rapidly the strain
increasing, that the involved
time indeed seems is
near when some excessive,
nations will be is entirely
entirely confined to lor good.
sedentary pursuits. It must,
Concurrently however,
with this be
phenomenon, in remembe
recent years there red that
has grown up on the the vast
Continent the system majority
of conscription, and of the
to some extent the populatio
war class of medieval n has few.
times is being or no.
replaced, although J
not to the same I Ml
degree. This military E C
x H
training, defective as opportun
it may be from the ities for
point of view of true obtaining
body culture, this out-
undoubtedly has an door
effect, however recreatio
slight, upon the n ; and
physique of a people. even that
In England and much
America, however, maligned
there is not even this class, the
training, and it is spectator
therefore to s at
Englishmen and cricket
Americans that a and
system of curative football
exercise must appeal matches,
with exceptional large as
force. its
I have already said number
in the chapter on may be. is
exercises that but a

recreative games small

are no substitute for proportio
n of the whole
population. Nor does
this lack of
opportunity affect
only the poorer
classes, the rich man
may conceivably
have fewer
opportunities for CHAPTER VII.
out-door sport than
his poorer XER
E
neighbours. We talk
sometimes of a
CISE
leisured class, but in TOR
these strenuous days,
when every pleasure WOM
is reduced to a
bustling system, it
EN.
may be doubted if TUB
there be any class importa
really entitled to that nce of
prefix "leisured." It is, exercise
in fact, this lack of for
leisure, combined women,
with the prepon- when
derance among all not
classes of sedentary overlook
occupations and ed, has
pastimes, that has generally
p r i l i v l the been
crying need f o r a minimis
system of e x e r c i s e ed. To a
w h i c h , like mine, is great
available to all. or extent
rather would be this has
available to all, if the been
Government were owing to
only to understand a very
that exercise is as natural
necessary a subject opinion
for instruction as any that
of the other subjects muscula
which we hear r
continually boomed develop
by ardent, but ment in
amateur, the
educationalists. This ordinary
matter, however, I sense is
propose to go into not so
more thoroughly necessar
when I come to deal y for a
with exercise and woman
children. as it is
[ M l for a
If it were a man.
mere matter of what Her
is popularly known ordinary
as "physique," that is tasks,
to say. height and avocatio
breadth and ns, and
muscular amusem
development, and so ents
on. this universal obviousl
lack of exercise y call for
would be serious but little
enough : but when it muscula
is understood that r effort,
nearly all the and
ordinary ailments are there has
certainly, and that always
many of the more been a
obscure diseases arc more or
probably, due to it. less
the question of subconsc
exercise assumes an ious idea
that any
importance which
abnorma
entitles it to the
l
consideration of
develop
every thinking man.
ment of
muscle would BY
detract from her ME
ANS
beauty ; and OF
therefore, when SYS
she has been TE
ordered exercise, it MA
TIC
has always been
EXE
more or less RCI
perfunctorily SE
ordered, as if the
order were
expected to be
disobeyed, and as
if an opinion were
understood that it
would not really
matter if it were
disobeyed. In the
light of fuller
knowledge of the
physiological
effects of exercise,
especially of its
effects upon
organic function, it
is surely obvious
that women need
exercise far more
than men.
Women may not. in
fad do not, require
the same amount
of exercise, for
external muscular
development is not
so necessary for a
woman as for a
man. though it is a
mistake to suppose
that such
development
would impair her
appearance by
making it
•"mannish." for the
reason that a
woman's muscles
are very different
from man's in
shape. There is
also another
reason why woman
does not require
the amount of
muscular exercise
that man requires .
and the reason is
this : the bodily
functions peculiar
to women demand
an amount of
energy that
compensates for
die difference in
their ordinary
muscular energy
from that of men.
So when I say that
women need
exercise more than
men, I do not mean
more exercise than
men, but that their
need of exercise is
greater.

[35 J
DEVELO
PMENT
OF THE
FEMALE
FIGURE
Exercise for Women CHAP. VII.

It is
the
developm
ent of the
internal
involuntar
y muscles
which are
so
necessary
for a
woman.
Vigour of
the
abdominal
muscles,
too, is
essential if
a woman
is to attain
perfect
health ;
while the
power of
the
diaphrag
m is of
even more
importanc
e to
women
than it is
to men.
Even if
their
bodies
were kept
in a
natural
position,
this would
be
obvious,
but when
it is
remember
ed that
women for
the greater
part of
their lives
wear
corsets
that
compress
their
figures
unnaturall
y, the need
of exercise
becomes
even more
imperative
. Corsets
compress
the figure
at
precisely
the point
where
compressi
on has the
most
harmful
effect. The
free action
of the
diaphrag
m is
always obstructed by acquired
this compression, and as by
we shall sec in the individual
chapters devoted to the s arc
organs of digestion and trans-
respiration, the free use mitted to
of the diaphram is most their
important to those most offspring.
important vital But in this
functions. The case such
development of the a reply is
diaphragm is also of hardly
great importance to necessary ;
women, in that it plays for this is
an important part in the one of the
efforts of child-birth. instances
But besides the which
diai>hragm. the heart refute the
and lungs are affected argument
by the compression of that such
the corset, the stomach
is obstructed in its
[ J6 1
necessary movements, Exercise
for
and the downward
Women
pressure of the CHAP. vn.
intestinal passages must
prejudicially affect their changes
muscular action, and in the
must necessarily, from individua
the mere pressure, make l can
the free passage of the become
partly digested food hereditar
difficult, and therefore it y. As
is always likely to every
promote obstruction in woman
the exeunt. This, no knows,
doubt, to a very great the
extent, is the cause of female
the chronic constipation figure is
from which so many to-day
women suffer. Then, quite
again, this downward unchange
pressure must affect the d by the
uterus prejudicially, and centuries
so impair the functions of corset
of menstruation and •wearing,
gestation. and each
It may be said that individua
women have worn l girl
corsets for centuries, child
and that ill-effects such must be
as 1 have described put into
cannot be so very corsets if
serious, or attention her figure
would long ago have is to
been called to the evil. approxim
To this I should answer, ate to the
familiarity breeds fashiona
contempt, and that by a ble ideal.
long course of practical Let a girl
experience women have refrain
come to be looked upon, from
and even to look upon wearing
themselves, as corset- corsets ;
wearers by nature. It 1 will
may then be said that even go
women having worn further
corsets for so many and say,
centuries, the let a
configuration of their woman
bodies has been give up
modified by the custom. wearing
To that I should reply, corsets,
that I altogether and her
disagree with those who waist
hold the theory that will, at
mere use or disuse thus the best,
affects organs assuredly
hereditarily, or that be of the
characteristics thus natural
ample proportions shall be
shown to us by the healthier
greatest sculptors of than no
antiquity. Therefore, corset at
as each individual all. but I
woman needs corsets do
if she would attain to maintain
the relative that a
proportions of the corset
body demanded by devised
fashion, so each by a
individual woman practical
needs especial anatomis
exercises if the t would
obvious physiological be better
disadvantages ore to than any
be corrected. other
But there is corset in
another point to be every
considered: possible
LIKING it for way. So
granted that women long as
will persist in corset- the
wearing, it is very desired
necessary that corsets appearan
should be made on ce were
strict anatomical secured,
principles, and fashion
considering that the would be
bodies of no two satisfied,
women are absolutely and it is
alike, each individual obvious
should, when that such
possible, have her an
corsets made to suit appearan
her especial ce, no
requirements ; but as matter
this will not always be what it
possible, the might be,
anatomical corset could be
should be made in a secured
far greater number of by one
sizes than is at present practised
the case with the in
ordinary corset, so anatomy
that as far as at the
practicable individual least
requirements may be possible
met. It may be expense
objected that fashion of the
might veto the use of organs
an anatomical corset; affected
but this objection by the
would be founded compress
upon the erroneous ion ; and
assumption that in such a
fashion deals with corset i t
means as well as ends. should be
Fashion, so long as the possible
effect secured is d ta for the
mode, cares nothing for body to
the way in which the be moved
effect is obtained, and in any
would certainly be on direction
the side of health, if a with
fashionable healthy comparat
corset could be ive
devised, which it
assuredly could be. Of
(17 1
course, when I say E С
x Н
healthy, I mean
ease, so
comparatively
HEALTHY , that, when
once the
that is to say, when
habit of
compared with the
exercise is
usual unanatomical
acquired,
corset.
1 do not
the
movement
maintain that a corset
s and
can be devised which
repose of
the body should be references
purjioseful, and to these
therefore conducive to evils. The
health. It will readily be argument
understood how the that
ordinary corsets impede although
free bodily movements, women
especially movements of wear
the whole trunk, if the corsets,
movements of a man and and
a woman be compared, although
under the same they
circumstances. Let us always
suppose that a man and a exercise
woman have occasion to their
glance at something that bodies
lies at the back of them relatively
and on the ground. The less than
man will turn his body men,
from the waist, but the women
woman will turn right live as long
round. Again, if a man and even
and a woman have longer
occasion to pick up than men.
something in front of To that
them, the man will curve argument 1
his whole body as he reply, that
stoops, the woman will women,
stoop by bending the speaking
knees; and this generally,
difference of movement, do not
of which instances might suffer the
be multiplied, is caused same
entirely by the nervous
impediment imposed by wear and
the woman's corsets. tear as
The invention, men, that,
however, of an in fact, the
anatomical corset, brunt of
however much it might the battle
conduce to general of life falls
healthy movements, upon men.
would never do away and it is
with the necessity for this
special exercises, nervous
although it would strain, this
considerably curtail their worry of
length and frequency. the
The constriction of the struggle,
body would be deprived that wears
of its most glaring men out
defects, but there would But when
still be constriction: and we leave
an occasional relaxation the
and free exercise of the question
body would always be of
advisable in order that longevity
the various organs might aside, and
be kept in full functional deal
activity. 1 have myself
always made it a rule that
t#1
my curative exercises
should lie performed not
only with the body free
from the constriction of
corsets, but also that
only loosely fitting
garments should be worn
during their
performance.
I have dealt with
this question of corset
wearing at length, for the
reason that exercise for
women must necessarily
always be devised with a
special view to correcting
the inevitable evils of
bodily constriction There
is one argument which
will doubdess be
advanced to meet my
development of the female fi oure bv means of THf authors Я vst em

STUDIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

FEMALE FIGURE BY MEANS OF
SYSTEMATIC EXERCISE.
1-пяи l'lii>i .iK'.»pt>s «I Ladies who have undergone a coarse of
the Sandow Treatment.

Exercise for Women С НАГ.

VII.

with the relative norma] health of the sexes, I think it will be generally admitted that
women suffer more frequently from the minor ailments, and especially from the
ailments which we know to be produced by tack of exercise. That although they may
live longer than men. they are always, relatively, more delicate titan men. Of course,
by more delicate. I do not mean less muscularly strong, but more prone to minor
illnesses. The relative muscular strength of men and women is very nicely adjusted,
and when we take into consideration the drain ujion the system which arises from
the functions peculiar to women, it must be admitted that the conditions are fairly
equal.
[»1
The sexual functions of women arc, however, greatly affected by exercise or the
lack of it, and all that 1 have said of cellular function and exercise applies with even
more force to women than to men. Menstruation and childbearing are both
facilitated by exercise, but, especially in the later case, it must be very carefully
prescribed, so that the strength U never overtaxed I shall, however, deal with that
branch of exercise in a later chapter, and therefore need say no more here than that 1
have found again and again, that exercise during the period of gestation, carefully
prescribed and performed under the supervision of a physician, has a most
beneficial effect upon the health and spirits of the patient, and, as a rule, renders
childbirth easier, and considerably lessens the duration of the labour.

CHAPTER VIII.

EXERCISE РОЯ

CHILDREN.

IT is almost needless to insist upon the importance of exercise during

childhood. The period of growth -is so important from a physiological
point of view, and the necessity for exercise during this period is so
generally recognised, that the wonder is that a true system of body culture
by means of exercise was not discovered earlier. Even now, although my
system has been before the public for some years, and has stood the lest of
lime, there is still a very general idea that although the adult may need
such a curative system, the child needs nothing but the ordinary recreative
games Need I point out that a system of exercise which is known to cure so
many of the more common ailments will, if adopted during the period of
growth, so establish the structural and functional health of the body that
such ailments would never occur. I shall explain in subsequent chapters in
what way exercise affects the various organs of the body when they are in
the adult stage, and the deduction will be obvious that if such is the effect
when the organs are fully grown, how much more will the exercises affect
the same organs while they are still growing.
The question of exercise for children is a national question, and if the
physical " degeneration' of the nation is to be stayed, it will be by some
national movement for teaching the young the elements of body culture.
The physical " exercises " at present in vogue in our elementary schools
cannot, in my opinion, be called exercises at all. Performed perfunctorily,
taught ignorantly, and with no physical classification of the children, they
probably, on the whole, do more harm than good Even if the system were
perfect, such performance, teaching, and lack of classification would
certainly render it nugatory. When, however, as is the case
I «o 1
 TWO OF THE AUTHORS CHILDREN
the system itself is intrinsically ridiculous, it would be better to have no "exercise" at
all, than such a travesty of what exercise should really be; for it but blocks the way to
reform.
The system in vogue consists in certain movements of the arms, legs and body,
devised without reason and in utter ignorance of the needs of the body. The minds
of the children are not concentrated on the movements made. And lastly, the
children arc classified according to their " literary" attainments, or all the children in
the school are exercised together, without any classification at all To say that the
teachers arc incompetent to instruct their charges in the performance of exercise at
all is not to blame them, for they have themselves been " taught" in the same absurd
way. The first need, therefore, is for trained teachers, teachers, that is to say, not
only trained in all the necessary literary and disciplinary attainments necessary for
the ordinary instruction and control of the young, but trained also to understand
their bodies, and in a system of body culture by means of exercise. Having obtained
trained teachers, it will then become necessary to classify the children before they
can be properly taught to exercise. The ordinary school classification, good or bad.
as it may be, for the general purposes of the school, must at once be discarded. The
unhealthy must be divided from the healthy, and the weak from the strong.
Now it is quite obvious that a boy or a girl may very often be in an upper form
for the ordinary lessons who would be quite unfitted for advanced exercises. It often
happens that a delicate or a muscularly weak child will be mentally precocious; in
fact, it is I believe, the general experience of schoolmasters that mental precocity
not only frequently accompanies, but is very often indirectly caused by, weak
physical development. That is to say. the child's energy is not properly distributed,
but is forced in one direction, and we have as a result that anomaly, the sedentary
child. Now, although all children need systematic exercise, if they are to attain to
the utmost physical, mental and moral development possible to them, it is the
sedentary child who needs systematic exercise the most.
Under the present system, or rather, I should say. under the present absolute
lack of system, such a chdd would be set to exercise with the

I 4> J
children with whom it was classified for ordinary educational purposes. The clever,
precocious younger weakling would, in fact, have to exercise with duller but older
and more robust children. In that case, either the exercises would exhaust, and
therefore harm the weakling, or they would have to be adapted to his weakness, with
the result that older and stronger children would be kept back. The exercise classes,
it is obvious, would therefore have to be arranged, not for clever (or precocious) and
dull (or normal) children, but for weak children and for strong, for delicate children
and for healthy. In fact, the classification of a school should really be left to a
medical man, or to an expert in body culture.
It would not be enough to divide the children according to age into muscularly
weak and muscularly strong. The health of each child would have to be considered,
for a child apparently capable of advanced exercise might, through some organic
defect, have to be classified for exercise with muscularly weaker children. Given,
however, expert classification, a sound system of exercise, and expert teaching, and
there is not a child, weak or strong, who would not benefit to an extent that those
who have had no experience of the effect of systematic exercise upon the growing
body would believe impossible.
Such a system, if adopted by the education authorities in our national
elementary schools, would entail but very little expense and time, while-its return in
the form of national efficiency would be practically of incalculable value. The nation
at present sets a certain standard of physical development, which it considers
necessary before a youth can enter the Army; but there has been as yet no idea that
that standard—a very low standard be it said—could easily be assured to every boy
throughout the land. 1 am not, of course, alluding to sight tests and so on, but to the
height and chest measurement standards, which so many town-bred youths fail to
reach.
I have referred to the need of systematic exercise in elementary schools first,
not because I believe the systems in force in most of the higher-class schools are
much better, but because the bulk of the population attends the elementary schools,
and it is the bulk that must be raised physically if national " degeneration " is to be
checked. So although I have first dealt with the elementary national school children,
I would not
[«a]
 A LITTLE PATIENI

Exercise for Children CHAP. VHI.

have it supposed for a moment that I do not as urgently plead for the inclusion of the same system of body culture in all
schools, no matter from what class the scholars are taken. I admit, of course, that the children of the rich lead, as a rule,
far more healthy lives than the children of the poor; but I still maintain that such children need systematic exercise
quite as much as the children of the poor, if they are to attain the full development of body possible to them. Here,
again, the system requires expert teaching, strict classification, and concentrated performance; and can it be said that at
any school throughout the country such a system is in force ?
All that I have said in the chapter devoted to exercise applies with equal force to the growing child as to the adult ;
and all that I have said with regard to the structural, functional, and moral effects of such exercises applies with
infinitely greater force to growing children than to adults. When the body is growing it is most plastic and can be
moulded with ease in this direction or the other, and it remains with the parents in the case of the rich, and with the
Government in the case of the poor, to insist that the body of every child shall be developed to the uttermost.
In childhood, when the various cells of the body are reproducing rapidly, all that I have said of the probable effect
of exercise upon cellular function is of even greater importance. At no lime is the perfect assimilation of food more
necessary, at no time is it more advisable to stimulate every function to thoroughness ; and at no time is this stimulation
so easy, or its effect so permanent. The child whose body has been perfectly trained will have acquired а " constitution"
which will withstand all the most common dangers to health ; nor need it be supposed that such training will have any
effect upon the ordinary school training, other than to give the mental faculties the very necessary stimulus of health. It
may in some cases check precocity, but 1 feel sure that I shall have the support of every family physician when I say that
such mental precocity is, as a rule, an indication of a pathological condition of the body rather than a phenomenon to
be encouraged. Let the body and mind grow together in vigour, and as I have shown in chapters on Exercise and the
Moral Effect of Exercise, true exercise must develop the will, and by developing the will must inevitably develop the
character, and it is this devclop-
Г as 1
mem of character which is, or should be, the aim of every system of
education.
I do not say that a naturally dull boy can be trained into a Shakespeare, or that a naturally weak boy can be
developed into a Sampson ; but I do say that every boy can be developed by exercise to the highest mental and physical
standard possible to him. and that the " wasted life " which is the dread of every parent and instructor can thereby be
avoided.
1 have frequently referred to boys in this chapter, but all that I have said of boys I say of girls, for their need of
exercise is as great, if not greater; especially, now that girls arc submitted to as severe a mental training as boys, do their
bodies also need cultivating. The anarmic girl is so often met that I need not labour this point. Not only is the graceful,
easy carriage, which exercise alone can give, in itself to be desired in the case of girls, but the vigorous health produced
by the development of the organs through systematic exercise cannot in their case be overestimated. It will be of little
use if we cultivate the bodies of growing boys, and allow the future mothers of the race to grow up without the body
culture which alone can bring them to the highest possible stale of mental and physical efficiency.
All that I am now urging upon the authorities I have frequently urged, and when giving evidence before the Royal
Commission to enquire into the physical condition of the people, 1 not only suggested that some such system as 1 have
outlined above should be adopted in our schools, but I gave details of the proper working of such a system. I do not
think I can do better than give here a risumi of my evidence. ■ I recommended that every child upon being admitted to a
school should be medically examined, and his measurements and condition of health entered in a book for future
reference. That every child attending the schools throughout the country being so measured, an average should be
struck according to ages, and that average should be considered the standard for the various ages. The system would, of
course, be elastic enough to admit of slight variations from the standard contingent on the general build of the child.
Having arrived at the standards for the ages, I proposed that it should be the object of the exercise instructor to bring
the children who were obviously below the standard of their ages up to that standard.

I 44 1
BOY АСЕ FIFTEEN DEVELOPED BY THE AUTHORS SYSTEM

m«/ I*w aritnik* A/«*A rtikt Hrtmiii Htn Шлш, i /«»«</u/«* i m AR<« ftivn lytk*fattint. ]
Presuming on the score of expense, only one instructor could be allowed for a particular school, I
suggested that for physical culture it should be arranged as follows: The children of all ages who failed
to come up to their standards of chest measurement should be given exercise intended to develop the
chest, and in the same way with other deviations from the standard. The class for physical culture would
therefore be arranged in lines, the first line, let us say, would be composed of the children of all ages
who failed to come up to the chest measurement standard of their respective ages ; the second line of
children whose arm measurement was defective, and so on; while special lines might be set aside for
children suffering from weak hearts or any other organic defect. Line one would be taught exercises for
the development of the chest; line two, exercises for the development of the arms, and so on, special
exercises being taught to the delicate or organically defective children The exercises having been once
taught, the whole school could then be exercised at once. The instructor would face the arranged lines
of children, and would give out the number of the exercise to be performed—one! two! and so on. Each
set of exercises, we will say. is numbered from one to twenty. On " one " being called out. each line
would perform the number one of their special exercises, and so on with each number called. Especially
sharp children could be chosen as captains of lines, to assist the instructor. Such a system, pending the
instruction of the school teachers in body culture, would be all that was needed. Periodic tests and
measurements, and medical examination of the children would take place, and individual children
would be moved from line to line as they secured the development aimed at by the particular exercises
they had been undergoing, until an all-round development had been secured; and so they would
continue throughout their school life, constantly being brought up to the physical standard set for their
ages. Very soon wc should find that the standards would themselves need revising. The stunted,
miserable youths who present themselves to the recruiting sergeant would soon disappear, and the
whole standard of measurements, both for children and adults, would be raised
I was asked by a member of the Commission if such a system of body culture would improve the
children's appetites, and I said yes, to be told rlippantly, that as most of the children were underfed that
was a fatal

(45 1
[4» 1
objection. Now I know that only too many of the children of the very poor are always insufficiently fed ;
but 1 do not believe that because « child is underfed it is also essential that the child should be slovenly
in its movements and in its breathing. On the contrary, I maintain that even too little food may be
more useful to the body if properly digested and assimilated, than if. as is invariably the case in the
unexercised body, the digestion is defective, and therefore much even of a too scanty diet wasted. It
must be understood that I am not advocating violent exertion, implying great wear and tear of muscle,
but merely such exercise as will develop and promote the growth of the body in proportion ; and
although I know as well as the Commission that far loo many children are underfed, I protest against
the idea that because their food is scanty their bodies must not be developed. I believe that at the
present moment means are being taken to sec that under-fed children attending public elementary
schools shall receive certain meals at the public charge, so that this objection, which I still hold to be
no objection, loses even the shadow of a claim it had to our consideration ; and I cannot too strongly
urge again upon the authorities, the necessity for the introduction into the curriculum of all schools
scientific instruction in body culture, for by it alone can physical degeneration be stayed.
 A CHOUI Of BOYS SHOWING DEVELOPMENT BY MEANS OP
SYSTEMATIC EXFRCISC

micrographs op the- tissues of the uooy.

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CHAPTER IX.

EXERCISE AND THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS.

I.— Tht Digestion of Food.

DIGESTION, as it is certainly the earliest, may be said to be the most important of all organic functions, for it is the
function upon the proper performance of which all the other functions must necessarily depend. The lowest form of life
known is practically little more than a simple digestive apparatus ; but as the scale of organisms rises we find the
digestive apparatus gradually assuming a more and more complex form, until, as in the human body, a wonderful
system of organs is elaborated, each organ performing some especial task in the prolonged preparation of foodstuffs
suitable for consumption by the various cells, which can only absorb and assimilate food so prepared in a liquid form.
I shall first describe the preliminary process of digestion, and I desire the reader to especially note the muscular
action, voluntary and involuntary, of the passages through which the food passes during the earlier stages of its
digestion. The food introduced into the mouth is first subjected to mastication; it is ground between the teeth, and as it
is ground it is mixed with saliva, a secretion, or rather a combination of the three secretions of the glands of the mouth.
The saliva not only assists mastication by moistening the food, it also has a chemical effect upon the starchy
constituents of the food, converting them into sugar. So that not only is the food ground in the mouth and rolled into
conveniently shaped balls for swallowing, but the first process of digestion takes place there. The bolus of masticated
food, the surehу parts of which have been partially digested, is then by a voluntary muscular action of the tongue
pressed

I 47 1
backward to the pharynx. The pharynx is the hollow chamber which lies at the rear of the mouth at the back of the
tonsils and uvula, and into which open the larynx (the air passage leading to the lungs), the oesophagus (the passage
leading to the stomach), the Eustachian tubes (the air passages communicating with the tympanum or middle car, by
which the interior air pressure is maintained on an equality with the pressure of the atmosphere), the posterior narcs
(the posterior nasal orifice), and the mouth.
The food being pressed into the pharynx by the voluntary muscular action of the tongue, its further passage is
assured by the involuntary muscular action of the pharynx, which by rapid but complicated movements conducts the
food safely past the passages of the nose and lungs to the oesophagus. The bolus of food is passed nn by the involuntary
action of the muscular coat of the oesophagus, until it enters the stomach, when the process of digestion is continued.
The orifice by which the food enters the stomach from the oesophagus is called the cardiac orifice, and is guarded by a
muscular valve which opens to allow the food to pass and closes again, and alternately opens and closes as long as the
food continues to arrive.
The stomach is a muscular bag capable of a variety of movements,
which serve to throw the food from one side to the other, so that every
part of its interior is brought into contact with the mass to be digested.
The interior of the stomach is lined with a mucous membrane containing
glands that secrete the fluids which, when mixed, are known as the gastric
juice. The gastric juice consists mainly of that digestive product known
as and hydrochloric acid, and acts upon the proteids of the food
chemically, changing them into peptones which may be circulated through the system. The proteids may roughly be said
to be those parts of the food consumed which, containing nitrogen, arc flesh-formers, and it is upon these most
important elements that the gastric juice acts, converting them into a form in which they can be assimilated by the body.
When the stomach is empty it is contracted to its smallest size and remains in repose. But directly the food reaches
it, it begins to move with a rotary motion, and by the alternate contraction and relaxation of its muscles, a variety of
movements is caused sufficient to bring the food into

l4i]
contact with every part of its surface. The imjKirtance of this contact is obvious, for simultaneously with the muscular
movements the glands excrete the gastric juice, and this How of juice continues to increase until some portion of the
food leaves the stomach, when the flow decreases gradually, and when the stomach is again empty and at rest, it ceases
altogether. The stomach is, in fact, so far as its muscles arc concerned, a mixing machine, and its muscular action is all
important if the food is to reach the intestines in a suitable form. The gastric juice has little effect upon the starches,
which, as we have already seen, have already been acted upon, to some extent, by the saliva, nor does it greatly affect the
fats; it has. however, apart from its peptonising effect upon the proteids, antiseptic properties which prevent decay of
the |о,,<1ч, Ц killing many of the germs that have been introduced into the stomach with the food.
The food having undergone this process of gastric digestion, disinfection and preservation, gradually passes out at
the narrowest part of the stomach, through the orifice leading to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).
This orifice (the pylorus) is protected by a valve formed of the mucous membrane of the stomach and muscular fibres,
which leaves only a small round aperture through which the partly digested food can pass into the intestine When food
is first received into the stomach the pylorus is closed, and as digestion proceeds it alternately opens and closes, to
permit or prevent the passage of food. The movements of the stomach are such that the food which is in contact with its
surface is continually passed towards the pylorus, while the mass of food in the centre is as continually forced back
towards the cardiac orifice, until all the digested portions have passed into the duodenum.
The food which has undergone gastric digestion in the stomach is called chyme, and on its entrance into the
duodenum is subjected to a further and more elaborate process of digestion ; for into the duodenum are poured three
juices, the pancreatic juice, the bile, and the succus entcricus. The pancreatic juice is a secretion of the pancreas, a gland
resembling in structure the salivary glands, and the pancreatic juice acts upon starch in the same way as the saliva, but
far more quickly; it also acts upon the proteids and continues the work begun by the gastric juice;
4 [49 1

and it decomposes the fats. The bile is a secretion and excretion of the liver, and may better be described as an assistant
in the process of digestion than as a digestive juice, it assists in all the actions of the pancreatic juice, especially in the
breaking up of the fats. It also acts as a natural aperient, by facilitating the passage of the food and the waste products
through the intestinal passages. But to a great extent it may be considered an excretion, the removal of which from the
body is essential to health. The succus entericus is a secretion of certain tubular depressions in the mucous membrane
of the whole of the small and large intestines, these depressions being known as the crypts of Licberkiihn. The succus
entericus seems to affect slightly the starches, converting them into sugar, to have little or no effect upon the proteids
and fats, but to have an important effect upon cane sugar, which it converts into another form of sugar suitable for
assimilation. The action of these three juices upon the food while it is in the duodenum converts it into the form in
which it is carried, partly by the blood and partly by the lymph, all over the system, either for the direct nourishment of
parts, or to be stored in certain organs for future use. While in the intestines the food is also sub jected to the action of
bacteria which have survived the application of the gastric juice. Thus bacteriological action may be harmful or
beneficial— harmful if the bacteria are present in excessive numbers, and by their life processes set up poisonous
conditions ; beneficial if their number is normal, when they assist in breaking up the food elements, and render certain
poisons produced by the digestive process harmless.
The small intestines, of which the duodenum is the first, shortest and widest part, is a tube composed of four coats
of tissue, one of which is muscular; it is about twenty feet long, and its width gradually diminishes, so that it is
narrowest at the point where it joins the large intestine. It is convoluted throughout its length, and is divided into three
portions, the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The duodenum is the widest portion of the small intestine. It
rises from the pylorus, curves and descends, and again curves and passes almost straight across the body, and joins the
jejunum. The jejunum, which is narrower and larger than the duodenur i, is considerably wider than the ileum and has
fewer coils. The ileum, which is the longest, narrowest, and most coiled of all the pan* of the small intestine
communicates with the large intestine at the cxcum, the large depression of the large intestine attached to which is the
vermiform appendix, the long, worm-shaped tube which is now so well known as the possible seat of appendicitis.
The food in the small intestine is gradually passed along by the muscular action of the walls of the lube,
continually undergoing the digestive process, and continually having its nourishing particles absorbed by the cells of
the intestine. To the abstraction and distribution of the food I shall return, when I have dealt with the digestive process,
chemical and mechanical. The muscular action of the intestines consists in the alternate contraction and expansion of
its muscles. This action affects the various parts in succession, and may be compared with the movements of an
earthworm, which moves from place to place by expanding and contracting its body in a series of waves. In the case of
the intestine the action, of course, passes along its contents. The movements may be in either direction, but of course
the forward movements predominate, although the contents of the small intestine may, and sometimes do. re-enter the
stomach (in severe cases of vomiting and hernia). But the return of the food to the small intestine when once it has
passed into the cxcum is prevented by the muscular valve which guards the orifice.
The residuum of the food, not absorbed by the absorbent cells as it passes along the small intestine, reaches the
large intestine via the cxcum, where it is still subjected to the digestive action of the succus entericus. The large intestine
is of practically the same structure as the small intestine, it having four coats of tissue, one of which is muscular. Its
digestive action, however, is limited. The residue of the nutritive particles of the food are absorbed, and the fluids
extracted, as the food passes along it. until at last upon reaching the rectum nothing remains but the undigested or
indigestible residuum, combined with the waste tissue which has been slowly accumulating from the moment of
mastication. This residuum is at last expelled from the body, by a voluntary muscular action, as fxecs. The muscular
strength of the large intestine is greater than that of the small intestine, as the food and waste matter being gradually
deprived of their moisture become harder and harder, and their passage through the intestine naturally requires a
greater expenditure of

Г 3» 1
force. The intestine consists of the cxcum, already referred to, with the vermiform appendix, the colon, and the rectum.
From the orcum th»" colon, which is here called the ascending colon, rises vertically to the height of the stomach, curves
and crosses the body in an arch, where it is called the transverse colon, curves again, and (tosses vertically downwards,
where it is called the descending colon, terminating in an S-shaped convolution called the sigmoid flexure, which in
turn communicates with the rectum. The colon, which is narrower than the ca'cum, like the small intestine decreases in
width as it proceeds, and is narrowest at the sigmoid flexure The rectum, which is narrower than the sigmoid flexure at
their juncture, is tubular in shape, and curves downwards, becoming larger and larger until it terminates in the
muscular orifice called the anus.
Having now completed the description of the mechanical action of the digestive apparatus, from the reception of
the food to the ejection of its undigested residuum, I propose to recapitulate the facts, so that a clear idea of the
muscular effort involved may be gained by the reader.
First, there is the mastication, a voluntary muscular action : then there is the first net of swallowing, by which the
masticated food is passed to the pharynx by another voluntary muscular movement Here the voluntary muscles cease
for a time to act upon the digestion, but the action is still muscular. By a complicated but rapid movement the
involuntary muscles of the pharynx pass tl . i , I il,. .esophagus, which by a series of involuntary muscular movements
carries the food to the cardiac orifice of the stomach, which opens by an involuntary muscular movement to admit the
bolus and closes again. On the food reaching the stomach, that organ is at once set in motion, and by the contraction
and expansion of its involuntary muscles the food is mixed with the gastric juice, and as it i* reduced to chyme, thrust
forward to the pyloric orifice, the valve of which opens by an involuntary muscular movement, lets the food pass, and
clows again. The food has now reached the duodenum, and henceforward throughout the small intestine is gradually, by
involuntary muscular movement, prevv-d onward until at last it is forced into the cxrum in which il is retained bv the
involuntary muscular contraction of another valve. la the large intestine the process is still the same, and by n series of
involuntary muscular contractions and expansions the hard residuum of the food

[ i» J
 MICROGRAPHS OF THE TISSUES OF THE BODY

i oliinilMI F.|»ttU!lilllll

I.M'irjU Lymphatic. liUntl.

Mir .in hiphly TTUTFIMMTL. »n«l me irpiixluiХюа\ of пыгтпупр!» r-simally

РГС|ш!1Ч1 (IW ihi. wink
is gradually forced into the rectum, where it is retained by the involuntary muscular
contraction of the anus, until by a voluntary movement it is cxpJIed шя farces. We thus see
that there is not one process in the whole pro), ttged and complicated series of processes
called digestion which is not dependent upon muscular action, voluntary or involuntary. The
saliva is mixed with the food through the agency of the muscles of the jaws, the gastric juice is
mixed with the food by the powerful movements of the stomach, the food is conducted to the
bile and pancreatic and intestinal juices by the muscular action of the stomach, and is carried
on its way. to lie absorbed by the absorbent cells, by the muscular action of the intestines,
until the residuum, consisting partly of undigested food, but (if the diet be judicious and the
digestion sound) mostly of waste products and dfbrii of tissue, is by a muscular action
expelled from the body.
Before, however, I deal with the effect of exercise upon the muscles which assist in this
digestive process, 1 propose to review the proces.se» which lake place •aibscquently to gastric
and intestinal digestion, as we shall find that that exercise has as profound effect upon these
later processes as upon the digestive process 1 have just described.

II.—Tka Absorption and Assimilation of Food.

Roughly speaking, we may say that there is no absorption of food until it reaches the
stomach and has been subjected to gastric digestion J and although the food is absorbed to
some extent in the stomach, the small intestine is the digestive organ principally employed in
absorption The stomach and the intestines absorb foodstuffs by means of certain cells which
open upon the surface of the mucous membrane which lines them, and by other cells which
lie in the tissue beneath this lining. The first are called columnar epithelium cells; the second
are the lymph cells. These cells, as I have explained in the chapter on Cellular Function, do
not merely absorb the food as a sponge absorbs water, but have a power of choice. They
choose the foods they need. Not only have they this power of choice, they have also a power of
digestion. While in the "stomachs'' of these cells (I use the word stomach, of course, in an
illustrative sense) the foodstuffs already chemically changed by the action of

IMl
the digestive juices to which they have already been subjected, undergo a further chemical
change. The proteids of the food, as we have seen in the preceding part of this chapter, are
converted by the pepsin of the gastric juice into peptones. But it is not as peptones that the
blood carries this food to the tissues of the body. The absorbent cells possess what we may
call another digestive process, by means of which the peptones are converted back into
proteids, which arc now called native proteids and which, unlike the original proteids, arc
suitable fur consumption by the tissues. In the same way the starchy food having been
converted into one form of sugar by the saliva and pancreatic juice is reconvened into
another form of sugar by the absorbent cells of the small intestine, with the assistance of the
intestinal juice already referred to. The fats, again, by the combined action of the pancreatic
juice and the bile have been broken up into fatty acids and glycerine, and formed into a soapy
emulsion. We now find that this emulsion is reconvened into fat (in, however, the minutest
particles possible) before it is taken up by the lymphatics and carried to the fat cells to be
stored up for use. We sec, therefore, that before foodstuffs can be carried to the tissues of the
body they have to be subjected to a double process of digestion. First, the digestion of the
stomach and intestines, and secondly the digestion of the absorbent cells which open on the
surface of the lining of those organs. The proteids of the food convened by the pepsin of the
gastric juke into peptones arc reconverted into (native) proteids by the absorbent cells. The
starchy foods convened into one form of sugar by the saliva and the pancreatic juice are
reconvened into another form of sugar by the absorbent cells l and fat broken up and
emulsified by the bile and pancreatic juice is reconstructed into fat (divided into minute
panicles) by the absorbent cells. We have now to consider how these greatly altered foodstuffs
arc carried to and assimilated by the tissues of the body.
First of all we have to consider how the prepared foodstuffs are carried from the
neighbourhood of the stomach and the intestines to the various parts of the body. The blood
is. of course, the carrier of these foodstuffs, and the maintenance of a perfect circulation is
therefore necessary if perfect nutrition of all the cells of the body is to be secured. The
circulation of the blood is due in the first place to the muscular action of
I 54 J
the heart, which is the great pumping centre of the circulatory system, and in the second
place to the muscular and elastic coats of the vessels through which it circulates.
The heart is a muscular organ of great power divided into two parts by a central
partition which runs perpendicularly between them These two parts are called the right and
left cavities, and there is no communi cation between them. Each part is again divided
horizontally into two. th< upper part being called the auricle, and the lower part the
ventricle. There are thus two auricles and two ventricles, called the right auricle and ventricle
and the left auricle and ventricle. But although the two principal cavities of the heart have no
communication the one with the other, each auricle communicates with the ventricle below it
by means of orifices closed by valves. The auricles arc the receivers of the blood, and the
ventricles arc the expellers of the blood from the organ. The auricles are considerably less
muscular than the ventricles, and of the two ventricles, the left is far more muscular than the
right ; the left ventricle having to propel the blood through the large tube called the aorta,
and thence through the great arteries to every part of the body; the right ventricle, on the
other hand, merely having to propel the blood via the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
The blood circulates in the following way: The blood, we will imagine, has returned from the
various parts of the body to the right auricle of the heart, laden with carbonic acid, the waste
product of combustion. The auricle by muscular contraction forces this blood into the right
ventricle the communicating orifice, which is guarded by a valve that only permits the blood
to flow in this one direction. The ventricle then contracts and forces the blood via the
pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it gives up the carbonic acid with which it is laden and
receives oxygen in its place. This aeration of the blood will be fully dealt with in the chapter
on Respiration. The oxygenated blood is returned to the left auricle via the pulmonary veins
the auricle contracts and forces the blood into the left ventricle, which contracts and forces it
via the aorta and the great and small arteries to the capillaries, which are a network of very
small tubes connecting the arteries to the veins. The capillaries are found in nearly every
part of the body. From the capillaries the blood is forced into the small veins, and returns
again to the right auricle of the heart
I 53 J
via the veins. The circulation of the blood from the heart to the lungs, and from the lungs to
the heart, is called the pulmonary circulation, and that from the heart to all other puns of the
body and back to the heart again is called the systemic circulation. Connected with the
systemic circulation are two subsidiary circulations called respectively the portal circulation
and the renal circulation. The portal circulation is the stream of blood which, first dividing in
the capillaries of the intestine, comes together again and flows on to the liver, where it is
again divided, before continuing its course back to the heart. The renal circulation is a
circulation of much the same kind to and from the kidneys.
The mechanism of the circulation, though depending primarily upon the pumping
action of the heart, is assisted by the highly elastic and partly muscular action of the walls of
the arteries, and by a valvular system which is found in most of the veins especially those
veins which are subjected to the pressure of adjacent muscles. The blood forced into the
arteries by the contraction of the left ventricle distends them. The contraction of the
ventricles and auricles is rhythmical, and there is therefore an interval during which no
blood is pumped out. The distended artery, therefore, being highly elastic, and being for a
moment relieved by the cessation of the blood-flow from the heart, presses upon the blood,
which, unable to return to the heart from which it is excluded by valves, is forced forward,
and in this way the arteries materially assist the circulation. The veins, on the other hand
although far less elastic than the arteries, arc in many places supplied with valves, which
permit the blood to flow forward but prevent it from returning. The vein being distended
with bloo I, is pressed by the movement of an adjacent muscle, and the blood is forced to
move, and its return being prevented by the valve, it is naturally forced forward, and so again
the circulation is assisted. We therefore see that there are three movements contributing to
the circulation : The pumping action of the heart (a forcing out and a sucking in); the elastic
distension of the walls of the arteries, followed by their automatic contraction when the
pumping pressure momentarily ceases, assisted slightly by the contraction and clastic action
of the muscular tissue which also forms part of the arterial walls-; and lastly, the external
pressure caused by bodily movement upon the veins, which, combined widi the resistance of
the valves, lorn-, the blood forward.
I 5* 1
The reader will now to a sufficient extent understand the mechanism of the circulatory
system, and ! will go on to explain how the blood carries the foodstuffs to the tissues and
carries away their waste products. This explanation will bring us 10 the consideration of the
lymph, and the vessels and glands known as the lymphatics, and we shall see that although
the blood is the principal carrier of the foodstuffs, it never, except in the spleen, comes into
actual contact with the tissues OF the body, the real feeder of the tissues being the lymph.
The bl<*od is composed of formed and unformed elements. The formed elements are two.
the red and white corpuscles. The unformed element is the fluid in which these solid formed
parts are found . this fluid is called plasma The red corpuscles are smaller but far more
numerous than the white, and are the oxygen carriers. The constituent of the red corpuscle*
which gives them their colour is called haemoglobin, and contains a very slight quantity of
iron. I have said that these red corpuscles arc the carriers of oxygen. Iwt we shall see as we
proceed that BLOOD has other carrying functions. The white coqxiscles, which we shall meet
with in various forms and under various names in different parts of the body, arc larger than
the red, and in health are found in the proportion of I to 400 of the red, and are free moving
cells, closely resembling some of the independent unicellular animals. The plasma in which
these corpuscles arc found is an albuminous fluid, one of its constituents being a liquid
protcid substance called fibrinogen ; fibrinogen, when the BLOOD coagulates, forms a solid
substance called fibrin.
The oxygenated blood, as we have seen, is returned from the lungs to the heart and
thence propelled to the capillaries, but while in the capillaries some of the plasma escapes
through the walls of these minute blood-vessels, and it is this plasma that nourishes the
tissues of the BODY. Under certain conditions, even in health, not only does the plasma
escape, but some of the corpuscles also pass through the walls and arc diffused among the
tissues The escaped plasma, rich in nutritive substances, and charged with oxygen (which has
been given up to it by the red corpuscles) is called lymph . and it not only conveys foodstuffs
and oxygen to the tissues, but also receives their waste products, and it is therefore obvious
that its const.mt renewal and removal is necessary. Its renewal is brought about by the
I 17 J
continual exudation of the plasma through the walls of the capillaries, and it is
removed by the lymphatics, which convey it via the right lymph duct and the
thoracic duct to the right and left subclavian veins respectively, where it is mingled
with the returning blood. The lymphatic vessels bear some resemblance to the
veins. like the blood in the veins, the flow of lymph is regulated by valves. The
vessels are smaller in diameter than the veins, and their walls are much slighter in
construction. They begin at the lymph capillaries, and they end. as we have seen, at
the subclavian veins. The lymph, as lymph, it will therefore be understood, unlike
the blood, docs not circulate, but passes in one direction only. The lymph
capillaries and the blood capillaries do not communicate, but the blood capillaries
always being situated in a space bathed in lymph, the plasma which exudes from
the walls is at once brought into communication with the lymph, and finally into
communication with the lymphatic capillaries ami vessels. The movement of the
lymph is largely brought about by the respiratory movements, by bodily
movements, which, as in the case of the valvcd veins, must equally affect the
forward movement of the lymph, by the movements of the small intestine, and
(tossibly by the elasticity of the walls of the vessels.
The lymphatic vessels, however, differ from the veins in that their course is
continually broken by the lymphatic glands, which, unlike the liver, pancreas, and
kidneys, arc what are called ductless, that is to say. the secretions which they form
leave them, not by special ducts, but with the lymph stream which Hows through
them, and arc thus carried to the cells which need the nutriment the secretions
supply. While in these ducdess lymphatic glands the lymph undergoes processes
which are as yet but litde understood, except that they ore of the utmost
importance to health. To these glands, however, we shall again return.
We have so far seen that the lymph, having been renewed by the exuding
plasma, and having carried nourishment and oxygen to the adjacent cells and
received their waste products, flows to the veins via the lymph capillaries and the
lymphatic vessels and glands. But we have not as yet seen how and where the
plasma obtained the nutritive substance with which it feeds the tissues. To
understand how these nutritious sub blames came to be in lite plasma at all, we
must return to our considers
l 5* 1
don of the chemical changes of foodstuffs which, after gastric and intestinal
digestion, we found took place in the absorbent cells of the intestinal walls
The foodstuffs finally prepared by the absorbent cells are minute globules of
fat, native proteid substances known as albumin and globulin, and a form of sugar
known as glucose.
I will first deal with the fat. the globules of which, having passed through the
columnar absorbent cells, have reached the tissue beneath, which is called
lymphoid tissue. Lymphoid tissue is a network of white fibres in a more or less
fluid substance, and in this fluid, amid the network, are found lymph corpuscles.
The lymph corpuscles arc carried by the lymph stream to the blood, where they are
known as the white corpuscles. These corpuscles are, as I have already said, free
moving cells, which closely resemble some of the unicellular animals, and they
move and feed and multiply in the same way that the amcebx - -simple unicellular
animals— move and feed and multiply. The globules of fat on reaching the
lymphoid tissue are taken up by these lymph corpuscles, carried by them to the
bctrah, and there discharged into the lymph stream. The lactcals are the
lymphatic vessels found in the neighbourhood of the intestines, and arc so called
on account of the milky appearance of their contents during digestion, but except
as to their contents they do not differ in any way from other lymphatic vessels. The
lactcals merge in the thoracic duct, the largest and principal duct of the lymphatic
system. The thoracic duct pours its contents into the left subclavian vein. The
globules of fat, then, carried by the lymph corpuscles to the lactcals, and there
emptied into the lymph stream, arc carried by the lymph stream to the thoracic
duct, and from thence poured into the blood at the subclavian vein, and so getting
into the circulation are carried all over the body, and stored up in the fat cells for
use as required.
The native proteid substances converted by the absorbent cells from the
peptones are for the most part carried away by the blood to the liver, though a
small quantity passes into the lymph stream, and flows into the blood via the
thoracic duct These albuminous substances, after treatment in the liver, are carried
by the circulation to all parts of the body, where they repair the waste ol the
principal cell.-, of the tissue.
L 5» i
The sugar (glucose) converted from maltose by the cells through which it passes,
with the aid of the succus entericus. enters the blood and is carried to the liver via the portal
vein, where it is stored for future use. and carried by the blood to the various tissues as
required.
Water and the soluble salts are absorbed by the tissues without any chemical change.
The |jerfected (Лачто, then-fore, which escapes through the walls of the capillaries and,
as lymph, bathes the tissues of the body, contains all the nutritive substances which arc
conveyed to the blood and lymph by the absorbent cells of the intestines. It no doubt
contains also such ddoru of tissues .14 may be assimilated by other tissues, for it does not
follow that all the waste products of all the tissues are but waste products from the point of
view of the whole body, but may in many cases be transformed by the lymph glands into
nutriment and again assimilated by the tissues, or the w.iste products or disintegrated
particles of one tissue may indeed be the nutriment most needed by another tissue. lie that
as it may, one thing is certain, processes take place in many of the lymph glands which,
although they ore not at present understood, arc still recognisable as all-important to the
health, and even to the life of the whole body; and that these processes are of the nature of
what I may coll "cellular digestion," which is what we really mean by assimilation, there can
be very little doubt. The thyroid gland, for instance, whose function is not known, is yet so
important to life and health that its extirpation means death, unless the patient from whom
the gland has been removed be constantly fed with the thyroid gland of another animal; this
fact, of course, proving that the thyroid gland in some way produces some secretion which is
all important in the final stages of digestion.
The process of digestion is. in fact, continuous. We have seen that the sugar ami proteid
foodstuffs are carried by the intestinal veins via the portal vein to the liver, and here, again,
they arc subjected to another process of digestion. The liver is the largest gland in the body,
and is in contact with the diaphragm (to which it is attached), the stomach, the intestine, and
the right kidney. It is divided into five lobes, two large and three small, and in a fissure
between two of the lobes is found the GALLBLADDER, m winch the bib- not immediately
required in digestion is
I *» J
 MICROGRAPHS OP THH rtssu>s OP THE BODY

stored for future use. The blood-vessels of the liver are numerous. Its tissues, like, all other
tissues, are supplied with the arterial blood nccessars for their nourishment by the hepatic
artery. Hut, as we have »ccn. il also receives venous blood laden with foodstuffs via the
portal vein, which is the trunk into which the small veins of the intestines pour their
contents. The liver is also provided with numerous lymphatic capillaries. Wc need not
consider the question of the arterial blood, which in the liver is the same as in any other
tissue, that is to say. its nutritive oxygenated plasma
escape-, and i lymph nourish''., the tissues The ЩЩ b!.........................I however,
which conveys the foodstuffs for further elaboration, must be considered. The liver extracts
all the sugar brought to it in excess of the immediate needs of the body, storing it for future
use in the form of glycogen, (MISSING back to the blood the sugar needed for immediate use
in the form of glucose. Bile, the secretion which, as wc have seen, is poured into the
duodenum, is produced by the liver by an obscure chemical process fn>m the proteid
foodstuffs, and its colouring matter is derived from the red corpuscles of the blood, which
when effete are disintegrated by the liver. The liver is also the organ principally engaged in
the final process of urea formation. Urea is the waste nitrogenous product of tissue
changes, and is also, in smaller quantities, produced by the liver from some of the products
of intestinal digestion. Wc thus see that the liver is engaged not only in secretion, but in
excretion also, the bile being principally u waste product which is excreted from the
intestines with the f.-eces, and urea being a waste product which the liver returns to the
blood, to be carried to the kidneys and excreted with the urine. The blood which leaves the
liver is poured into the inferior vena cava and joins the general circulation.
Connected with the portal circulation Is the spleen, the largest of the ductless glands
The functions of this gland are little understood II is, however, known that, like the
lymphatic glands, it produces the while corpuscles of the blood, which arc known in the
lymph as lymph corpuscles. It also has an effect upon the red corpuscles which is not clearly
understood. It is known, however, in some cases to produce the red corpuscles. And it is
also known to act as a pumping apparatus for the portal circulation. The blood that leaves
the spleen is collected by the portal vein and travels to the liver. The coat of the spleen is
partly composed of elastic

( •« 1 fibres and muscular tissue. It is controlled by the nervous system, and

possrses л power of contraction and expansion, and so acts, we may almost say, as
a subsidiary heart to the portal circulation.
We need not here reconsider the functions of the pancreas, for although its
blood-vessels arc connected with the portal circulation, its functions other than
the secretion of the pancreatic juice arc practically unknown, although, as in the
case of other obscure glands, it is known to have functions as yet undiscovered.
Any further secretion it may form is probably conveyed to the liver by the portal
vein, and from thence to the blood.
 We have now another organ to consider, and that is the dual excretory organ
known as the kidneys. The kidneys arc not secretory and excretory organs like
the liver, but are, so far as is at present known, excretory only. They merely
seiiarate the various substances which form urine from the blood, and expel
them from the body. It has, however, been conjectured that they may also form
an internal secretion. They are not, however, supposed to have any formative
effect upon any of the constituents of urine. The kidney* are supplied with blood
by the renal circulation. They are tubular glands and are found in the lumbar
region, embedded, as a rule, in fat. which hulls them in their place. The arterial
blood is supplied by the renal artery, and venous blood is removed by the renal
vein. The urine separated from the blood by the cells of the kidney is poured
through a duct, called the ureter, into the urinary bladder, and thence by a tube
called the urethra it is expelled from the body. The urine consists principally of
water, and the principal solids it contains are urea, which we have seen is formed
in the liver, sodium chloride (common salt). The mineral constituents of urine
arc derived partly from the food and partly from tissue changes. Uric acid, in
health, is also found in urine, but in very small quantities. Although, of course,
in the case of people who eat more meat than the amount of exercise they take
justifies, and in cases of gout, the quantity Is considerably increased. Uric acid is
supposed to be formed in the liver.
The skin must also be included with the organs of excretion, the sweat being
an excretion composed of water and a very small proportion of solids, including
mineral constituents, fats, the dtbrtt of the cells of the
I *» J
epidermis. ->l THR sweat .jl.iiids A T m i .1 v. ту -.mall
quantity (in health hardly perceptible) of urea. The
skin also assists, to a slight extent, in respiration,
giving off some of the carbonic acid produced in the
body, This function, however. I shall again refer to
when dealing with the respiration.
I now propose to return to the consideration of
the white corpuscles, which we have noted in the
blood, in the lymph and in the tissues. The white
corpuscles of the blood, as wc have seen, arc free
moving cells, and we have now to consider their
origin, form and function. They are produced in the
lymphatic glands, in the pancreas and in the spleen,
and so get into the lymph stream, where they arc
called lymphocytes, and thence into the blood,
where they are called leucocytes. Of these leucocytes
there are various kinds, some larger than others, and
some distinguished from others by difference of
internal construction. They have the power of "
eating " solid particles by drawing them into their
interior, digesting them, and excreting the residue.
In this way they destroy bacteria ; and in cases of "
inflammation " they work their way through the
walls of the blood-vessels and wander through the
tissues till they come to the inflamed site, where
they devour whatever microbes have caused the
inflammation, and also devour the tissue which has
been destroyed by the action of the inimical visitant.
If they are able to do this without injury to them-
selves they leave the wounded but purified tissues to
heal, and wander back again to the blood. Hence
they are sometimes called wandering cells, and
sometimes phagocytes, because of this f»owcr of
eating. If, however, as frequently happens, the
influence of the invading microbe or what not is too
great the leucocytes arc poisoned and die in the site
of the inflammation, and these dead leucocytes form
the corpuscles of pus. It will therefore be seen that
the white corpuscles of the blood are of great
importance in cases of injured tissue, and have also a
great influence on the maintenance of health, in that
they destroy inimical bacteria introduced into the
body. Their secretions arc also of value in the general
round of tissue change. They are most numerous in
ill-health, und far more numerous in youth than in
old age. I shall refer to this latter point again in the
chapter devoted to old age and the reproductive
organs, merely saying here, that as the leucocytes are
produced in the glands, it is
tmi

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CHAP. IX.
General Summary

a fair inference to suggest that the prolongation of life is probably con nectctl with a
prolongation of active glandular secretion

111. —lUaeral Summary.

We have now passed in review all the known processes in digestion, absorption,
assimilation and excretion. I now propose to recapitulate rapidly the whole of the
preceding pages. The food enters the mouth and is masticated and mixed with saliva
(which converts starch into sugar) it then enters the pharynx, and passes via the cesophagus
to the stomach where it is subjected to gastric digestion (which converts the proteids of the
food into peptones and preserves the food from decay) ; from the stomach the food passes
into the duodenum, where it is subjected to pancreatic, biliary and intestinal digestion,
and the intestinal digestion continues throughout the intestines until all the digested food
is absorbed, and the indigestible residuum with certain waste products such us the bile and
waste tissue elements i* expelled from the Ixidy as farces. We have discovered, however,
that this digestive process is but the comparatively simple beginning of a complicated and
prolonged process. The food in the intestines which has had its starches converted to sugar
by the saliva and the pancreatic juice, and the succus entericus; its proteids converted to
j»eptone.> by the gastric juice ; and its faLs turned into fatty acids, and emulsified by the
pancreatic juice and the bile; is now absorbed by the absorbent cells of the intestines, and
while in these cells undergoes я further change. The one form of sugar (maltose), being
converted into another form of sugar (glucose), the peptones being converted into native
proteids. and the fatty acid emulsion being reconverted into fat minutely subdivided.
These foodstuffs are then conveyed to the blood via the venous blood and the lymph. But
before they reach the general circulatory system they have to undergo further treatment.
The fats and a small quantity of the native proteids reach the lymphoid tissue beneath the
absorbent cells, and arc here taken up by the freely moving animal -like lymph cells, and
carried to the lactcals. where they are discharged into the lymph stream, which flows on to
the thoracic, which is the main lymphatic trunk of all the lymphatic vessels of the body,
with the execp-
! ** J
General Summary CHAP. tx.

tion of those of the upper right side of the body, the trunk of which is called the right
lymphatic duct. The foodstuffs, here called chyle, are mingled with the lymph which is
returning from all the lymph capillaries laden with the waste products of the cells which it
has nourished and oxygenated, and at last the whole stream flows into the left subclavian
vein, and thus reaches the general system of the circulation. The remainder and bulk of
the native proteids and the glucose is taken up by the blood, and conveyed from the
neighbourhood of the intestines to the portal vein, where the food-laden blood is mingled
with the venous blood coming from the spleen and pancreas, until at last the whole stream
reaches the liver. Here the foodstuffs undergo further changes. The surplus glucose is
retained by the liver and stored up for future use as glycogen, an animal form of starch;
the waste-product constituents of urea brought to the liver by the blood are converted into
urea; the constituents of bile are withdrawn from the blood and foodstuffs; and the
venous blood leaves the liver minus the stored glucose, biliary constituents, and
disintegrated red corpuscles, flows on to the inferior vena cava, and joins the general
circulation. All the foodstuffs, with the exception of the stored glycogen, ore now in the
venous blood, which on entering the heart is pumped to the lungs to be aerated, and on
returning to the heart is pumped to every part of the body ina the arteries. It will therefore
be seen that this arterial blood contains all the elements of nutrition (in an altered form)
which were in the food when it was intro duccd into the mouth, and it will also be
understood that it is charged with oxygen. On reaching the capillaries—the small clusters
of minute blood-vessels which are found all over the body—some of the plasma escapes,
and this plasma, now called lymph, bathes the adjacent tissues, giving them nutriment ami
oxygen, and carrying away their excretions and carbonic acid, and then tie the lymph
capillaries joining the lymph stream, receiving all the unknown but important products of
the lymph glands, and flowing Iie I. into the blood again by the right lymphatic duct and
the thoracic dui^at the subclavian veins. The blood thus deprived of its oxygen, and much
of its nutritive elements, returns by the veins, which communicate with the arteries at the
blood capillaries, to the heart, and the whole process of the circulation begins again. The
waste water, the urea, and some other waste products have been, during the course of the
ciorulatinn. carried to the kidneys and eliminated. Waste water and a small proportion of
solid matter have also been eliminated by the cells of the skin.
In this way is the body continually nourished and cleansed, and wc may now perhaps
understand a little of all that is meant when wc say that our digestion is out of order. To
speak of the nourishment and cleansing of the tissues perhaps disguises, to some extent,
the importance of the process, but if instead of tissues wc say the brain and the nerves, the
eyes and the ears, all the wonderful organs which are built up of these tissues, then there
can indeed be no under-rating of digestion and all the complicated processes involved in it.
1 have not dealt with the nerves which control all the organs of digestion and
assimilation, partly because I propose to deal with them in a special chapter, and partly
because the beneficial effect of exercise upon the nervous system is to a very great extent
ascribablc to the perfect nourishment of the nervous system, to that I have thought it best
to refrain from mentioning them hcrcf further titan to say that they play a most important
pun in all the bodily functions described in this chapter. A full account of the nerves of the
whole digestive system will, however, be found in the chapter on the Nerves (p 88).

IV.— Tkt Efftct of Extrtist upon tke Professes of Dietitian, Absorption, and
Assimilation.

I shall fully explain in the chapters on the Muscles and the Nerves the difference
between the voluntary and involuntary muscles, and the effect which exercise has upon
both. I need merely say here that there is not an involuntary muscle in the body which
cannot be acted upon, and beneficially stimulated, by the judicious exercise of the
voluntary muscles. Indeed, some of the involuntary muscles, such as the diaphragm and
the muscles of the heart, are so easily affected by voluntary muscular effort, that although
it must perforce be admitted that in an anatomical and physiological sense they arc
involuntary, they seem in practice, so far as our power over them goes, more akin to the
voluntary muscles than to the involuntary. We cannot will that the diaphragm shall do this
or that,
[66] hut by holding our breath for muscular effort, by taking deep inspirations, or by
contracting the abdominal muscles, ihe diaphragm is .it once brought into play and des-
elopcd The diaphragm, moreover, plays an important part in the mechanism of gastric
digestion. Its movement brought about by the inspiration and expiration of air into and out
of the lungs affects and assists the muscular movements of the stomach, with which it is in
direct contact Again, exercise of the abdominal muscles assists the involuntary muscular
movements of the intestines, and is also of value to them by holding them more firmly in
their place ; and especially is this the case in those exercises which, by surngthenrhg the
lower muscles of the abdomen, are used in the cure of inguinal hernia. It need not be said
that any exercise which will cure will prevent; and I think it may justly be claimed for
exercise that unlike any other therapeutic, its preventive powers arc, if anything, greater
than its curative powers, and its use. again unlike other therapeutics, is continually
beneficial. We have seen that the whole process of digestion in the alimentary canal is
continually assisted by the muscular action of the walls of the whole of the alimentary-
canal from the moment the food is received into the mouth to the moment when the
indigestible residue is expelled from the body ; and it will therefore be understood how
stimulation of the involuntary muscles involved must inevitably promote this preliminary
process of digestion. The inconvenience and danger arising from constipation are too well
known to need insisting upon. The retention of the waste products in the body is a
permanent danger to health, and exercise which stimulates the muscular action of the
intestines, especially of the large intestine, in which the residue of the food by loss of
moisture becomes comparatively hard, is the most effective corrective and the only cure for
constipation. Of course, it is not merely the stimulation of the muscular action of the
intestines which brings about the cure, although that is unquestionably the preliminary
process in the cure. No doubt healthy action of the liver is also of great importance, as the
bile is known to facilitate not only the chemical processes of digestion, but the mechanical
passage of the food through the intestines. We shall, however, see as we proceed that
healthy action of all the secretory and excretory glands can be secured by exercise.
I will now pass from the consideration of the muscular movements of
1*71
the alimentary canal, which I shall again deal with in the chapter on the Muscles,
to the consideration of the later processes of digestion, absorfWon and
assimilation. The food absorbed by the absorbent cells passes, as we have seen,
into the blood and the lymph, the food-laden blood passing via the portal vein to
the liver and the food-laden lymph via the thoracic duct to the left subclavian
vein. Wc have also seen that the veins and lymphatics are provided with a
number of valves which permit the venous blood and lymph to flow in one
direction only, so preventing them from returning to the blood and lymph
capillaries. We have also seen that this valvular arrangement is of great
importance to the blood and lymph flow, when adjacent muscles press upon the
veins and lymphatics. It will therefore be understood that any movements of
the trunk which will cause this pressure will hasten and facilitate the process of
absorption, by assisting the flow of food laden venous blood to the liver and the
flow of the food-laden lymph to the veins. The blood on leaving the liver Hows
by the venous continuation of the portal circulation into the inferior vena cava
and thence to the heart Thus all the finally converted foodstuffs pass with the
venous blood to the heart, and from there, after the blood has been pumped to
the tungs for aeration, are distributed to the various capillaries by the arteries,
and this passage of food-ludcn venous blood can be continually facilitated by
such movements as involve pressure on the veins It follows, therefore, that
people of sedentary pursuits are peculiarly liable not only to derangements of
the alimentary digestion, such as constipation and indigcstion\ but also to
derangements of assimilation caused by a languid circulation of the blood, and it
will be clearly understood how greatly the "habit of exercise" I have described in
the chapter on Exercise will affect not only alimentary digestion but the
subsequent absorption, reconversion, and circulation of the foodstuffs. The
direct action of movement is far greater upon the venous flow than the arterial
flow of blood. The arteries being elastic and muscular, have the automatic
power of pressing the blood forward, ami therefore do not so greatly need
extraneous assistance, there is, however, little doubt but that bodily movement
does even directly aid the arterial flow. The indirect aid given to the arterial flow
by bodily movement will, however, be obvious. The f a t d i l a t i o n of the venous
flow to the heart will necessarily facilitate the
t**l
arterial flow from the heart, and by increasing the blood pressure in the arteries will
increase their muscular and elastic action. The arterial blood, therefore, laden as we bavc
seen with the nutritive products of digestion and absorption, and with oxygen, will be
pressed with greater force into the capillaries, and the greater the arterial pressure in the
capillaries ihe more plasma will exude through the walls to nourish the tissues. And now
again the direct effect of exercise will be seen. The plasma (now called lymph), as we have
seen, not only carries nutriment and oxygen to the tissues, but receives in exchange their
waste products, and these waste products are removed by the lymph via the lymphatics, and
we have seen that the lymphatics, like the veins, are pfTJvided with valves, and are direcdy
affected by bodily movements. Exercise, therefore, and especially the "habit of exercise"
described on p. 5. will not only facilitate the passage of foodstuffs to the tissues, but will
also hasten the removal of their waste products. This facilitation of the removal of waste
products, which are mostly poisonous, is of equal importance with the facilitation of the
carriage of foodstuffs. In the case of the lymphatics there us. however, another point to be
considered, for they arc, as wc have already seen, connected throughout their course with
the lymphatic glands These glands and the secretions they form have, us we have seen, a
most important, if as yet little understood, effect upon the nutrition of the tissues.
Obviously the facilitation of the passage of the lymph stream to and from these glands, will
have a stimulating effect upon their function; for it may be taken as an axiom that use of
any organ increases its functional power.
The known effects of exercise upon the processes of digestion, absorption and
assimilation are therefore the strengthening of the muscles of the whole alimentary canal,
and therefore the facilitation of the mechanical processes of alimentary digestion, the
mixing of the food in the stomach with the gastric juice, and its passage into the intestines,
and the facilitation of its passage along the whole length of the two intestines until the in-
digestible residuum is ejected from the body. The facilitation of absorption of the digested
foodstuffs by the absorbent cells of the intestines; the facilitation of the subsequent
passage of the foodstuffs via the portal vein to the liver, and thence to the inferior vena
cava. the facilitation of the passage of other foodstuffs via the lymph stream to the
subclavian vein, and the general facilitation of the whole circulation of the blood and
lymph, with the consequent result of a rapid exchange of nutritiort and waste in the tissues
of the body. These are the known effects; but I also hold, as I have explained in the chapter
on Cellular Function, that the alternate pressure and relaxation of the tissues themselves
necessarily involved in bodily movement stimulate the functional activity of the cells of the
tissues; that they, in their turn, if I may so put it, have their digestions beneficially affected
by the exercise they receive from such alternate pressure and relaxation.
So far I have dealt with general exercise of the whole body, such as I should prescribe
for the general improvement of the health, but in many, I may almost say in most cases, il is
necessary first to prescribe exercise for the cure of some especial ailment. Now no matter
what the complaint may be, or what organ or part of the body is affected by it, the cause is
invariably some defect in the nourishment of the organ or port affected. I have explained
how general exercise can affect the whole process of nutrition and the removal of waste,
and it will be readily understood that as the whole body is affected so can any particular
part of the body be affected. In the chapter on Metabolism I explain as fully as possible the
way in which the tissues are continually wasting and repairing the substance of which they
are composed Here I need only say that the tissues of the body are in a constant state of
change. Part of their substance is constantly dying and being tfhjcarded. and as constantly
being renewed. The dead tissue is removed in various forms and ejected from the body, and
new-tissue is constantly being formed from the foodstuffs carried by the lymph. I have
explained how this change is facilitated generally by exercise, and it follows that it can be
equally facilitated locally. I may indeed say. that by my system of curative exercise applied
to especial ailments affecting particular organs or parts of the body, I can remove the
diseased organ or port and replace it with a healthy one. At first sight this statement seems
but an empty boost, but on reflection it turns out to IK- but a truism. The affected organ is
suffering from defective nutrition, as a rule, undcr-nutrition is the cause. By prescribing
exercises which will stimulate the flow of blood to and from the affected organ. I give it the
extra nutrition it needs, and not only is it supplied in increased quantity- with the
nourishment conveyed to it by the lymph, but its waste tissue is more speedily removed, its
tissue change becomes more rapid, and in a little while the whole of the diseased organ is
carried away and a new healthy organ is left in its place Of course. I do not maintain that 1
can do this in every instance; I merely maintain that when a perfect cure is effected, that is
what such a cure virtually means.
If, as may happen, the organ or part is suffering from over-nutrition, then the exercise
I should prescribe would be directed to lessen the blood flow to the part, by stimulating its
flow to another part. In all but extreme cases it is thus possible, by "dieting" the tissues in
this way, to secure a rapid and. if the " habit of exercise " be acquired, a permanent cure I am
convinced, however, that the perfect nourishment of the tissues is not the only result of
exercise, as 1 have already explained, it is more than probable that the tissues and the cells
of which they arc composed derive direct benefit from the exercise. Their movements,
however limited such movements may be. must be stimulated, so that they secrete and
excrete more perfectly, and waste and repair more quickly. Of course. I am now referring
more especially to the tissues of the body which arc not directly concerned in muscular
movements, either voluntary or involuntary. We know that the muscle cells are directly
stimulated by exercise, and we shall see when I come to describe them, that not only do
they waste rapidly and repair rapidly under the stimulation of exercise, but tlwt they ulso
repair more than they waste, or, in other words, they grow.
The reader will now understand how important to the well-being of the whole body is
that complicated process which is commonly called digestion, but which includes, as we
have seen, digestion, properly so called, absorption, assimilation, and the excretion of
waste material. The reader will also understand how such exercise as 1 have described
facilitates every stage of the process and how exercise specially prescribed to benefit
individual organs or parts of the body effects its purpose Of course, the prescription of
such exercise, whether for the general improvement of the bodily condition, for the
invigoration of any particular organ or part, or for the cure of any especial ailment, depends
not only upon physiological knowledge but upon practical experience. The exercise

! T »1
prescribed must be suited in every case to tbe strength and health of the patient, and this
knowledge of the requirements of individuals can only be secured by experience. And il is
for this reason that I so strongly advocate the addition of the study of curative exercise to
the ordinary hospital school curriculum. Every medical man will agree with me when I say
that no amount of physiological and anatomical knowledge will alone enable a man to
become a competent practising physician; it is clinical experience which gives the doctor
his real healing power.
In the same way. it is my long practical experience of the curative effects of exercise
upon the body which enables mc to prescribe exercise suited to the needs and the bodily
condition of the individual. My first experience was gained in the development of my own
body. Then, as I became known for my strength and development, athletes came to mc to be
trained, and so in my own person and in the case of my pupils I discovered that as the
bodily strength was developed sc the boddy health was improved. Physiological study gave
me the clue to the meaning of this health improvement, and as I continued my work I made
a point of carefully watching this improvement of the health under systematic exercise, and
it was not until I had tested my system in every possible way that I made it public. The
system 1 have devised is now so far perfected that I can carry it but little further; but in the
hands of the medical profession, whose opportunities are far greater than mine can
possibly be, I really see no limit to the extension of its therapeutic value. As I shall explain
in a subsequent chapter, there are many obscure diseases which, known to be due to
defective tissue change, are still beyond the control of the physician, and which might yield
to properly prescribed curative exercise. Such exercise deserves more personal attention
from the profession than it has yet received. I lay especial stress upon this probability here,
as of all the common ailments known to be cured by my treatment those con-nccted with
the digestive system yield most readily to it and. as perfect digestion and assimilation are
the foundations of health, this fact seems to point to curative potentialities which can only
be fully tested by those whose work brings them continually into touch with persons
suffering from dangerous and obscure diseases know to be due to defective metabolism

7> .
Mil KOCRAPHS ok THE TISSUES OF THE BODY

i ■•nirltwvlml -it mall •■! Ill, lit. tin

Л/iijtuJ TLMUE. I llulnl I piitirliiun

TL« ,ll»4T MT I..tit.lv I. Itltd Ul.il ЛГ IT|r.«li,. |>|.|» I.l iii.i i<4(i<|lllk ri|».< NIL) |ис|1»||
Ч1 I... lint wink
CHAPTER X.

KWMCHI AKO Til К RfWrlKATION.

THK respiratory process is very closely related to the assimilative

PROCESS respiration supplying the blood with oxygen and removing from
it the waste product of tissue change, carbonic acid. The lungs arc the
organs of respiration and occupy with the heart the cavity of the chest
known as the thorax. The lungs arc highly elastic spongy bodies. Between
them lies the heart The right lung is divided into three lobes and is larger
than the left, as the heart leans towards the left lung and therefore gives
the right more space. The left lung is divided into two lobes. The lungs
are conical in shape and are covered by a serous membrane. This
membrane is double, one part covering the lung and the other part
lining the cavity of the chest. The space between is called the pleural
cavity. There is no opening, however, to the cavity, as the membrane is
continuous, nor does "cavity" properly explain the spuce between the two
layers of membrane, for as a matter of fact they are. with the exception of
the serous lluid upon their surface, which allows the lungs to move
freely, in contact throughout The spongy clastic tissue of which the lungs
are composed consists of lobules closely connected and covered
externally by areolar tissue, a tissue containing a large number of clastic
libres The lobules are continuations of the bronchial tubes and
terminate in air cells, in which the exchange of gases takes place.
The air enters the mouth and nostrils and passes via the larynx (the
vocal organ), which is a box-shaped organ lying at the base of the tongue,
into the trachea, the air tube which lies immediately below. This tube,
which is about an inch in diameter, descends vertically to
I n )

the lungs for a distance of about four and a half inches, it then branches
into two lubes, called the right and left bronchos, respectively. The right
bronchus (about an inch long) enters the right lung , the left bronchus
(about two inches long I enters the left lung. These bronchi on entering
the longs divide and subdivide into a series of minute tubes which
penetrate to every |>art of the lungs until they end in the lobules 4 to
which I have already referred. The trachea and bronchial tubes are
cartiluginous, but have within them a certain amount of muscular fibre
and are lined with a mucous membrane, upon the surface of which are
certain cells known as ciliated epithelium cells. These cells terminate in
clusters of very tine hair like filaments which move backwurds and
forwards continually and facilitate the movement of liquids upon their
surface. Their use in the air passages of the lungs is to produce a flow of
mucous towards the throat, which mucous carries with it any dust
introduced with the air into the lungs. These cells, while they line the
trachea and the bronchial tubes, arc not found in the air-sacs in which
these tubes terminate. The air-sacs, the pouch-like terminations of the
bronchial tubes, have very fine walls, and these walls are surrounded by
the pulmonary capillaries of the blood; thus there is but littJ*
obstruction to the interchange of gases between the oxygen-laden atmo-
spheric air in the air-sacs and the carbonic-acid-laden blood, and it is
here that the exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid takes place.
The mechanical process of respiration may be explained as follows :
The lungs at their base rest upon the surface of the diaphragm, the great
sheet of involuntary muscles which I have already referred to in
connection with the movements of the stomach. The diaphragm divides
the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity, and when expanded
the upper surface, upon which the lungs rest, is convex. This muscle is
aided in its respiratory work by the muscles which are attached to the
ribs and which by raising them enlarge the cavity of the chest. These
muscles are controlled by nerves but I shall leave the consideration of
nervous control till I deal with the nerves generally. When inspiration
takes place the diaphragm contracts and its surface loses its convexity
and the chest cavity is thereby enlarged. The muscles attached to the ribs
also contract, the walls of the chest are raised, and the cavity is still
I 74 1
further enlarged. The lungs, as we have seen, are highly clastic and are
submitted in their interior to the ordinary atmospheric pressure, while
on their exterior there is naturally mi such pressure. The space in which
they lie, therefore, being enlarged, the pressure of the atmosphere in
their interior causes them to expand and the intake of air is only limited
by the s|acc in which they can expand. The atmospheric air therefore tills
all the cavities of the lungs open to it, and while in the air-sacs the
interchange of the gases lakes place, some of the carbonic acid in the
blood being exchanged for the oxygen of the air. This interchange having
been effected expiration takes place. The diaphragm cxitand* and its
surface becomes again convex, while the muscles attached to the ribs are
relaxed, the walls of the chest are lowered, and the chest cavity returns to
its former sire. But as the cavity returns to its smallest size the pressure
on the air-expanded lungs forces the air out of them, and this returning
air carries away with it some of the carbonic acid which it has received in
the air-sacs. This exchange is all that takes place in the lungs, the
combustion, of which carbonic acid is the product, taking place in the
tissues of the body. Needless to say, of course, the lungs arc supplied, like
all other ports of the body, with the oxygen and food-laden plasma In the
ordinary way by the ordinary channels for the nourishment of their
component tissues.
The blood, as we have already seen in the chapter on the Digestive
Process (p. 55), having been oxygenated in the lungs returns to the
left auricle of the heart by the pulmonary vein, thence to the left
ventricle, and thence via the aorta and the arteries to the capillaries of
every part of the body, with the exception of the pulmonary capillaries,
which are supplied with venous blood by the pulmonary artery. Here, as
wc have already seen, the oxygen and food-laden plasma exudes through
the thin walls of the capillaries and. as lymph, nourishes the tissues. In
the chapter on the digestion, in which this exudation of the plasma was
described, we were concerned more with the foodstuffs which it carried
than with the oxygen, with the feeding rather than with the breathing of
the tissues. We are now, however, only concerned with the oxygen
carried to the tissues and the waste which is carried away. The oxidation
of the tissues is difficult to describe, but it takes place much in the
follow-
ing way :— I 73 1
We will first take a tissue not subjected to hard work It will still
require oxygen, though in smaller quantities than a tissue like the
muscular, which by its constant hard work needs to continually produce
the heat which is as much the producer of work in the body as it is in. let
us say, a steam engine. Heat must always accompany work, no matter
what the work may be. All the cells of the body, like all living things, have
some work to do, and heat is necessary if they are to do it, and this heat,
or rather this power of producing heat, is given them by the oxygen they
breathe. The process which produces heat in the body is called
combustion. If wc take a tissue of the body like some of the connective
tissues, whose work in the body may be said to be a mere maintenance of
their health and position, even in their case the mere absorption and
assimilation of food and the ejection of waste material will require some
work, and therefore some heat, however little. Wc know, however, the
process from its theoretic inevitability and its practical results, and not
from actual observation, therefore no description can be more than
illustrative. The cell of our connective tissue is absorbing food from the
lymph which bathes it. and it is also absorbing oxygen that it may
produce the heat necessary for assimilation. But even the work of
digestion alone implies waste of tissue. The heat may therefore be
caused by the union of oxygen with the wasted tissue of the cells, OR with
the foodsiufls being absorbed. Oxygen unites with the nitrogenous
tissue TO produce heat, and the product of the combustion is urea, or
uric acid. The oxidation of the fat stored in the body, or the fat conveyed
in the lymph, OF the glycogen or animal starch stored by the liver and
used by the muscles and nerves, produces heat, and the product of the
combustion is carbonic acid. The oxidation of hydrogen produces heat,
and the product OF the combustion is water. In the case of the cell wc arc
taking it may need to generate but little heat, and the oxidation of its
waste nitrogenous particles may suffice LOR its PURPOSI I bis HEAT would
be sufficient, we will imagine, to enable it to absorb the nourishment it
requires and TO eject the waste products of metabolism, say a little urea
and a little water. The cells of the muscles and nerves wc should find
required far more oxygen, for they are called upon to do far more than
merely to maintain their health and position. Their work is, in fact
incessant, and the heat they must therefore generate proportionately
great. We should
I 76 1
find that these cells would absorb a very large proportion of the oxygen
brought to them by the lymph and would give out a very large proportion
of the carbonic acid which we find in the venous blood and the urea
which is found in the urine; for in proportion to their work so is their
tissue waste. The nitrogenous parts of their substance are oxidated and
produce heat and urea , the glycogen which they store for that purpose is
oxidated and produces heat and carbonic acid ; additional heat being
secured by the oxidation of the fat stored in the fat cells. This oxidation
of fat often has a great curative value.
We therefore see that the perfect conveyance of the oxygen to the
tissues is at least as important TO their well being as the conveyance OF
foodstuffs, for without the heat produced by oxidation they would be
unable TO perform even the slightest function It also follows that, as this
oxidation of tissues and foodstuffs gives not only the necessary' heat, but
also produces the dangerous waste products, urea and carbonic acid, the
stimulation of the circulation is on all counts to be advocated. I have
dealt so fully with the circulation in the chapter on the digestive process
ф. 55). that I need not again refer to it in detail. Let us, however, follow
the carbonic acid as, absorbed by the lymph, it journeys to die lungs.
Starting from the oxidated tissues it is carried by the lymph stream to the
veins and thence passes back to the right auricle of the heart, whence it
goes into the right ventricle, and is thence pumped to the lungs, where
the whole process is renewed.
We have seen in the previous chapter how exercise can affect the
circulation beneficially, that exercise, indeed, is absolutely necessary if
the circulation is to be perfect. We have now to sec how exercise can
effect the interchange of gases in the lungs, go that plenty of oxygen is
taken to the blood and the carbonic acid taken in exchange by the air
effectively expelled from the system. Wc have seen how important
thoroughly oxygenated blood is to the nutrition of the tissues, especially
to the nutrition of such important tissues as the nerves and muscles ;
and it is quite obvious that the effective elimination of a poisonous gas
such as carbonic acid is of equal importance. How, then, are we to
stimulate the lungs to increased activity by exercise ? Obviously by such
exercises, csjiecially breathing exercises, as enlarge the cavity of the
chest. The average man or woman
177 J
only uses a part of his or her lungs, and there nre. therefore, always
unused parts of the lungs only waiting for suitable exercise to be brought
into play. Those who have been associated with games, especially games
involving running, know the expression the "second wind." This "second
wind " is caused in this way:—The exertion of running and the heat
involved in it produces a craving for oxygen, and the necessity of
expelling the increased quantity of carbonic acid generated. To meet this
extra demand the lungs must perforce draw in and expell more air, and
the deeper inspirations involved bring into play parts of the lungs which
have been idle; and as these long unused air-sacs are filled with air and
begin to aid in the work of respiration, the runner feels the relief, and
says he has got his " second wind"
Hut it is not. of course, necessary to resort to violent exercise to
tyring the lungs into full play. Breathing exercises and such bodily
movements as raise the walls of the chest and bring the diaphragm into
play and so enlarge the cavity of the chest, arc all that is needed. We have
already seen that by the ordinary mechanism of breathing the
enlargement of the chest cavity brings about an immediate expansion of
the lungs by the atmospheric pressure upon their interior, and the more
the chest is dilated and the more the diaphragm is contracted the greater
the inrush of air into the elastic lung. This greater inrush of air is called a
deep inspiration. Practically, wc are only concerned here with
inspiration; for expiration is caused by the relaxation of the muscles
which are contracted for the inspiration, and the deep inspiration is
therefore followed by a powerful expiration.
By exercise, therefore, involving the expansion of the chest and the
activity of the diaphragm we see that the capacity of the lungs will be
increased, for the lungs being elastic and subjected to the pressure of the
atmosphere from within, but not from without, must always till the
cavity exacdy. Not only, however, will this bodily exercise increase the
sice of the chest cavity, but breathing exercises will also have the same
effect. If breathing exercises involving deep inspiration be performed
regularly, the consequent continual and full inflation of the lungs will in
the course of time permanently enlarge the chest cavity.
And not only is this expansion of the chest cavity, and consequent

t 7* J
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CHAPTER XI.
Кхккстяк АХИ Tiir. MUSCLES.

TIIK muscles of the body are of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary j the involuntary muscles being again
divisible into cardiac muscle (the muscle of the heart) and plain muscle (the muscles of the diaphragm, stomach,
intestines, arteries. &c). The voluntary muscles are those which are directly controlled by the will, such as the muscles of
the arms and legs and trunk by which we consciously move our bodies, and these are the muscles by which all exercise is
directly performed, with the exception of such exercises as arc involved in systematic breathing. Muscle, which
constitutes that very large proportion of the whole body commonly called " flesh." is, like every other tissue, built up of
cells The cells of the voluntary muscles arc tubular in shape, and consist of a tough, elastic covering called the
sarcolemma. containing a soft substance which is the contractile element of muscles. In the voluntary muscles this soft
substance contained in the elastic sheath is divided into alternate light and dark particles, and this division gives the
muscles the lined appearance which has given the name of striated to the voluntary muscles. The whole cell sheath and
contents is called a fibre—voluntary striated muscular fibre. These fibres are enclosed in bundles in a sheath of
connective tissue, while between individual fibres there is also connective tissue, in which arc found the capillaries and
nerves which respectively nourish and control the cells. The fibres of the cardiac muscles arc striated ami somewhat
resemble the fibres of voluntary muscles, but they arc united to each other by numerous small branches, they are
smaller, their striation is not so distinct, and they arc not enclosed by a sarcolemma The fibres of the involuntary
muscles (other than the cardiac I arc fusiform
l«° J
(spindle-shaped) cells, and are very much smaller than the other muscular fibres. They consist of a contractile substance contained in a

delicate sheath, and are joined to each other by a cementing material and by fine threadlike connections passing from cell to cell. They

are collected into bundles by the cementing material and connective tissue. These involuntary muscles are called plain muscles. All the

muscles are plentifully supplied with bloodvessels and nerves.

We thus see that there are three kinds of muscles—the voluntary striated, the involuntary striated or cardiac and the plain

involuntary; and that in spite of the difference in construction between their component cells, all the cells have this in common, they

consist principally of a contractile substance which gives the muscles their contractibtlity. The contractibility of this cell matt -rial i -
not supposed to differ essentially from the contractility •if the cell substance of all cells or animals which have no muscular system and

yet move, so that we may say that muscular action is universally the same wherever there is animal movement, whether muscles,

properly so-callcd. lie present or not I shall, however, return to this part of the subject in a later chapter.

We have now to consider the especial functions of these three kinds of muscles. The voluntary striated muscles terminate in

tendon bundles which are attached to the various bones the muscles arc intended to move, or they terminate, as in the face and tongue,

in branches which penetrate to the lower surface of the skin. Tendons are bundles of white fibrous tissue which have few or no blood-

vessels, and nerves only in the case of the larger tendons. The tendons arc very tough and not clastic. The vast majority of the voluntary

muscles arc bone-movers, and they are therefore sometimes called skeletal muscles ; and these are, as wc have seen, joined to the bones

which it is their function to move by the tendons. The cardiac muscles are the muscles of the heart and their function is to pump the

blood by alternate contraction and expansion to and from that organ. The plain muscles are the muscles which, as wc have have already

seen in previous chapters, are found in the ossophogus. stomach, intestines, diaphragm, arteries, &c.

The movements of the voluntary muscles are. as a rule, primarily

caused by the will. We will to move an arm or a leg. the message is

6 [ Si ]
conveyed to the muscles by the nerves (see Chapter XII.). the contractile material in the cells of the
muscles is set in motion, the muscles contract, and the limb moves. But although the movements of
the voluntary muscles are brought about normally by the will, they can also be produced by external
stimulus, such as a blow or tickling; or they may become almost as automatic as the movements of
the involuntary muscles, as, for instance, in walking, when it will be seen the will's influence upon
the movements made is, as a rule, so slight that it might not be existent. The will, in fact, as
physiological writers have noted, has, as a rule, but a limited effect upon the voluntary muscles ; this
is proved by the time that it takes even ait intelligent person to learn to perform complicated
voluntary movements accurately, such as are involved in difficult arts and handicrafts. This more or
less lax association of the will with the voluntary muscles I shall return to when I come to discuss
the effects of exercise upon the muscles.
The movements of cardiac muscles arc produced by nervous impulses derived from the nerves
of the sympathetic nervous system (see p. 93), and, like the movements of all the involuntary
muscles, are rhythmical. Otherwise, the action of the nerves upon the cardiac muscles is much the
samr as the action of the nerves upon the voluntary muscles; the contractile material contained in
the cells or fibres is set in motion by the nervous impulse, only in the case of the involuntary
muscles there arc not only motor nerves, but nerves which stop movement and arc called inhibitory.
The movements of the plain muscles are also controlled by the nerves of the sympathetic
nervous system, and are involuntary and rhythmical. But again, it is the nervous impulse which
causes the contractile material of the fibres to contract. It must, however, be said that although all
the involuntary muscles, cardiac and plain, are connected with and controlled by the sympathetic
nervous system, their movements ore not always caused by nervous impulses, the muscles
themselves having certain inherent powers of movement, and these movements may be. and indeed
are. frequently produced by local irritation. The movements of the stomach, for instance, arc set up
by the food received into it, and the movements of the intestine are set up in the same way, although
in both cases the muscles are controlled by nerves which arc known to have the power of producing
the same
(*•!
muscular movements. The muscles of the intestines are therefore fully controlled by nerves,
although their movements may be. and frequently arc. caused by the local irritation of the food
which is present rather than by the impulses of the controlling nerves.
We have seen, therefore, that the voluntary muscles are set in motion by the will sending
impulses to them by motor nerves, although it may hap|>cn that their movements may also be
reflex, that is to say, caused by external stimulus, or may by long practice become so automatic that
the will apparently does not cause them. We have also seen thai the involuntary muscles, cardiac
and plain, arc controlled by the nerves of the sympathetic system, and arc not controlled by the will,
and wc have also seen that these nerves arc not only motor, but also inhibitory, and that thus the
involuntary muscles move rhythmically, being alternately moved and stopped. We have noted that
the involuntary muscles, although always controlled by nerves, may yet move by local irritation.
The action of the nerves upon the muscle is dealt with again in the following chapter. The above
explanation will, however, suffice for the moment.
Having seen in what way the muscles, voluntary and involuntary, move, we have now to
consider what happens when they do move. In the chapter on the Respiration I have explained that
whenever there is work there must be heat ; it therefore follows that when the muscles move heat is
produced We have seen that all the tissues are fed and aerated by the plasma which escapes through
the walls of the tissues and, as lymph, bathes them with nutritive and oxygenated matter. We have
also seen that muscular action has a profound influence upon the circulation of the blood and
lymph hastening its flow by local pressure upon the walls of the arteries and upon the walls of the
veins and lymphatics. It therefore follows that the movement of a muscle causes the blood to flow
more rapidly in the neighbourhood of the pressure. The capillaries being gorged with arterial
nutritive blood, the plasma naturally escapes in greater quantities, and the muscular tissues
involved in the movement therefore receive a greater quantity of nutritive material and oxygen . and
this additional nourishment and fuel is, as we shall sec, necessary, if the muscular tissues are to do
their work without injury to their vitality. During movement the waste of muscular tissue is very
great, as is known by the greater amount of

1 *3 1
carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs during work. The production of carbonic acid in the body is
caused, as we have already seen, by the combustion of the fat, sugar, and starches of the food and
tissues. Starch is assimilated by the tissues, as wc have seen, in the form of sugar (glucose), but wr
have seen that the liver stores up this sugar for future use in the form of an animal starch called
glycogen. Glycogen is also stored up by the muscular tissues, and it is the combustion of this
animal starch with the oxygen also stored up in the tissue which produces the bulk of the heat
whereby the work of the muscle is done. Thus combustion produces carbonic acid, and the
quickened local circulation of the blood caused by the movement is essential for the speedy
removal of this waste product. The lymph exchanges its oxygen for this carbonic acid, and the
oxygen is absorbed by the tissues for use as required. That is to say, it is not or at any rate the bulk
of it is not, used for immediate combustion, but passes direct and unchanged to the tissues
themselves; for the muscular tissues are known to store up oxygen for their use. and are capable ol
giving off carbonic acid, and therefore of producing heat, though not supplied with fresh oxygen.
Heat, however, is not only caused in thr muscles by the combination of oxygen with the
carbohydrates (starches, and sugar) and fat in the tissues, but is also produced by the combination
of oxygen with their nitrogenous constituents, and the waste product of this combination or
combustion is urea. That there is an increase in the quantity of urea or its primary constituents
produced during work is undoubted, although the additional urea formed is not excreted from the
body till some hours after the muscular work has been performed. Hut the amount of urea
excreted by persons in the habit of performing much muscular exercise is not sufficicndy in excess
of the normal to account for the nitrogenous waste of tissue which must take place. Il is known,
however, that nitro genous substances may also be broken up or chemically changed, so that their
combustion produces carbonic acid. We may therefore assume that at least a part of the greatly
increased quantity of carbonic acid expired by the lungs during exercise is due to the combustion of
the nitrogenous constituents of the tissues I. therefore, suggest that the comparative smallness of
the quantities of urea excreted by persons inured to h.ir .l work is caused by the more perfect
combustion of the nitrogenous elements, so that there is but little solid waste
I *4 )
We have thus far considered only the waste of the muscular tissues during exercise- We know,
however, from common experience, that exercise of a muscle increases its size, provided, of course,
that the person exercising is sufficiently fed. It therefore follows that the muscular tissues must
more than repair the waste caused by the rapid combustion of their constituents essential for the
production of the necessary heat It is, however, not during exercise, but during repose, that the
muscles repair their waste. The increased flow of blood during exercise to the muscular tissues
involved must therefore be assumed to be more important from the point of view of oxidation, both
of tissue and foodstuffs, than from the point of view of nutrition. Bodily exercise, therefore, cannot
be continual, as common experience tells us. Incessant exercise would wear the muscles out. During
repose, however, the muscular tissue which has been exercised repairs, and especially in the case of
the voluntary muscles, more than repairs, its waste ; in other words, the muscles grow. It is also
possible that the cells or fibres of which these are composed multiply, although I believe the
multiplication of muscle fibres in the adult human body, in health, cannot be definitely asserted.
The fibres vary very much in size, and are very numerous and the increase in size of the smaller ones
might be quite sufficient to account for the great increase in size of the exercised muscles. The
multiplication of muscle cells in other adult animals is known, and may therefore be predicated in
the case of man. After M *WMi of course, which bring about a great wasting of the muscles, or after
direct injuries, the muscular cells of the adult human body multiply rapidly. Considering, therefore,
that the muscles repair only their waste during repose, it follows that a perfect circulation of the
blood is essential to their well-being. Exercise, however, is known to lvave not only a temjx>rary ami
local effect upon the circulation, but a permanent and general effect also, so that even in repose the
perfectly exercised body will have its tissues adequately nourished by a perfect circulation of the
blood.
 I have said that it is only in repose that the muscles repair their waste; but some of the
involuntary muscles, such as those of the heart, and those in the walls of the arteries, apparently
work incessantly. It will be remembered, however, that their movements are rhythmical, so that
there are alternate intervals of work and repose, and it has been conjee-
[ «51
lured that during these literal " moments" of repose such muscles repair their waste very actively,
that in fact, such muscles are peculiarly capable of rapid nutrition.
Exercise of the muscles, as we have seen, involves the production of heat; more heat, however,
is produced than is used in the form of energy, and this heal is utilised in the preservation of the
temperature of the body, which in man and other warm-blooded animals need, i . t be kept f.orly
constant. Excess of heat is removed in various ways, but principally by radiation and evaporation, as
the blood passes ihrOVjgfa the M i x cs-.cb. CM the surface of the body. Of course, heat is produced
in excess of the energy required by the combustion of oxygen in every tissue of the body, but more is
generated by muscular activity than by the vital processes of any other tissue. This is so obvious and
so well known that in extremely cold weather people ore apt to make energetic movements to
increase the heat of extremities which arc painfully affected by the cold.
Exercise of the muscles therefore leads, as we have seen, to a greater flow of blood to the muscular
tissue, to a greater waste of its tissue, and to a more rapid elimination of carbonic acid, and a more
complete, if not a greater, elimination of the waste nitrogenous products which go to the formation
of urea. It also leads to a more perfect nutrition of the muscular fibres, which not only repair their
waste but increase in size, and this extra nutrition involves a more perfect utilisation of the
foodstuffs introduced into the body. The importance of this increased assimilation of food by the
muscular tissue, the most bulky tissue of the body, can be inferred from the condition of health of
people of sedentary habits. Uric acid, for instance, frequently accumulating in the tissues of persons
who. while living on a meat diet, fail to take sufficient exercise. Exercise of muscles, again, helps to
maintain the temperature of the body, a level heal of which is necessary' for the proper performance
of all the organic functions. Exercise of the muscles also facilitates the general circulation of the
blood, so increasing the speed with which the nutritive foodstuffs and oxygen arc carried to every
part of the body and the products of oxidation carried away Exercise of the voluntary muscles, it will
therefore be seen, not only improves the condition of the cells of the muscles directly involved in
the exercise, but it also reacts on all the involuntary muscles. By assisting the
 STUDIF.S IN MUSCULAR DF- V t LOPM ENT
circulation of the blood it invigorates the muscles of the heart and bloodvessels ; by the rapid
consumption of oxygen and production of carbonic acid it requires powerful respiratory
movements to be made, and thus it invigorates the lungs, enlarges the chest cavity and
increases the power of all the involuntary muscles involved in respiration, including the
diaphragm, the powerful movements of the diaphragm in turn assisting the movements of and
strengthening the muscles of the stomach.
The use of the abdominal muscles, again, strengthens the muscles of the intestines by
stimulating them through pressure, and while all this direct muscular effect is taking place, the
circulation is perfected and all the stimu latcd muscles are being supplied with streams of
nutritive and oxygenated lymph. The perfect assimilation of the digested and absorbed food,
again, prevents that undue storage of foodstuffs; such as the accumulations of fat, which, in
unexercised and over-fed bodies, leads to a condition of obesity. So that if we were to consider
the case of the muscles alone, the need of exercise, systematic exercise which brings every
muscle of the body into play, would be proved beyond the power of contradiction.
I shall return again to the consideration of the muscles and the effect of their systematic
exercise upon the will in the following chapter.

«7 ]
CHAPTER XII.

THE nervous system is divided into two sub-systems—the cerebrospinal system and the
sympathetic system. The cercbro-spinal system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, the nerves
which arc directly connected with them, and the ganglia of those nerves. The sympathetic system
consists of ganglia and nerves which run to and from them The two systems are not directly
connected, but they are indirectly connected, in that the cercbro-spinal nerves in many cases
communicate with the sympathetic nerves; that is to say. the central systems, the brain and the
spinal cord on the one hand and the sympathetic ganglia on the other, arc not directly connected,
but the nerves which branch from each system have many connections. The ccrebro-spinal system
is the nervous system which controls what is called the animal life of the body, that is to say. it
controls the voluntary muscular movements and the organs of sensation. It is by this system that
wc will to move this or that part of the Imdy which is controlled by volition, and by this system the
sensations of sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell are conveyed from the organs of the sensation
(the eyes. cars, mouth, skin and nose) to the brain. The sympathetic system is the nervous system
which controls what is called the organic life of the body, that is, the life of the tissues and the
organs of secretion, nutrition and excretion.
The two systems, however, although, roughly speaking, distinct, having different centres
and different functions, arc yet in sufficient com municalion with each other, through their
nerves, to make this distinction at times of little importance. I n many cases the cerebrospinal
system is able to exercise direct control over the organic functions generally controlled
I tt ]
RECENT PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR
снлг. xii.and the Nervous System
Exercise

solely by the sympathetic system, and this conscious control of involuntary movements is
especially noticeable in the case of the heart and the mechanism of breathing.
Before we consider these two systems in detail, it will be well to note ihe minute
structure of the nervous system generally. All nerves, whether of the ccrebro-spinal or
sympathetic system, have the same structural characteristics. They consist of nerve cells
and the fibrous continuations of nerve cells, called nerve fibres. Nerve cells arc found in
the two great nerve centres, the brain and the spinal cord, and in those lesser nerve centres
or clusters called ganglia. The |»arts of the nervous system in which nerve cells arc found
arc called the grey matter. Nerve fibres, which arc the fibrous continuations of nerve cells
arc found in the nerves and the> also constitute that |Airt of the brain and -.j<ha' .ami called
whit" matter.
The nerves which ore found in. or which communicate with, the white-matter of the
brain and spinal cord are called medullated fibres. They are covered by a white sheath of a
fatty constituency, called the medullary >heath: this, with an outer sheath of elastic
constituency, called the primitive sheath, serves to protect the most important part of the
nerve, the part which is the true continuation of the nerve cells, and along which the
nervous impulses pass; this central matter is called the axis cylinder. Medullated fibres,
then, consist of the axis cylinder (the continuation of nerve cells) protected by two sheaths,
an inner sheath, the medullary, and an outer, the primitive. The fibres are called
medullated because they are enclosed like the puh of a vegetable lube or the marrow of a
bone, nitdalta being the Latin name for pith and for marrow.
The nerve fibres found in the nerves of the sympathetic nervous system are called
non-medullaled fibres They have no medullary sheath ; their axis cylinder, however, is
enclosed in a single fibrous sheath. Non-medullaled nerve fibres occur also in the cerebro-
spina! system, being found among the medullated fibres of the spinal cord.
In the nerve trunks nerve fibres arc found in bundles called funiculi, the fibres being
separated from each other by a connective tissue called the endoneurium. in which are
found the blood capillaries, by means of which the nerves are nourished. The bundles arc
invested wilh another
l 8а l
connective tissue, called the perineurium, through which the blood-vessels puss to and
from the capillaries, and through which, via openings in the tissue, the lymph, laden with
waste products, reaches the lymphatics, which do not penetrate the perineurium. The
bundles of funiculi are again gathered into larger bundles by yet another connective tissue,
called the cpineurium, which forms the final covering of the " nerve," and which contains
the blood-vessels and lymphatics for the nourishment, oxidation, and waste removal of the
nervous tissues, and which also contains nerve fibres which control the various coverings
of the nerves, so that the nerves .ire themselves supplied with nerves.
The nerve cells, of which nerve fibres are the continuations, arc found, as 1 have
already said, in the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord, and in clusters in the nerve
trunks; these clusters are called ganglia. Nerve cells arc more or less globular in shape,
their shape being varied by the number of branches they throw out. In the ganglia these
cells are separated from each other by the funiculi or nerve bundtes. which pass through
the ganglia. The ganglia, in some cases, are sheathed in tissues derived from the connective
tissues of the sheaths of the nerve trunks
The chief nerve centre is the brain. The brain is situated in the cranial cavity, and is
divided into four parts—the cerebrum (the upjicr and most important part), the
cerebellum (situated beneath the back part of cerebrum), the pons Varolii (the part of the
brain which is the connecting link between the other parts), and the medulla oblongata
(the part of the spinal cord which joins the brain).
The cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain and the seat of the highest
nervous powers, those of thought, is divided into two hemispheres by a fissure running
down the centre from the back to the front. The two halves are. however, joined by a band
of white nerve fibres which crosses the middle of the dividing fissure. Both hemispheres
are convoluted, their surfaces consisting of elevated parts divided by depressions, the
elevated parts winding in and out. The higher the intellect the more convoluted is the
cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of grey matter (nerve cells) and white matter (nerve
fibres).
The cerebellum, or little brain, lies beneath the cerebrum at the back, and is also
divided, but laterally, into two hemispheres, and is again sub-
1 90 1
divided by fissures into lobes. All its parts are. of course, joined together by nervous
processes, and it is joined both to the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata by other
nervous processes, two similar processes forming the pons Varolii. The cerebellum, like the
cerebrum, consists of grey and white matter, differently arranged, and its functions are
only second in importance to the functions of the cerebrum. The surface of the cerebellum
is not convoluted, its ridges being mure or less regularly curved.
The pons Varolii lies beneath the cerebrum and cerebellum, and connects them both
with the medulla oblongata. It consists of white nerve fibres, mixed with a certain amount
of grey matter.
The medulla oblongata is the highest part of the spinal cord, but in it the nerve fibres
and nerve cells of the spinal cord arc rearranged. It is an enlargement of the spinal cord,
and is generally described as pyramidal in shape, with the base at the top, but it might also
be described (from a posterior view) as having the shape of two pyramids placed base to
base.
снлг. xii.and the Nervous System
Exercise

The functions of the cerebrum arc both sensory and motor. In the cerebrum originate
all the nervous impulses which control voluntary movement. To the cerebrum come all the
nervous impulses which originate in the nerves of the organs of sense. And for the reason
that it is in this part of brain that all the complicated movements, not only of the limbs
and trunk, but also of the mouth and larynx involved in speech, and for the reason that to
it are carried all the messages from the outer world received by the organs of sensation, the
cerebrum is concluded to be the scat of the highest mental processes—thought and
reason,
The function of the cerebellum is known to be that of an equilibrium producer. It
keeps the movements of the muscles in such correspondence that they arc always in
harmony. Disease of the cerebellum leads to inharmonious movements, such as staggering
or giddiness. It is not the only part of the nervous system which has this function, but it is
presumed to be the most important part, controlling the coordination of muscular
movements. Its other functions, if any. are unknown.
The functions of the medulla oblongata and the pons Varolii arc more or Jess those
of conduction. They conduct the cerebral impulses to the nerves or to the spinal cord, and
conduct impulses derived from the nerve endings to the cerebrum and cerebellum.

[ 9> j
The above is, of course, only the roughest possible description of the brain, but it will
suffice for our present purpose. The tissues of the brain arc plentifully and continually
supplied with blood, via four large arteries which, before reaching the tissues, are divided
and subdivided into numberless minute arteries which end in the capillaries, from whence
the venous blood is carried back to the heart by the adjoining veins and die large vein
trunks into which they merge. These vein trunks of the cranium arc not salved, and arc
neither distcndnblc nor compressible. The circulation of the blood in the veins must not
only be constant and plentiful, but nice adjustments of the blood-vessels ensure that dtcre
shall always be the same quantity of blood flowing through it. that is to say, the speed of
the fl ow may be increased, but the quantity present at any one time must not vary. There
arc no lymphatic vessels in the brain ; the plasma, however, which escapes from the blood
capillaries, and which, as lymph, bathes all the tissues of the brain, passes out from the
brain substance by way of spaces between the blood vessels and the investing membranes,
and so joins the lymph stream.
The spinal cord is the other nerve centre of the cercbro-spinal nervous system. It is a
long column of nerve tissue lying in the spinal canal which occupies the centre of the
vertebral column. It joins the brain at the medulla oblongata. It is more or less circular in
form, and has two enlargements, one in the lumbar region and the other in the region of
the neck. It consists of white and grey matter, the white being external und the grey the
interior. The cord is divided along its length by two fissures, one in front and one behind ;
the two halves are. however, united between the two fissures by nerve fibres. It is invested
outwardly in a loose sheath called the dura mater, consisting of fibrous and elastic tissue:
beneath this loose sheath is another of connective tissue called the arachnoid, and l« iieath
this is yet another investing sheath, closely adhering to the cord, called the pia mater.
These membranes arc continuous with corresponding membranes of the brain The nerve
fibres and nerve cells, both of the brain and spinal cord, arc surrounded ,ind supported by
a tissue consisting of cells with fibrous continuations, called neuroglia. The nourishment
of the tissues of the spinal cord is brought about in the same way as the nourishment of
the tissues of the brain, no lymphatics entering the cord,
( 9* 1
which, however, is plentifully supplied with blood capillaries, the waste-laden lymph
escaping by fissures in the investing membranes, and thus joining the lymph stream. The
functions of the spinal cord .ire two : it is the conductor of voluntary nervous impulses
from the brain to all the muscles and organs of sense, with which it is connected by its
nerves : it also controls reflex actions nf the voluntary muscles, whkh are brought about by
external stimulation.
From the brain and spinal cord ramify all the nerves which control the voluntary
muscles and the organs of sensation, some nerves which join the ganglia of the
sympathetic nervous system, and some nerves which are in direct communication with
involuntary muscles. AH these nerves are continually in communication with ganglia,
which ganglia, as I have already explained, appear as enlargements (varying in sire) of
nerve trunks, and contain nerve cells.
The ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, which constitute its centres, arc
principally found near the viscera, where there are three principal ganglia, called the
cardiac, the solar, and the hypogastric plexuses, anil in front of the vertebral column,
where there is a double chain of ganglia, called the prevertebral ganglia, connected by
nerve cords, these ganglia communicate with the spinal nerves and also with the visceral
plexuses. The sympathetic nervous system has almost entire control of the muscular action
of the arteries, the intestines, the urinary apparatus, and the glands, while it shares with
the cerebrospinal system control of the heart and stomach : the action of the sympathetic
system upon the heart and stomach being principally the stimulation of movement, the
action of the cerebrospinal system having the reverse effect, of stopping movement
Nerves are divided into two kinds : those which convey impulses from the nerve
centres to the tissues with which they communicate are called efferent, those which
conduct impulses to the nerve centres arc called afferent There are also nerves which
connect centres together. The nervous system generally has often been compared with a
system of telegraphy for the conveyance of messages from one jwrt of the body to another,
with the brain as the central office. The way in which these messages are formed and
снлг. xii.and the Nervous System
Exercise

conducted is not understood, except that it is generally supposed not to be due to

electricity, although both the nerves and muscles have electrical qualities, as has been
demonstrated in many experiments. Practically, all that is known of the genesis and
working of nervous impulse is that the nerve cells arc highly irritable, and that nerve fibres
are able to conduct the impulses at a very high rate of speed. As will have been understood,
nerves control not only all muscular action, but have also a great influence upon secretion,
nervous stimulation of secreting glands or cells increasing the amount and rate of their
secretion.
Nervous impulses do not travel direct from the nervous centres to the parts to be
influenced, but via junctures of the conducting nerves. A motor impulse from the brain
intended to move the arm would not travel in a straight line from the brain to the muscle,
but by a circuitous route. The message would, in fact be conveyed from nerve trunk to
nerve trunk, until at last the muscle was reached and the arm moved. In the same way,
messages of sensation arc not conducted straight to the brain, but again from nerve trunk
to nerve trunk No two nerves are directly joined together, and the message is therefore
conveyed, from time to time during its passage, by a system which may be compared with
teirthst telegraphy The terminations of nerve fibres vary considerably in structure, some
fibres ending in bulbous enlargements and some in minute branches; a detailed
consideration of these endings, however, is not necessary for our present purpose.
The important points to be considered are :—First, that all the functions of the body
arc controlled by nerves, even the nerve trunks having their controlling nerves. So that not
only is muscular activity, whether voluntary or involuntary, controlled by nerves, but even
the glands and secretory cells arc supplied with nervous impulses The nervous impulses
supplied to the cells are not. however, necesviry FOR the individual life of the cells, but are
necessary for its functions as they arc related to the functions of the whole body. The
nerves, in fact, arc not required to assist in the cell's life of eating, excreting and breathing,
but are required to stimulate its secretory functions, its secretions being not for its own
individual use. but for the use of the whole life of the body. The second point to be
considered is the fact that the nervous system is plentifully supplied with blood-vessels for
its nourishment and oxidation, and with apertures for the escape of its waste products into
the lymph stream. Like all oiher tissues the nerves waste in use, indeed, the waste
involved in nervous energy-is very great, and therefore the importance of a plentiful flow
of healthy blood is essential to the well-being of the whole nervous system.
Noting these facts, we see that the whole organic system is inter-related. The
digestion, absorption and assimilation of food is secured by means of muscular and
nervous energy. The mechanical actions of the whole alimentary canal as we have seen, is
muscular, and although some of the muscles involved work independently by local
irritation, they arc all controlled by nerves. The circulation of the blood and lymph, we
have also seen, is brought about by muscular action, which in turn is stimulated by
nervous energy, and the important secreting glands arc controlled by nerves. We therefore
see that the perfect formation and circulation of the nutritive materials is directly caused
by nervous energy, and wc also sec that this perfection of nutrition in turn serves to keep
the nerves in a perfect state of health, and that the whole functional activity of the body is
so linked up, that when any function is improved all the functions benefit. Nothing partial
can be done; damage to one organ throws the whole body more or less out of gear ; and the
repair of any defective organ inevitably brings about an improved state of general health
Wc have seen that systematic exercise acts directly or indirectly upon all the
functions of the body, and wc have seen that the muscular effort involved in such exercise
is effected and controlled by nervous impulses. Wc have noted that the increased
functional activity of the whole body produced by systematic exercise must, by improving
the circulation of the blood, and the quality of the blood circulated, directly benefit the
nervous system, by keeping it perfectly supplied with the nourishment which from its
constant waste it continually needs. We have now to take into consideration the direct
action of systematic exercise upon the nerves generally, and upon the great and important
nervous centres in particular.
Let us first recall the fact that the nervous system, although divided into the two
primary divisions called the cerebro-spinal and the sympathetic systems, and again
subdivided into nerve cells and fibrous continuations of nerve cells, is yet one. and that il is
so intimately connected throughout the body, that although anatomically its divisions may
be clearly noted, physiologically the functions of its parts, except in the great centres, arc

1 99 ]
CHAI'.Exercise
XII. and the Nervous System

almost inextricably mingled. The intestines, for instance, are apparently controlled solely by the
sympathetic ganglia and their non-medullated fibrous continuations, yet a pain in the intestines is
communicated to the brain via these very fibres and ganglia. This alone is sufficient proof that even
the most obvious parts of the sympathetic system are in nervous communication with the cerebro-
spinal system.
When, therefore, we exercise the voluntary muscles systematically and purposefully, we not
only stimulate the functional activity of the nerves we employ, the nerves of the cerebro-spinal
system, but we may infer that, stimulating directly one part of the nervous system, we stimulate the
other part indirectly, for as we have seen their inter-relationship is continuous throughout the whole
system. At every movement we make we bring the will to bear upon it; so that, unlike mere
perfunctory exercise, the movements do not become by custom practically as unconscious as the
movements of the involuntary muscles. The will, by use, is unquestionably strengthened. The will
itself, however, is but another name for the functional activity of the higher nervous centres ; so we
are exercising, and therefore stimulating, not only the "nerves" which directly cause the muscles to
contract, but also the highest nerve centres from which the nervous impulses proceed. The
intellectual eminence of the human race may be directly ascribed to this power of voluntary
movement. The instinctive actions of man are far less numerous than those of any other animal j
from childhood up we have continually to learn to move, even such a movement as walking has to be
learnt by the child ; has, in fact, to be not only voluntarily but consciously performed from the very
beginning. Practice, no doubt.
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CHAPTER XIII.

EXERCISE AND THE BOXES AND CARTILAGE.

CARTILAGE is the tough white elastic tissue which is commonly known as gristle. There arc two kinds of cartilage
: The first is found in the extremities of the bones, in the cartilaginous junctures of the ribs, in the cartilage rings of
the trachea and the bronchial tubes, in the cartilage of the larynx, and in the cartilage of part of the auditory canal.
This cartilage is, roughly speaking, non-fibrous, anil is called hyaline cartilage. It is also found in the rods of cartilage
which arc the predecessors of the long bones of the skeleton. The second kind of cartilage is called fibrous cartilage,
and contains cither the strong non-elastic white fibres or the elastic yellow fibres. Yellow fibre cartilage is only found
in the cartilage of the auricle or outer ear, the cartilage of the epiglottis, and thr cartilage of the Eustachian tube. The
white fibre cartilage, which is of great strength, joins bones together, forms the sheath of the tendons, is also found
in the tendons themselves, and forms the circles of cartilage found between the vertebra?. Cartilage consists of
cartilage cells imbedded in the whitish transparent substance with which they have surrounded themselves The only
distinguishing characteristic of a cartilage cell is its power of secreting and surrounding itself with this transparent
cartilaginous substance. There arc no blood-vessels in cartilage, and its nutrition must be secured by its absorption
of nutritive plasma, which bathes part of its surface Its nutrition, however secured, is of very great importance, many
of the diseases which affect it being recognised as due to defects of nutrition. Movements of the body are known to
affect it, systematic exercise keeping the body lissom, and this li.ssomncss, to a very great extent, must be ascribed to
a healthy condition of the articular cartilage,
!('** 1
MICROGRAPHS OF THE TISSUES OF THE BODY.
 Thr abmc »i« ninM> minified. «nil лп reproductions vt шктикгари» r«uMi*U> ргеиапх! lor lhi» *orh-

Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage CHAP. XIIL

The bones of the body consist of two parts, the outer part being solid like ivory, the inner part more or less
mesheiL The solid is called compact bone, the meshed is called cancellated bone. The long bones are almost entirely
compact, forming hard, close cylinders containing yellow marrow. The cancellated bones have a surface of compact
bone covering the bony meshes of cancellated bone ; the meshes of cancellated bone contain red marrow. Bone
consists of thin plates built up of fibres imbedded in an earthy substance; these plates are called lamellar. Between
the lamella: are found cells with branched processes; these cells occupy spaces called cell spaces, their branches
running in passages called canaliculi. Bones are nourished by means of minute blood-vessels which, in compact
bone, run in passages called the Haversian canals; and which in cancellated bone run through the red marrow
contained in the interstices of the meshes. Bones are enclosed, except at the articulated extremities, by on investing
membrane. This membrane is called the periosteum, and consists on the outside of a firm fibrous tissue, and on the
inside of very delicate fibrous meshes containing mobile cells called osteoblasts. The membrane is plentifully
supplied with blood capillaries, by means of which these cells are nourished; blood-vessels also pass from this
membrane into the compact bone via the Haversian canals, carrying nourishment to every part of the bone, the
nutritive fluid penetrating to the lamella: via the canaliculi, which lie and ramify between them. Blood-vessels
penetrate the cancellated bone via the Haversian canals of their compact surfaces, and then run through the red
marrow contained in the bony meshes of their interior.
The development of bone is of two kinds; il either develops from, or rather in the place of, rods of cartilage, or
simply from a membrane resembling, and afterwards forming, the periosteum. I will deal with the latter formation
first.
The bones that are developed from the membrane only arc the upper part of the occipital bone (the bone which
lies at the back of the skull rising from the verlebne of the neck, and arching over in a widened curve to form part of
the vault of the skull), the parietal bones (the two bones which lying to the left and right arch over and form the
sides and roof of the skull), the Irontal or forehead bone, the upper scaly part of the side bones at the back of the
skull (the temporal and tympanic ring), the Wormian bones (bones which, in certain parts of the skull, anM
1
devek»ped. if and when required, to fill up space* left by the imperfect ossification of other bones), the nasal bone
(bridge of the nose), the lachrymal bones (small ami very delicate bones in the orbits or eye cavities), the malar or
cheek bones, the bones of the palate, the maxillary or jaw bones, the vomer (a bone at the back of the nose above the
upper jaw), the internal pterygoid plates (the inside bones of the upper outer wings of the sphenoid bones), and the
sphenoid turbinated bones (the upper middle parts of the sphenoid bone, a winged bone at the base of the skull, the
upper middle parts of which arc whorlcd like a shell, hence called turbinated). ЛИ the other bones of the body are
preceded by cartilage rods, whose shape and position the bones assume.
The bones developed from the membrane are formed in the following manner: The membrane, as we have
already seen, consists externally of a firm fibrous tissue, and internally of a delicate and fibrous mesh enclosing cells
called osteoblasts, and is plentifully supplied with bloodvessels. When the membrane begins to ossify these
osteoblasts radiate fibres of a transparent substance, and between these fibres the cells gradually deposit the hard
earthy matter of bone until the fibres are entirely covered by it; the thin shoots of bone thus formed unite with other
shoots and form a network. Some of the osteoblasts are also imprisoned by the hard substance, and become bone
corpuscles. This process is continued by the osteoblasts of the investing membrane, until at last the process of
ossification is completed. Children, however, are born with these bones partially completed, perfect ossification
occurring later. The membrane from which these are formed remains on their surface as the periosteum.
The cartilage from which, or rather upon the site of which, the other bones of the body are developed is
enclosed in a membranous sheath, the investing membrane being of the same consistency as the membrane from
which the bones wc have just been considering are formed. The ossification of the cartilage takes place in the
following manner. The cartilage cells in the centre of the cartilage rod and the cells at its extremities enlarge and
separate and become arranged in rows. These
,ot>
[ J
 Н е г Thkaimkkt лтп» Лики
\ CAsK « ' г 1 Л П 1 . Л 1 . « t i n ЛТГКТ..

Л СЛМ-. «Н l.i»!<lM»sls ЛМККЮк М К Л Л И К Ь Hnom.

Iki-uhum ля и Anu Kotm M.onic- t .ii'mui.

CORRECTION OF SPINAL CURVATURE BY THE AUTHORS TREATMENT, (/я nit; ,ai/

w<U>, /А/ am*'/ о/ /** / п ч л / i art чЫиЫ /.(«.>•..>■« 4«# /.«я xirfu /«« /*'.««/ J
Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage СИЛ!'. XIII.

cells form
and
deposit
granules of
a
calcareous
substance.
The
investing
membrane
at the same
time, or a
little
previously,
begins to
form a
mrshwork
of bone
upon the
surface of
the
cartilage
(except at
the
extremities
). The
membrano
us deposit
of bone
takes place
in a
manner
precisely
similar to
that in
which we
have seen
the same
kind of
membrane
dqiosit it
when there
is no
cartilage
present.
In the case
we are
considering
, the
deposit of
bone takes
place
round and
upon the
surface of
the
cartilage
rod, except
at the two
extremities
Some of
the cells of
the
membrane
arc
enclosed in
the
deposited
bony
substance
and
become
bone ceils.
The celts of
the
cartilage
have
meanwhile
built up
 CHAP- XIII.
Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage

around themselves calcareous prisons, of the

within which they waste away, leaving skeleton
hollows. This is the first stage of cartilage are so
bone formation. A cylinder of bony deposit, important
built up by the osteoblasts of the investing that its
membrane, contains a calcareous rod cultivation
(terminating at each end in cartilage) built in the child
up by cartilage cells, which rod is full of cannot be
spaces in which the cells have become too
imprisoned and have wasted away. Now. strongly
through the bony deposit surrounding this advised.
calcareous rod, the osteoblasts of the For in the
membrane cat their way, and through the child we
fissures thus formed pour a host of the have that
osteoblasts and larger cells called osteoclasts. part of tin
The first, as we have seen, arc bone-builders; body \sbis
the latter, as we shall see. are bone destroyers. 11 later
Blood-vessels also penetrate these fissures, so assumes, to
that the invading armies of cells bring, as it a very great
were, their commissariat with them. The extent, an
osteoclasts at once proceed to break down inflexible
the calcareous houses built by the cartilage form,
cells, and upon the ruins the osteoblasts plastic in
start building up the bony structure which our hands.
we have already seen them building upon the Wc can,
exterior of the cartilage. The destruction of within
the calcareous habitations of the cartilage physiologic
cells, however, leaves spaces, and these spaces al limits,
become the space which in the completed mould it as
bone is filled with marrow. The bone is now we will,
formed by additions both to the outside ami and to a
the inside by the osteoblasts of the very great
membrane Meanwhile, the cartilage has extent it
been growing at its extremities both in length rests with
and thickness. The extremities of cartilage the
ossify independently, but these ossified ends guardians
do not join the bony part of the middle until of children
the bone is fully grown. Such bones grow by whether
the lengthening of their cartilaginous ports, their
and by the continual deposit of bony matter charges
upon their surface by the osteoblasts of their shall grow
inventing membrane: growth up into
I lot ) straight-
limbed,
of cartilage, that is to say. gives them
full-
increased length ; deposit of bone gives them
chested,
increased girth.
straight-
Even in the case of the bones wc find
backed
that nourishment is essential, both during
men and
and after growth, and that they are plentifully
women, or
supplied with blood-vess, U, v. ih.it all th.it
whether
iti' cb i b circulation, oxygenation and nutri-
they shall
tion of the blood must necessarily affect the grow up
bones. Much more, then, is this nourishment with forms
necessary when, as is the case in childhood, stunted
the bony framework of the body is still and
growing. We have, however, already seen that deformed,
there is nothing which more beneficially and with
affects the due nourishment and oxidation of their vital
the tissues than systematic exercise. In the organs
case of the bones, however, there is more thereby
than this nourishment to be considered; wc impaired,
have also to consider their proportion, and •• ,мЬ.
position and suppleness, and it is hardly aff ected by
necessary to say systematic exercise is the disease.
best. I may almost say the only method, of Nature,
securing this correct proportion and when left
suppleness of the bones of the body. to itself,
Of course, the beneficial effects upon brings
the bone and cartilage arc far more profound alx.m this
and lasting during the period of growth, perfection
although even in the adult they arc still very of form, as
easily perceptible. During growth, however, will be seen
more, of course, can be effected than after in the
growth has ceased, and although delects of symmetric
carriage, due to irregularity of the skeletal al figures
growth, can be alleviated and even cured, and
sometimes in advanced age, by properly pre- upright
scribed exercise, it is during childhood that carriage of
such exercise is most valuable. The functions such savage
peoples as are well nourished and have no
physically debasing customs , and natures
method, in such cases, may be said to be
systematic, naked exercise. Civilisation,
however, brings
tmj
 CHAP- XIII.
Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage

Ull'.nr r«r.«TVl»T *M|i \ru»,

A CASE Of LORDOSIS TRftATED BV TH8 AUTHOR

CHAP. XIII.
Exercise and die Bones «.nd Cartilage

Exercise and the Bones and Cartilage ■мм

XIII

us. with
its many
benefits,
m.iny
physical
dangers
that we
arc called
upon to
face and
circumven
t. Notable
among
such
dangers is
the
deficient
exercise
caused by
altered
modes of
life, and
in no part
of the
body is
the ill-
effect of
insufficien
t exercise
more
noticeable
than in
the
skeleton.
Not
only is the
bony
framework
of the
body the
means
whereby
all bodily
movement
s are
affected, it
is also the
supporter
and
protector
of the
delicate
internal
organs. So
that not
only is its
perfection
of
constructi
on
necessary
to perfect
movement
, but also
to the
perfect
support of
the
internal
organs.
Wc have
seen in
the
chapter on
Respiratio
n what an
important
part in the
mechanis
m of
breathing
is played by the bones and cartilage which The
support the great cavity of the chest. We correct
have seen how the expansion of the chest is carriage of
brought about by die lifting up of the ribs the body
and their cartilaginous junctures, and that secured by
this extension of the cavity of the chest systematic
causes the lungs automatically to expand by exercise
the inrush of air into their elastic air will also
passages; wc have also seen that the lungs (especially
not only expand, but when the utmost during the
mechanical expansion of the chest is con- period of
stantly repeated, as it is in systematic growth)
exercise, they also increase in site, and the have the
chest cavity becomes permanently larger, effect of
thus enabling more blood to be more securing a
effectually oxidated at each inspiration, and correct
more carbonic acid expelled at each proportio
respiration. This increase in the site of the n of the
chest cavity, and the consequent bony
invigoration of the lungs, can be effected in structures
the adult, but when the child receives this of cither
systematic exercise of the mechanical side of side of the
breathing, the lungs arc developed at a time body, and
of life when the need of oxygen is greatest, that onc-
and when the expulsion of carbonic acid is sidedness
most essential. For it is during that building so
up of the body which we call growth that the noticeable
quantity of oxygen consumed and the in persons
quantity of carbonic acid expelled are at who have
their height. Il is also during the period of never
growth ti»ai the expansion of die chest cultivated
cavity can be most easily effected. The bones their
which circle the cavity arc also growing, and bodies
are therefore necessarily more elastic than will thus
the bones of the adult So intimate is the be
connection between every port of the body avoided.
that even as the lungs arc enlarged by this The
exercise of the mechanism of breathing, so shoulders
the machine itself—bones, muscles and and the
nerves—at once receives the benefit of an hips will
increased supply of oxygen, and therefore, be evenly
in childhood, an increased power i4 growth proportio
in the tissues concerned. I need hardly ned, and
point out that the
developm
I »3 i
ent of the
this early expansion of the lungs leads not
limbs of
only to an improvement in the general
cither side
health, but is also a safeguard against
will be
pulmonary diseases.
symmetric
The spine, again, is most easily and
al; and,
effectively controlled and regulated during
again, this
the period of growth, although, of course,
nice
even in the adult, curvatures ran be rectified
adjustmen
by systematic exercise, and even in old age
t of the
the cartilaginous connections of the
structure
vertebra: be kept supple, and therefore the
of the
height preserved Prevention, however, is
framework
better than the best of cures, and systematic
will
exercise of the spine during the period of
beneficiall
growth, when its parts are naturally most
y effect
amenable to use, secures an easy carriage of
the
the body, and a sustained strength which
delicate,
can never again be so effectually secured.
internal
The correct carriage of the body is not only
organs by
valuable for the grace and strength it
giving
assure*, it is also necessary for the due
them the
support of the internal organs. The stomach
support
and the intestines are thereby kept in their
and
right positions, the positions in which their
position
muscular activity can be most easily
which
exercised. And systematic exercise of the
they need
spine, by the trunk movements 1 so strongly
for the
advocate, plays a most important part, as wc
perfect
have seen, in the mechanism of nutrition,
performan
not only facilitating the circulation of the
ce of their
blood by mechanical pressure upon the
functions,
veins and arteries, but also, so I hold,
die IKIIICS
facilitating the assimilation of nourishment
of the
by the tissues, by mechanically stimulating
body
and assisting their necessary movements
being not
through the pressure upon them of adjacent
only the
parts.
lever*
CHAP. XIII.
Exercise and die Bones «.nd Cartilage

employed in locomotion, but. as one may

say, the "girders" of the body upon which the
rest cf the body it built. As they grow, so will
the organs grow, and any defects of these
supports wilt inevitably prejudicially affect
the whole organism.
I ««4 I
 Apart, however, from growth, there are other changes of the skeleton which need our consideration. Wc have
seen that the bones, hard as they are and dead as they may seem, are yet composed of living tissue, of cells which
waste and r. p a i r, .is Ь > the cells of the most delicate and softest organ. Even after growth of the bones is complete—
and the absolute completion of skeletal growth is frequently not arrived at till comparatively late in life—there arc
still tissue changes going on. The bones of the aged differ from the bones of the mature, in weight, in consistency,
and even in shape. Softer and more britdc, and almost invariably lighter, they prove that the nutrition of the bone
has become defective—that the cells of which it is composed have lost their pristine vitality. Again, there are diseases
of the bone due to defective nutrition, and many of such diseases ore no doubt more prevalent than is known, for
unless they arc discovered in •cute stages, their symptoms may not even be noticeable. In the case either of bone
changes due to old age or owing to diseases, wc may still maintain that, to a very great extent, they arc due to
defective nutrition, brought about either by impaired circulation of the blood, or by disorders of die systems of
digestion and absorption, and to no little extent by the disuse of the bouci themselves. I am firmly convinced that
the skeletal decay of old age can be delayed, and many of the diseases of the bones cured or prevented by systematic
exercise. For thereby not only is the general nutrition of the tissues of the body improved, but the bones themselves
brought into use. and there is no reason to suppose that the bones ate not just as beneficially affected by use as any
other tissue of the body. The effect may be less noticeable, but I doubt if it be less vital.
That Iksomncss of the body con be continued until very late in life by systematic exercise is unquestionable; the
fact is so well known that it need not Ik- insisted upon. Ossification of cartilage, especially of the cartilage of the
spine, can be indefinitely postponed by judicious bodily move ment, as is proved by the upright carriage and cosy
movements of old men who have always lived a wholesome and sufficiently active life. The skeletal symptoms
generally indicative of old age are frequently met with in persons of sedentary habits; indeed, so far as the muscles
and the bones arc concerned, disuse may be said, speaking generally, to be equivalent to decay ; for decay of the body
docs not necessarily mean that the body is worn out,

I »•* 1
but that it has rusted astay. In fact, much as the body may be compared with a machine, the comparison fails here,
for use, perfect and systematic use of the body, repairs while it wastes, it is the iwu extremes that cause abnormal
decay; over-use (which generally means ignorant rather than great use) wears the body out, and under-u.se causes it
to waste. The postponement of old age, or rather the retention of maturity, is, I take it, one of the principal things to
be aimed at by any system of therapeutics, and so far as old age is typified by changes in cartilaginous and bony-
tissue. I do not think that any system can tie shown to be as effective in the retention of maturity as that of
systematic exercise.

10 0
I 1
 CHAPTER XIV.

Ехг.кс ist: Л NO REPRODUCTION.

In one tense the reproductive system is the most important of all the systems of the Iwdy. in that .ill the other
systems—nervous, muscular, skeletal, respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and so on—have come into existence simply
because their presence enables the germ cells the better to reproduce. That is to say. the gr.nlo.il upward
development of multicellular animals has been brought about by means of useful variations of structure and
function, which have facilitated the life, and therefore the reproduction, of such animals So, in spite of the
apparently greater iui|iortancc of the brain with its wonderful functions, it is quite obvious that the functions of the
reproductive organs, even of man, are of more importance to the race titan the highest functions of the nervous
system. Of what avail would be all the arts and philosophies and sciences given us by die brains of our greatest
thinkers if rc|M-oductiou were to cease and there were no heirs to inherit the accumulated mental wealth of the
ages? Unfortunately, however, this, die most important, from the physiological point of view, of all the systems of the
body, by reason of long years of ignorance, mystery, and secrecy—often pernicious secrecy—has become taboo to all
but purely technical, physiological or biological writers.
With the organs of reproduction here I do not propose to deal in detail, as such treatment would not, in my
opinion, be judicious in a work of this kind, intended as it is not only for those engaged professionally in the cure of
diseases, but for the general reader also. But although I wish to exclude from die book all that might be considered
objectionable, I cannot entirely exclude the reproductive organs from consideration; for it has long been recognised
that bodily exercise has a beneficial effect upon
I «07 J
these organs; and there is no doubt that this effect is connected with the general nourishment of all the tissues of the
body which, as wc have seen, is perfected by systematic exercise. It is certain that when the general health is sound
the reproductive organs are healthiest.
But although, as I have again and again proved, perfect nourishment of all the tissues is the fundamental effect
of systematic exercise, the effect* of this perfect nourishment have in turn to be noted in detail, especially the effects
of sound health upon the nervous system generally, and mental conditions in particular. I have dealt at some length
already with the moral effects of systematic exercise in Chapters V. and VIII.. I desire now to lay especial stress upon
the moral effects of exercise upon young people at the age of puberty.
There is not the slightest doubt—and here again I am sure that I shall have the support of the whole medical
profession — that at the age of puberty care of and respect fur the body is most important, and that the value of
sound health at this period i-.mnoi be overestimated. Given the healthy mind in the healthy body, and саге of the
body having been inculcated not merely as a duty but as a pleasure, then be the detailed knowledge of the bodily
functions even of the slightest, I am convinced that young people generally, and boys especially, will be saved from
the particular dangers which beset them at this important period of their lives Sedentary habits are. especially at this
time, likely to lead to morbid conditions of the body, and therefore to morbid conditions of the mind ; and then it
needs but evil communication to bring about the corruption which is so prevalent. And it must be remembered that
while such knowledge of the body as leads to self-respect can only be definitely and intentionally given by parents or
those delegated by parents to give it, such knowledge of the body as leads to corruption, both of the body and mind,
cannot be effectually guarded against. Therefore it may perhaps be asserted that a frank outspokenness as to the
body and it* functions is advisable, so that natural curiosity be satisfied and morbid curiosity be circumvented. It is,
however. I think, necessary, that before such knowledge be imparted the culture of the body, by means of systematic
exercise, should have been begun, otherwise the knowledge, in itself good, might yet lead to evil. This is the reason.
I take it, why so many people have confounded ignorance
[ to« J
Wkh mnocencc, and why knowledge of their bodies has always been so reluctantly imparted to the young. I. too,
believe that such knowledge givrn to the: unhealthy might have unhealthy results; but having tirrt secured
wholesomeness of body and wholesomeness of mind, I maintain that such knowledge cannot have other than
beneficial result The boy who has been taught to delight in the strength of his body will not l>e easily tempted to
impair that strength, provided that he h .is been given the knowledge necessary for self-protection. As I have said
before, to prove the folly of any course is always better than to dogmatise on right and wrong, and young people I
have always found are as amenable to reason as their ciders, provided always that the argument is mode to appeal to
their understanding. Such an ap|ieal to the understanding of the young is especially effective in the case of care for
the body, when body culture has been taught early ; and when once respect for and pride in the body has been
inculcated, then, given the necessary knowledge, evil may be kept at bay. The spendthrift is rarely one who has
laboriously built up his fortune ; and those who have built up their bodies by systematic exercise arc the least likely
to da anything that will impair the strength in which they have come to delight
Later in life it is the same, knowledge of and care for the body are sure preventatives of excess, while the perfect
nourishment >.f .11 ihe of the body, secured by systematic exercise, effectually checks that overstimulation of parts
which in itself is often a direct incitement to excess. It cannot be disputed that people of sedentary habits are far
more likely to g i v e way to excess than those who are in the habit of taking systematic exercise. As much food is. as a
rule, taken by people who lead sedentary lives as by those whose habits are more active, the result being that there is
an over-storage in the body of food materials . the digestion is impaired, the control of the nerves over the body is
weakened, appetites and desires become perverted, the emotions arc uncontrolled, and at last the mind which
should be the protector of the Iwdy becomes the accomplice, and often the instigator, of excess.
Especially is this the case with excesses of the reproductive functions. The association of these functions with
the mind is exceedingly close, and the excess is invariably a mental .is well as a bodily excess, and
E "*1
therefore not only is the nutrition of the body deranged by one kind of tissue being nourished in excess of other
tissues, but the nerves directly concerned are subjected to such continual strain, that the nervous system also
becomes deranged, and the whole body is thrown out of gear. Now either as u preventive of or a cure for such excess I
do not think there is any system as rational as systematic exercise; for by systematic exercise, as we have seen, not
only is the general nourishment of the body coordinated, so that each tissue receives the amount of nourishment it
needs, but all excess of nourishment is prevented by the natural waste of tissue which is directly caused by the
exercise. The over-nourishment of any one |wirticulnr organ must inevitably Ik- curtailed, if full demand for food-
stuffs is made by the body generally, and especially by such a large and important part of the body as the muscular
tissues. But not only is this curtailment of nourishment produced, there is also a renewal of general nervous energy;
the nerve* direcdy concerned in the muscular movements are strengthened by exercise, and the whole nervous
system is thereby benefited ; for as we have seen in Chapter XII.. the nervous system is so closely inter-related that,
strengthen or weaken one part of it, and the whole is strengthened or weakened. But more than this direct
curtailment of over nourishment, and more even than this direct strengthening of the nervous system generally, is
affected by systematic exercise. The will, as we have seen (p. 5). is exercised and strengthened at the same time, the
mind is given more and more control over the body, and the improved health of the body reacts upon the condition
of the mind, so that both mind and body are given the increased strength necessary to reduce the craving for excess,
and to repair the damage caused by its former indulgence.
We have, however, not only excesses and their effects and their prevention, alleviation and cure, to consider, we
have also to consider the normal, or ruber the тмч/ condition of the reproductive system. There is no doubt, of
course, that the retention of maturity, especially in men, m-. TNS д1чо tlx- retention of the reproductive functions; lor old age
is synonymous to a very great extent with the decay and loss of this function. Now 1 um firmly convinced that
systematic exercise which, as I have shown, beneficially affects all the functions of nutrition, gives tone to the
nervous system and strengthens the control of the wilt over body ; must necessarily
I ««o J
have a profound effect upon the reproductive system, which depends for its normal functional activity principilly
upon lucal nutrition brought about liy perfect nutrition of all the tissues and general soundness of the nervous
system ; and not only upon the soundness of the local nerves of secretion. !lMlt upon the soundness of the
cerebrospinal system generally, and especially upon that part of it which is the centre of emotional activity. Given
systematic exercise, and of course moderation in use, I have no doubt but that the normal function of reproduction
can be considerably prolonged. I have said systematic exercise and moderation in use. but I maintain that systematic
exercise, such as I have described in Chapter I., necessarily implies moderation ; for the intemperate cannot really
care for their bodies, and those who care for their bodies cannot be intemperate.
Irregularities of the reproductive organs peculiar to women urc unquestionably amenable to properly
prescribed exercise. Faulty menstruation in particular, due, as it usually is, to derangements of the systems of
nutrition, either the digestive or circulatory, is speedily rectified by systematic exercise, which is also of great value in
all cases r>f deranged nerves brought about by affections of the reproductive organs, or vitt versd.
There is a further use for systematic exercise, which I desire particularity to bring to the notice of medical men,
and that is during pregnancy. During this period it is obvious that the need for the complete functional activity of die
organs of nutrition is greatest, and at no period is exercise, sufficient exercise for the purpose, so difficult to
prescribe. When exercise it necessary, anil undue exertion dangerous, there is obviously a need for some system
which shall give the full exercise without involving any dangerous strain, and systematic exercise such as I have
described in Chapter I. can be modified to meet any case, and can be applied for any purpose. But here is one of the
many cases, where not only is the co-operation of the medical profession desirable (it is always desirable) but also
essential. Given the cooperation of the physician, however, such exercise can be prescribed, as will indubitably
improve the health of the mother, and so improve the health of the child, and reduce to some extent the inevitable
suffering of child-birth. Especially does such exercise affect the nervous system, preventing those morbid states
which arc so detrimental and even dangerous to health.
I «»« 1
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CHAPTER XVI. EXERCISE AND THE AILMENTS IT IS KNOWN TO COEE.

I HAVE hitherto dealt more especially with the effects of systematic exercise upon the body when in a normal
condition; I have, in fact, treated it more as a preventative of disease than as a cure. I now propose to consider it
purely as a therapeutic agent for the cure and alleviation of specific diseases. I shall not attempt to deal with the
symptoms or with the diagnosis of disease, that lying exclusively within the province of the physician and the
surgeon. I shall deal generally with the causes of diseases and the conditions of the body during their persistence,
and with systematic exercise as it affects these causes and conditions. The complaints which systematic exercise is
known to cure are indigestion, constipation, nervous disorders, liver troubles, the minor derangements of the lungs
and kidneys, weak heart, gout and rheumatism, obesity, spinal curvature and skeletal defects generally, insomnia,
headache, and such a woman's complaint as faulty menstruation. This will, perhaps, seem a long list, and at first
sight it might appear that I am claiming for systematic exercise that it is a panacea. But 1 have named no disease that
it has not been known to cure, and no disease which, the facts being known, it might not reasonably have been
expected to cure, and long as the list already is I am convinced that when, sooner or later, the medical men who have
already sanctioned and recommended the use of systematic exercise definitely take it up as a recognised therapeutic
to be taught in the hospital schools, studied clinically and in the laboratory, and used continually in evcry-day
practice, the list may be, nay, will be, extended indefinitely, so that at last, although not perhaps a panacea, it will be
used as an aid, and a very important aid, in the cure of nearly every disease. I shall, however, return to this part of
my subject in the
[ «3» 1

following chapter, and at present will confine myself to the consideration of the diseases which it is already definitely
known to cure.
I shall deal with these diseases in groups and then individually. For instance, indigestion, constipation, liver
troubles and obesity may all be considered as derangements of nutrition ; kidney troubles, gout and rheumatism,
and. in some instances, liver troubles, may be considered as derange-merits of excretion ; and nervous disorders as
the cause or the effect of cither of these derangements, or as diseases in themselves Lung troubles and weak heart
must be taken separately, though either will affect every organ of the body. Insomnia and headache are the signs of
functional derangement, especially derangements of the nervous and digestive systems Skeletal defects must, of
course, be dealt with entirely by themselves.
It wdl be noticed that all these ailments are far more common among people of sedentary habits than among
those whose lives arc active, and that exercise is thus pointed to as a corrective. The difficulty, therefore, has been,
not so much to find the remedy as, having found the remedy, to apply it in cases where lives are cither compulsorily
sedentary, or where, rather than give up the habits of a lifetime, sufferers prefer to suffer, with occasional intervals of
the more or less drastic patchings up called "cures" The system of curative exercises which I have devised meets both
these cases, for it can be adopted by everyone, and it condenses into a few minutes' systematic exercise every day all
the movements that arc necessary to health, which movements can be modified so that the strength of the patient is
never overtaxed, and so that any special complaint may be rectified before what I may call general health exercise is
begun.
First amongst the complaints which are particularly prevalent among people of sedentary habits are,
unquestionably, indigestion, constipation, liver troubles and obesity, and. as might have been expected, these are the
ailments which systematic exercise never fails to cure. Of course, by liver troubles I do not mean grave diseases of the
liver, though they too can be alleviated, and even cured, by exercise, but minor liver troubles which, though often the
precursors of more serious complaints, are readily amenable to exercise.
In Chapter IX. I have shown how great a part muscular activity plays in alimentary digestion, that, in fact the
digestion of the food throughout
[ 4) 1
the alimentary canal is aided continually by the muscular movements of the canal itself. It therefore follows that any
derangement of this muscular system will inevitably bring about a derangement of the whole digestive system. The
many and complicated movements of the stomach, for instance, by which gastric digestion is mechanically brought
about, are all-important if the food is to be properly digested. These involuntary movements, as we found, are easily
stimulated by movement* of the voluntary muscles and by movements of the diaphragm which, although
involuntary, arc yet to a great extent under our control, in that by breathing exercises we can directly increase their
extent Deep inspirations, for instance, causing the diaphragm to contract more vigorously, and. by thus vigorously
contracting and expanding, it aids the muscular movements of the stomach by direct pressure and relaxation. In the
same way the muscular activity of the intestines is facilitated by involuntary movements of the limbs and trunk, so
that the mechanical side of alimentary digestion can be kept in full working order by systematic exercise.
Hut much more than this purely mechanical aid is afforded to the digestive process by systematic exercise. Wc
have seen in Chapter IX. that as the food passes along the alimentary canal it is not only subjected to the muscular
action of the walls of the canal, but is also subjected to the chemical action of important digestive juices poured into
the canal by the secreting glands which are found in the lining of its muscular walls. We have also seen that these
secreting glands arc stimulated to the performance of their secreting functions by the nerves of the sympathetic
nervous system. Wc have also seen in Chapter XII. that systematic exercise has a tonic effect upon the nervous system
generally, so wc find that alimentary-digestion is also aided indirectly by systematic exercise. Especially will the effect
of this improvement in the condition of the nervous side of digestion be noticeable when the indigestion from which
the patient is suffering is that form known as dyspepsia. But alimentary digestion depends upon other secretions
than those secreted by the glands of the alimentary canal, such as the salivary, gastric and intestinal gbnds. We have
seen that in the first part of the small intestine there are special ducts through which during intestinal digestion flow
the pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the bile from the liver, and the functional activity of both tbc liver and
die
j «34 1

pancreas depends upon the healthy condition of the nerves which stimulate those important glands. Again, no organ
of the body can perform its functions adequately unless the organs themselves are fully nourished, and wc have seen
that perfect nourishment of the tissues of the body depends not only upon the alimentary digestion and the
subsequent processes, but upon the perfect circulation of the blood and lymph ; and as wc have seen, this again is
not only facilitated by bodily movements, but in the case of the lymphatics and veins, is to a great extent dtptmdtnl
upon bodily move-menu, such general bodily movements, in fact, as among modern civilised people are only to be
secured by systematic exercise. It is therefore obvious that perfect digestion can only be secured, and that imperfect
digestion can only be completely rectified, by systematic exercise.
С -in iti in again, ariseч from ievr.il сш»??. The principal cause. M dojbt, is defective muscular action of the
intestine, for it is by the muscular movements of the intestinal wills that thi indigestible residue of the food and
other waste material is gradudly passed along to be removed from the system as faeces; this defective muscular
action of the intestines can be cured and kept permanently active by properly prescribed exercises of the limbs and
trunk. There are, however, other subsidiary causes of con-sdpation, such as defective action of the liver. The bile, as
we have seen, has a softening effect upon the foodstuffs, and therefore upon the indi gestible residuum, and also a
stimulating effect upon the muscular action of the intestines, acting, in fact, as a natural aperient. Systematic
exercise, as has already been proved, has a stimulating effect upon all glandular secretions, and this effect, if not
greatest, is at any rate most obvious upon the secretion and excretion of the bile.
Liver troubles, again, arc mostly related to defects of biliary secretion and excretion, indeed, the commoner
forms of liver complaint seem to be entirely due to such defects; and their symptoms very quickly disappear undcr
the treatment of systematic exercise. The liver, however, as wc have seen in Chapter IX., has other important
functions, and the derangement of any function of an organ necessarily disturbs all its function, and the disturbance
of the function which has the most easily recognised symptoms will be the function whose defect will at once coll for
treatment From the readiness, therefore, with which biliousness generally yields to
1 «11 1
a treatment of systematic exercise, it may reasonably be concluded that such exercise has an important effect upon
all the functions of the liver. When it is remembered that the liver, as we have seen in Chapter IX., receives via the
portal circulation most of the native proteids and sugar of the food absorbed by the absorbent cells of the intestines,
and when it is remembered how important is the effect upon the circulation generally of systematic exercise, it will
readily be understood that for correcting functional defects of the liver such exercise is the most rational treatment
which can be devised. 1 have said that serious diseases of the liver may also be cured by the same treatment modified
to suit the condition of the sufferer, but I hold that in most cases systematic exercise would prevent the occurrence of
such diseases, and if applied during convalescence and after recovery would prevent their recurrence.
Turning now to obesity, wc have noted in Chapter XV. that its cause is defective nutrition; that is to say. there is
not sufficient demand made by the body generally for the fat stored in the adipose tissue, and therefore the
accumulation goes on, until at last by the continual growth of such tissue the functional activity of adjacent organs is
prejudicially affected But apart from this crowding of the body with unused reserves of fat, there are other
inconveniences to which obesity gives rise. Bodily exertion, when the storage of fat is excessive, leads to excessive
formation of carbonic acid, and the lungs being unable to rid the body easily of this excess, " brcathless-ness" occurs,
and simultaneously there is a poisoning of the tissues by the excess of carbonic acid retained in the blood. It is
therefore important in cases of obesity that when exercise is prescribed it should be prescribed in such a way that the
wastage of fat should be gradual, and that during the earlier stages of the course \o( treatment fat forming foods
should be taken in moderation. Later in the course ordinary diet may again be taken. Of course, 1 am quite pre|>arcd
to admit that strict dieting has its value as a treatment generally, but strict dieting involves a great deal of incon -
venience to the patient, and is therefore rarely adhered to. at any rate, for long. The reason, I take it, why the
necessity for strict dieting arises is not so much that too much food generally, or too much of any one kiwi of food is
taken ; as that the work of the body is not coextensive with tftw food consumed, and 1 am convinced that it is easier,
both from the doctor's
I«J6)
point of view and the patient's, to increase the work of the body by systematic exercise than to
decrease the food supply by strict dieting. Therefore, while naturally objecting to unnatural
excess in eating, I do not think that any strict dieting is. as a rule, necessary if systematic
exercise l*c regularly performed.
I think the above, with the chapter dealing especially with the effects of systematic exercise
and the organs and systems involved in digestion, and the nutrition of the body generally, will
be sufficient to explain how systematic exercise cures such complaints as indigestion,
constipation, liver trouble and obesity. I will now deal with gout and rheumatic gout and kidney
troubles, which are also known to be cured by properly prescribed exercise. Gout or rheumatic
gout may be allowed to reach so acute a stage that such a treatment as systematic exercise, on
account of the pain caused by movement, will be obviously out of the question, and in such
cases systematic exercise can only be employed when, after the ordinary course of medical
treatment and the patient has sufficiently recovered to be able to exercise with advantage,
systematic exercise will be found a most useful aid to restoration of health and a most effective
preventative of the recurrence of the disease. It is, however, with the incipient stages of these
alhed diseases with which I propose to deal here. Doth are caused by exdjis of uric acid in the
blood, and uric acid, as wc have seen, is one of the products of that part of the metabolism of
the tissues involved in the breaking up. by oxidation, of nitrogenous elements of the tissues,
perhaps it would be better to say dt-fttth* oxidation of the tissues, for although there is a certain
very small percentage of uric acid found in normal blood, any perceptible quantity is due to
defective breaking down of the tissues. Wc have seen, however, in Chapter XV. that this
defective metabolism is caused by defects in the functional activity of the cells themselves, and
we have also seen that perfect cellular function can only be secured by perfect exercise of the
cells, which exercise may in some cases be limited to the movements involved in breathing
(taking in oxygen), nutrition (absorbing and assimilating foodstuffs), and excretion (returning
to the blood the products of oxidation, such as carbonic acid, urea or uric acid). In such cases
where the movements of cells arc limited to the movements necessary for their individual
existence, a perfect flow of the lymph which

( 47 I
brings them their food and air and carries away their waste is the most obviously effective cause
of perfect metabolism, although, as I haVc already said. I maintain that bodily movements will
probably directly stimulate their functional activity by alternate pressure and relaxation. When,
however, wc turn to such tissues as the nervous and muscular, which have other work to do
besides merely existing, we find that perfect metabolism can only be secured by regular exercise
of their functions. This, I think I have proved in Chapters XI. and XII., is secured by systematic
exercise of the body generally, bringing about not only perfect nutrition, but, what is equally
important, perfect waste of the tissues by oxidation. We have seen that excess of uric acid in the
system, the cause of gout and rheumatic gout, is itself caused by the defective breaking down by
oxidation of the nitrogenous elements of the tissues which should lie converted into urea, or in
some cases even further broken down, so that a |»rt is converted into carbonic acid. It therefore
follows that systematic exercise of the body, which facilitates oxidation, must necessarily be an
effective cure, and an even more effective preventative of gout and rheumatic gout.
Ordinary kidney troubles are frequendv connected with this excess of uric acid in the
system, and may therefore be relieved by systematic exercise causing a more complete breaking
up of nitrogenous tissue. I should like again to guard myself here from any charge of
exaggeration. There are, of course, diseases of the kidneys for the cure of which systematic
exercise alone would at certain stages be useless. but any curative system which, as 1 have
proved, exerts so great an influence upon the general principle of excretion, must inevitably
have a beneficial effect upon the functional activity of all the excretory organs, so that in the
physician's hands, I have very little doubt but that systematic exercise might be used with great
effect as an aid in the cure or alleviation of even the most serious affections of the kidneys. In
the ease of simple kidney trouble, however, I maintain that systematic exercise has invariably a
beneficial effect, and I think it reasonable to assume that it will therefore act as a preventative of
more serious diseases, or when the existence of a serious disease is known, may appreciably
delay its progress, if not effect its cure.
In the case of ordinary nervous disorders, systematic exercise, I have always found, has a
very rapid curative effect In Chapter XII. I dealt at some length with the effect which exercise
has upon the nervous system generally. In nervous complaints, as I there explained, the exercise
of the will is especially important, and particularly those exercises of the will in which the whole
body is relaxed (see p. 8). Perfect relaxation of the body means perfect rest, and when once the
will power has been secured by which alone this relaxation can be accomplished, the rest that
deranged nerves so greatly need can be given them at will. But besides the direct effect of
systematic exercise upon the nerves, the connection of the muscular system with the nervous
system, as I have shown in Chapter XII.. is so close, that systematic muscular exercises also
means systematic nervous exercise; there arc many indirect ways in which the nerves arc
affected by exercise. There is, of course, the all-important effect of improved nutrition to be
considered: the accelerated flow of more perfectly nourished and oxygenated blood is in itself
curative, no matter what tissue may be deranged Then, again, nearly all the commoner nerve
troubles are themselves the effects of other derangements, especially derangements of the
digestive system, and in such cases when the digestive functions of the body have been restored
by systematic exercise, the nerves at once receive the benefit. Again, when the nervous com-
plaint is the result of mental worry, systematic exercise is of great value, in that it provides a
change not only of action but of thought, fur the mental concentration which the proper
performance of the exercises requires must prove a distraction, however temporary ; and while
this distraction is taking place the bodily health is being improved, so that after systematic
exercise, although of course there is no cure for worry itself, there is at once an improvement in
the general bodily condition, so that the worry is better able to be borne, and in such cases, as a
rule, that really means that the worry is lessened, or at any rate brought to its true proportions.
Nervous worry always, unless counteracted, increases until at last the condition of mind
becomes so morbid that every difficulty is magnified and every trouble exaggerated. It is this
morbid condition which such a health-giving distraction as systematic exercise rapidly removes,
bringing the sufferer back to a normal frame of mind, and thus facilitating the cure Again, to
guard myself against any accusation of exaggeration, I may add that there arc. of course,
nervous diseases so Car advanced, and nervous
( 49 1
breakdowns so complete, that exercise cannot always at once be used as a therapeutic, but in
such cases, as in others of equal seriousness, when comparative convalescence is reached, the
physician will assuredly find that systematic exercise will prove an invaluable aid to a perfect
cure.
Lung troubles of all kinds, лги the most serious tu their earliest stages, are practically
amenable to systematic exercise I have explained in Chapter X. how easily the lung cavity may
be increased in size by such exercise, with the result that the lungs are themselves increased in
sue. That is to say, the lungs, always automatically filling the cavity in which they lie, by the
pressure of the atmosphere in their interior, directly the chest cavity becomes enlarged, fill it,
and thus there are brought into play ports of the lungs which have hitherto remained idle, air
sacs which have remained closed and inert arc filled with air and expanded, and thus a readier
exchange of carbonic acid for oxygen is effected. For with increased lung capacity, inspirations
are normally deeper, and expirations more vigorous. Not only does this fuller functional activity
of the lungs directly strengthen them, but the fuller aeration of the blood which takes place
necessarily improves the oxidation of the tissues of which they are composed, and the waste of
tissue involved in oxidatioisVis particularly useful when the tissue happens to be in л more or
less%iorbid condition. Of the preventative value of systematic exercise I need not speak, except
to urge that in all cases where a person, particularly a child, may be assumed to be congenitally
liable to lung trouble, systematic exercise should be prescribed, so that the dreaded evil may be
kept at bay.
In cases of heart trouble systematic exercise has been proved of great value. Not only is the
muscular action of the heart beneficially affected by such exercise, but there are again the two
points of accelerated blood How and improved nutrition and oxidation of the tissues of the
organ itself to be considered. In the case of the heart, however, the acceleration of the blood
tlow brought about by exercise is of double value. It shares in the improvement of nutrition and
oxidation of alt the tissues of the body brought about by the acceleration, but it also benefits
directly, its work is facilitated, and iu functional activity stimulated. The blood in the veins, as
we have seen (p 56), is to a great extent dependent upon the mechanical pressure of muscular
activity for its flow back to the heart,
( ЦО 1
and the more perfect this flow, the more easily and more smoothly is the work of the heart
done. The heart's action, again, is frequently impaired by derangements of the digestive system,
and by obesity, and if the cause be removed tMc weakness of the heart thereby engendered is
also removed; and I have proved that for the cure of derangements of the digestion, and for the
cure of obesity there is no therapeutic which can rival systematic exercise. In cases of heart
weakness such exercise needs to be very carefully prescribed, and great as has been my
experience, I in all but the most simple cases insist upon a medical examination prior to
prescribing the exercises; and I think that this proves my point that systematic exercise, should
be adopted by the medical profession as a recognised therapeutic to be taught in the schools
and studied in the laboratory. For the value of systematic exercise in cases of heart weakness has
again and again l«ccn attested by physicians, and this practical recognition of its value, taken in
conjunction with the importance of professional diagnosis, seems to clinch my argument for the
inclusion of systematic exercise in the curriculum of the hospital schools.
Insomnia and headache I have included among the complaints which systematic exercise
is known to cure j but as I have already said, they must be taken rather as symptoms of
complaints, titan as diseases in themselves, although no doubt they sometimes arise from
general derangements of the whole body, which cannot be precisely named. Insomnia, for
instance, may arise from disorders of the digestive system, from nervous derangements, or from
worry, domestic or business, likely to lead to nervous disorders. In the first two cases, all that I
have said with regard to the cure of indigestion and nervous troubles of course applies to
insomnia as one of their symptoms. But in any case the perfect relaxation of the body (see
Chapter I., p 8) is most important when insomnia is in question, as such relaxation is of course a
mechanical aid to sleep When insomnia is brought on by worry, then again all that I have said
when dealing with worry as the cause of nervous trouble applies. Such improvement of the
general health implied in the improved nutrition and waste of all the tissues brought about by
systematic exercise, enables the worry to be borne more easily, and this with the aid to sleep
afforded by |icrfcct relaxation of the body almost invariably removes the sleepless
(Ц> J
ness. Headache, whether ascribable to special derangement of any particular organic function,
or whether due to a general derangement of the system, is readily cured by systematic exercise
specially prescribed to remove the cause.
I have now only to refer to the various skeletal irregularities, such as spinal curvature, wry
neck, stooping or round shoulders, and in tin's case I cannot do better than refer the reader to
Chapter XIII,, especially to the pages to , 104 in which I dealt with the importance of systematic
J

exercise both as a cure for such skeletal defects, and especially as a preventative during the
periods of growth (childhood) and of decay (old age). Systematic exercise is indeed so generally
recognised by the medical profession as a corrective for such deformities, and is so obviously a
preventative, that it is not necessary to labour the point, nor to repeat the arguments and proofs
which I gave in Chapter XIII.
The foregoing, then, are the complaints which exercise is known to cure; but there still
remains another as|>ect of systematic exercise as a therapeutic to be considered. This is its
fortifying effects upon the body, so that the systematically exercised body is able to keep at bay
the diseases which ore ascribable to the presence in the body of the bacilli which cause so many
of the dread diseases to which the human race is liable. We have seen (p. 63) that among the
cells of the body there are certain cells which are free-moving cells, resembling the amoebae in
their movements, and which under certain conditions are known as phagocytes. These cells may
be described as living animals which move to and fro through the tissues of the body, devouring
not only alien intruders, but also diseased tissues; and it depends upon their numbers and their
vitality whether, when a dangerous bacillus has gained access to the body, the body is to
succumb to the disease, or the bacillus is to succumb to the phagocytes. If the phagocytes are
numerous enough and active enough to destroy the intruders, and to remove the tissues the
intruders have damaged, all is well with the body. If, on the other hand, the intruders prove the
more powerful, then the phagocytes are destroyed, and the body is stricken with enteric, or
what not Now there is no doubt that in die perfectly healthy body these phagocytes are most
powerful, and they are known to be more powerful during youth than in old age. It is therefore
obvious
t «4» 1
that arty system which, like systematic exercise, invigorates the
whole body, must also invigorate these phagocytes, thereby
fortifying the body against the attacks of all diseases ascribable
to the intrusion into the body of inimical bacilli.
Before I leave this subject of the diseases which systematic
exercise is known to cure and alleviate, and in which the cure
and alleviation can be physiologically explained, and before I
turn to the consideration of the diseases which systematic
exercise, when once adopted by the medical profession as a
therapeutic to be studied in medical schools, may be expected
to cure, I wish to refer to a case of elephantiasis which proved
amenable to systematic exercise. I met with this case during my
recent visit to Bombay, and the sufferer came to me and asked
me to sec if my exercise would do him any good. Having
satisfied myself that at any rate no harm would be done by a
course of exercise, 1 undertook to do what I could ; and to my
delight, and I may frankly admit to my surprise, not only was
general improvement of health secured, that I expected, but the
disease itself was absolutely cured, nor has there been, although
the cure took place twelve months ago, any sign that the disease
is likely to recur. I propose to deal with this case in detail in the
following chapter, taking it, indeed, for the premiss from which
I shall argue that many unlikely diseases may be amenable to
systematic exercise in the hands of the practising physician, who
has opportunities of applying it which, in spite of the thousands
of cases of common ailments which have come my way. I shall
never have, combined with the professional knowledge of
diagnosis to which I can lay no claim.
I, however, have mentioned the case at the end of this
chapter, as although I could not dare to say, from this isolated
case, that systematic exercise is known to cure elephantiasis, yet
as it certainly did effect a cure in this particular case, I did not
wish to relegate it entirely to the chapter in which I shall discuss
 the ixissible cure of obscure diseases by means of systematic
exercise at some future time, and in the light of fuller
knowledge.

! «43 I

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CHAPTER XVII.

ExEKUSK, AND THE DISEASES IT M AV BE КХГЕСТЕО TO CUBE.

We have seen in previous chapters that exercise is known to cure most of the common
ailments, and we have seen by a study of the physiology of the human body that exercise is able
to effect these cures by stimulating the functions of the various organs and systems, so that the
nutrition, oxidation and natural waste of the tissues are facilitated, and the waste products
removed more speedily and more completely from the body. But we cannot consider these
bodily functions and their facilitation by exercise without being impressed with the vast
potentialities of exercise as a general therapeutic. For not only arc the common ailments due to
derangements of metabolism, but all ailments, no matter how complex or how their origin may
puzzle even the greatest experts in experimental medicine, are also due to defective
metabolism, however such defective metabolism may be caused. The case of elephantiasis
which I quoted in the last chapter as having been cured by my system of curative exercise,
should, I think, give us a clue to the future treatment of the obscurer diseases.
Let us note what elephantiasis is, and how it is caused Elephantiasis is a disease
characterised by enormous swelling of the lower extremities, this swelling being caused by
obstructions of the local lymphatic vessels, these obstructions in turn being caused by a
parasite called the Ft/ana sanguinis kominis notluma, which parasite is introduced into the body by
a mosquito.
This filaria is described by Sir Patrick Manson, the distinguished parasitologist, as "a long,
slender, hair-like animal, quite three inches in length, £ ('H, inch in breadth, of an opalescent
appearance, looking like a delicate thread of catgut, animated and wriggling." It breeds in the
lymphatics
Г «44 1
MICROGRAPHS OF THE TISSUES OF THfc BODY
 The i»bovc ..rr high!) Trugmfteti ami arc icr>rotlui.tioiia Ы ttiHtvi;rapbt npeuiiil) |nr|uirii fni ilni шик.

and its embryos, which are brought forth alive, find their way by the thoracic duct to the blood
Curiously enough, however, they are only found in the blood of an infected person at night
This nocturnal blood-haunting by the embryo is, however, easily explained. The filaria, though
it lodges and breeds in the human body, does not fully develop there, but. like many other
parasites, requires another host for its development from the embryonic to the adult stage
This host, in the case of the F. tanguiMis kominn, is a mosquito: and as this mosquito feeds at
night, the embryos have acquired the habit of infesting the blood at night, when they are
sucked up by the mosquito with the blood, returning to the human body, when fully developed,
via the proboscis of the mosquito. There is, however, a theory that they may return to the
human body with drinking water in which they have in some way or another been deposited by
the mosquito. This latter theory, however, has not so many adherents as the former. The
filaria while in the human body brings about mischief by blocking the lymphatics There are
several species of these parasites found in different parts of the world, and in some cases their
embryos arc found in the blood of infected persons in the daytime, and in some cases are found
in the blood both by night and by day. But whatever their habits or whatever the diseases they
cause, the mischief they cause primarily consists to stoppages in the lymphatics, thereby
necessarily impairing and altering the nutrition of adjacent tissues. It therefore seems to mc
that were it definitely proved that elephantiasis is generally curable by exercise it would follow
that all the diseases set up by the various species of filaria might also be cured, or at least
alleviated, by curative exercise ; the removal of this obstruction of the lymphatics, which is the
primary cause of the diseases these parasites set up, being probably the first curative effect of
local exercise.
In some cases of elephantiasis the presence of the parasite has not been noticed, but in
spite of that the disease is generally recognised as being parasitic in origin. The treatment has
hitherto been principally surgical, parts of the growth being cut away. This, however, is a relief
rather than a cure. The patient whom I treated fur elephantiasis had already had nn operation
of this kind performed, but the malady, so far from being cured, was steadily progressing in
intensity. As I have already
10
l 4i 1
said, a persistent course of my treatment of curative exercise effected a perfect cure, nor has the
disease shown any sign of returning. I have admitted that I did not expect this result, although I
anticipated a general improvement in the patient's health, nor am I now able to understand
precisely how such a cure could have been brought about by curative exercise. But as it was so
brought about, I may, I think, with propriety, hazard the following conjecture, leaving it to
medical men who have made a special study of such diseases to say how far my conjecture is
justified by the known facts. Such an attack of elephantiasis as 1 treated is, I find, preceded by
inflammation of the local blood and lymph vessels, which inflammation brings about a steadily
increasing swelling of the skin, the swelling being characterised by the accumulation of serum
(the liquid which exudes from coagulated blood) in the subcutaneous tissues This, I think, gives
us a clue to the curative effect of exercise. By facilitating the circulation of the blood and lymph
generally we relieve the local inflammation, and by exercise especially directed to restore the
circulation in the inflamed vessels we stimulate their functional activity and enable them to rid
themselves to some extent of the obstructions set up by the parasites. At the same lime the
general exercise has a tonic effect upon ihe nervous system, which in turn reacts upon the blood
and lymph vessels to the improvement of their functional activity, and I have no doubt whatever
that in this way it would be comparatively easy to rectify incipient attacks of elephantiasis, or to
give considerable relief in advanced stages of the disease. Something more, however, than a
mere improvement in ihe local and general circulation must have happened to effect the cure 1
speak of. We may justly assume that exercise, when directed to any particular part of the body,
has a profound effect upon the functional activity of the tissues affected, especially upon that
side of their metabolism which consists in the breaking down of their constituent parts, and
this breaking down of tissue, essential as we have already seen under normal conditions is
obviously even more essential when the conditions are morbid ! therefore ascribe the cure of
elephantiasis by exercise as being due to a great extent to the more rapid destruction of the
diseased tissues, and to a more rapid local circulation of the blood removing the waste products
more quickly, and supplying healthy nutritive and oxygenated blood in greater quantities
[ Ц6 J
 С11ЛГ. xand
Exercise v t i . the Diseases it may Care

Exercise and the Diseases it mar Cure силг. x v n

a

to enable them to continue the waste and to repair the local damage. Wc may also assume
thai with the fuller supply of healthy blood the phagocytes are better able to perform their
function of consuming the diseased tissues. There is, however, a third effect of exercise
which must not be overlooked. General exercise of the whole body must necessarily, to a
great extent, restore what I may call the balance of nutrition, which is obviously overthrown
by any disease involving abnormal morbid growth of a particular part. That is to say. the
demand for nutrition made by the morbid growth is no longer met. the exercise producing
increased waste of all the tissues of the body, especially of the muscular tissues, which waste
in turn calls for a fuller supply of nutritive oxygenated blood, and as the quantity of blood is
always more or less limited the morbid growth is starved.
Here it will be seen that we are faced by a contradiction in terms. First we assumed
that local exercise of the affected part, together with the improvement in the circulation of
the blood, brought about by general exercise, involved an improved nutrition of the
diseased tissue. Now wc assume that general exercise of the body, by increasing the general
demand for nutrition, will starve the morbid growth. The apparent contradiction,
however, can easily be explained away. Left alone to run its course, the disease would
obtain the nutrition it needed to permit the continuance of the morbid growth. The
growth, however, would be morbid and its nutrition necessarily unhealthy. By stimulating
the blood flow in the affected blood-vessels, and at the same time stimulating the waste of
the affected tissues, wc not only increase their waste by oxidation, but. where they are
thoroughly degenerated by the disease, wc bring about their absolute destruction and
removal by the phagocytes, or scavenger cells, whose function we assumed was necessarily
stimulated by the presence in the neighbourhood of healthy arterial blood This
destruction of diseased tissue lessens the demand for abnormal nutrition, and if at the
same time the other tissues are stimulated by general exercise to make full demand for
nutrition, this curtailment of excessive nourishment is considerably increased. In other
words, normal healthy nutrition is restored and abnormal healthy nutrition is stopped.
It was therefore, I assume, by these effects of general and local curative exercise that
the cure of this particular case of elephantiasis was
I «47 3
effected. That is, of course, speaking generally, for I have no doubt that had a skilled
pathologist who hud made a study of such diseases been on the spot during the continuance
of my treatment, much would have been learnt, enabling deductions to be made likely to
assist our knowledge, not only of the cure but also of the precise nature of such a disease; and
it is for this reason that I so urgendy appeal to the medical profession to do more than
sanction curative exercise—to study it and adopt it in their general practice. For if
elephantiasis is curable by exercise, and 1 do not say it is, although the cure of this particular
case seems to point to it, then may not other and obscure diseases involving hypertrophy or
morbid growth of tissues also be amenable to it ? May not goitre, and the tumours,
benignant and malignant, and even the dreaded cancer itself, yield to its influence, when
once it is in the pathologist's hands as a recognised and thoroughly understood therapeutic ?
For what ore these diseases after all, obscure as the origin of some of them may be, but
defects or aberrations of nutrition, and is it not clear that curative exercise must necessarily
have a profound effect always upon the general nutrition of the tissues when we consider the
physiological effects it has and the commoner ailments it is known to cure. Whether such a
disease as cancer originates in some eccentricity of cellular development, or whether it is
caused by some specific parasite, would seem in this connection to be of little moment. If it
bean aberration of cell development, then why may not so natural a restorative of the normal
functional activity of the whole body, as curative exercise can be proved to be. restore even a
part of the body affected by cancer to a normal condition ? If, on the other hand, it be a
parasitic growth, then, if the curative effect of exercise in cases of elephantiasis be once
established, why should not such exercise cure another, although different and far more
malignant parasitic growth?
The various forms of dropsy, again, may reasonably be expected to become amenable to
curative exercise when in the hands of those who are experts both in the diagnosis of the
disease and in the prescription of exercise directed to particular parts of the body. For every
disease which is characterised by aberrations of the blood flow and lymph flow should
unquestionably be remediable by a therapeutic which, like that of curative exercise, is known
to have a beneficial effect upon the circulatory system generally, and upon the circulation in
the veins and lymphatics in particular.
I 4* 1

Exercise and the Diseases it may Cure CHAP. X V I I .

I need not refer to any other classes of disease, for I am sure that my professional
readers, when once they arc convinced that my system of curative exercise does all that I am
able to claim for it on results alone, will see at once many directions in which such u system
would be useful in their daily practice, and that its usefulness would so expand with its use
that in time there would be hardly any known disease to which systematic exercise might not
be applied at one time or another during its continuance with marked benefit to the sufferer.
Exercise and the Diseases it may Care

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE CELLS AND TISSUES or THE BODY.

WE have seen in the course of the preceding chapters that the tissues of the body are
built up of cells and a cementing material which is produced at one time or another by the
cells themselves. These cells vary very much in shape and in their organic functions,
although their vital functions, that is to say, the functions of their private life, as apart from
the functions of what I may call their civic life, are practically the same, they all feed,
breathe, excrete, and at one time or another multiply ; and they all move, but their power of
movement varies greatly, ranging from practically free movement to such simple movement
as is involved in their life processes. I have in every case in which I have had occasion to
mention one or other of these ceils given a rough description of the particular cell, but so
that the reader may gather a clear idea of what these cells arc like, I have thought it well to
devote this chapter entirely to the tissues of the body and their component cells, dealing
with them in the groups into which they arc generally gathered
The tissues of the body arc sometimes described under four headings, vie., epithelial,
connective, muscular, and nervous. This grouping includes the osseous and cartilaginous
tissues, and also the blood, under the heading connective. But although from a purely
technical point of view there is sound reason for this grouping, I propose to deal with the
osseous and cartilaginous tissues, and with the blood separately ; and of all the tissues of
the body, I propose in this chapter to give the foremost place, and the greatest space, to the
epithelial tissues, as they are the tissues principally concerned in the preparation of
foodstuffs for consump-
Г «S»]
MICROGRAPHS OK THE TISSUHS ОЯ THE BODY

.Vhiwnr |W. Vrfkiw KlMiii Tiitue.

TV *UiTfi »tr highly mejiiiifVfil. Mut »>г к{я\*Хцлта* Ы ингг«цтарН. »»r*tl»li» pirpaiad kit thii
work.

lion by the tissues generally, and a clear understanding of their nature is necessary if the
functions of the systems of digestive absorption and nutrition arc to be clearly understood.
And as I have laid such stress upon the bencficicnt effect of curative exercise utwn those
systems, the tissues directly concerned in digestion, absorption, and nutrition deserve the
first place.
Epithelial tissue is composed almost entirely of cells joined together by the smallest
possible quantity of cementing material, and it is usually found covering the outside or
lining the inside of the various organs. The cells of which epithelial tissue is composed vary
very grcady in shape, ranging from the scaly cells found upon the surface of the skin, which
can only with difficulty be recognised as cells at all. to the curious goblet cells, so called
because sliapcd like a goblet, which secrete and excrete a liquid substance called mucin,
which goes to the formation of mucus. But for all this superficial unlikcness, the
relationship of all these celts is most obvious when, as in the external skin of the body, wc
find that the flat surface cells originated in column-shaped cells in the deepest layer of the
skin, and changed their form and even chemical constituency us they ■ a c t u a l l y pushed
upward by the continual multiplication of the cells
were
in tl
Epithelial tissue is therefore primarily divided into that which consists of one layer of
cells, that which consists of two or three layers of cells, and that which consists of several
layers of cells. The first is called simple epithelium, the second transitional epithelium, and
the third stratified epithelium. In simple epithelium the cells may be flat or scaly, shaped
like cubes, like columns, like globes, or may be many-sided, or, again, the column and globe
shaped cells may be tufted with cilia (hair-like processes which move rapidly). These arc
called respectively pavement, cubical, columnar, spheroidal, polyhedral, and ciliated
epithelial cells In transitional and stratified epithelium wc find the various cells in layers the
flatter being at the top.
Cubical, spheroidal, columnar, or polyhedral epithelial cells are found lining the
hollows of secreting glands, lining the hollows of the ductless glands, lining the ducts of
glands, and lining the stomach and intestines It wdl thus be seen that these are the cells
most intimately con-
Im1
crrned in the conversion of foodstuffs into substances suitable for the nutrition of all the
cells of the body. Let us trace these cells as they occur in the body along the track of the
foodstuffs.
First we come to the salivary glands. Here wc find that the cells which secrete the
ingredients of saliva are polyhedral in shape. These cells line the hollows of the glands,
and their secretions are poured through the ducts which are lined with columnar epithelial
cells. Some of the cells secrete mucin, and some a watery substance, which contains the
active principle of saliva (ptyalin). The cells form their secretions from the lymph which
bathes them, and arc stimulated to the function of secretion by contiguous nerves. The
next glands wc come to are situated in the stomach. The stomach is lined with columnar
epithelial cells, and embedded in this lining are the glands which secrete the ingredients of
the gastric juice. These glands are of two kinds, cardiac and pyloric The lining of the
interior of the cardiac glands is composed of polyhedral epithelial cells (which secrete the
pepsin); beneath these arc globular cells which secrete hydrochloric acid. The pyloric
glands contain but one kind of secreting cell, cubical in shape, which corresponds with the
polyhedral cells of the cardiac gland, and secretes pepsin. These glands, again, form their
secretions from the lymph which bathes them, and are stimulated to secrete by nerves; this
of course, applies equally to all glands, for all arc supplied with nerves, and all are bathed in
lymph with the exception of the spleen, in which the blood comes in direct contact with the
tissues. We now come to the duodenum. Here we find two kinds of glands: the first,
Bnmner's glands, resemble the pyloric glands; the second, the glands of Liebcrkuhn. arc
found not only in the duodenum but all over the interior of both the large and small
intestines, their interiors are lined by columnar epithelial cells, of which some assume the
goblet shape already tqentioncd. The cells lining the glands of Liebcrkuhn secrete the
succus entericus. Wc have seen th.it into the duodenum is poured the bile and the
pancreatic juice via the biliary and pancreatic ducts, so wc will turn now to the liver and
pancreas and note the kind of cells which secrete these fluids. The secreting cells of the
liver arc spheroidal in shape, except when their shape is altered by pressure. These cells
form the bile from the blood v*hi. h reaches the liver via the portal vein, The bile then
passes by inter-
I *5» 1
cellular passages to the bile capillaries and from thence through minor ducts to the biliary
duct through which it is (mured into the duodenum. The secreting cells of the liver also
form glycogen, but to this function we shall return later, as we trace the food-laden blood
via the portal circulation to the liver. The secreting cells of the pancreas are of that many
sided shape called polyhedral, they form the |>aucrcaiic juice from the lymph which bathes
them, and arc stimulated to secrete by contiguous nerves. The pancreatic juice is poured
through the canal of Wirsung into the duodenum. We have now noticed all the secreting
glands, the secretions of which are the chemical agents of alimentary digestion, viz.. the
polyhedral epithelial cells which secrete the saliva; the polyhedral and spheroidal cells
which secrete pepsin and hydrochloric acid respectively ; the columnar and goblet-shaped
cells which secrete the succus entericus ; the sphcriodol cells of the liver which secrete the
bile; and the polyhedral cells of the pancreas which secrete the pancreatic juice.
Let us now turn to the food in the intestines which has already been subjected to the
chemical action of these secretions, and is in a condition suitable for absorption by the
absorbent cells of the intestines. These absorbent cells, as we saw in Chapter IX.. p. 5 1 . also
have the power of chemically changing the foodstuffs before they pass them along to the
lymph stream and the venous blood of the portal circulation. We may therefore look upon
these absorbent cells as secreting cells, in that they perform much the same functions as the
secretin); cells properly so called. The absorbent cells of the intestines are the columnar
epithelial cells of the surface and the lymph cells which lie in the tissue beneath them Of
the two we need here only consider the epithelial absorbent cells the lymph cells being
treated later when we deal with the blood and lymph and lymphoid tissues Besides, it is the
columnar epithelial absorbent cells which act chemically upon the foodstuffs, the lym|ih
cells being more of the nature of mechanical carriers than chemical elabor.uor*. It is these
columnar epithelial cells which, as the already digested foodstuffs pass through them,
convert the peptones into albumen, the maltose (already partly converted by the succus
entericus) into glucose, and the soapy emulsion of fat into fat again, in very small particles.
We sec. therefore, that although these absorbent cells cannot be said to form a secretion in
the ordinary sense of that word, they make such chemical alterations in the food they
absorb that their functions arc analogous to the functions of secreting cells. The
reconverted foodstuffs, as wc saw in Chapter IX., pass into the blood and lymph stream. We
Exercise and the Diseases it may Care

will now follow the blood via the capillaries of the intestines and the portal vein to the liver.
Here the liver cells, which wc have already seen form bile, also form glycogen from the
glucose brought to them by the blood, and also form urea and uric acid from the oxidised
waste of the nitrogenous elements of the tissues and foodstuffs. It is iierhatts not quite
justifiable to call the liver cells epithelial cells ; is is, however, convenient to do so, for they
develop from an epithelial tissue, and have much the same functions as the secreting cells
which are obviously epithelial. Liver cells, however, like some other secretive cells of the
body which have become highly specialised, are generally considered as a class by
themselves. It may be added that cells of a like nature to those above described arc found in
the sweat glands.
It will be seen from the foregoing description of the epithelial cells which secrete the
fluids by which alimentary digestion is chemically effected, which absorb and reconvert the
foodstuffs as prepared in the intestines, and which, in the liver, again act upon the nutritive
material of the blood, that these cells are of the very highest consequence to the nutrition
of the tissues. We have noted that the performance of their secreting function is stimulated
by the action of nerves communicating with the glands in which they are found. I believe,
however, that not only is their functional activity stimulated by nervous impulses, which
nervous impulses in turn arc, during systematic exercise, stimulated by the beneficent
effect of the exercise upon the nervous system generally, but that the exercise has a directly
beneficial effect upon the cells themselves, which in my opinion are stimulated in the
performance of their functions by the alternate pressure and relaxation which must
necessarily be brought about by bodily movements in the path of which they lie.
Let us now turn to the consideration of other epithelial cells which are found in other
parts of the body. The ciliated epithelium, which as we have seen are either columnar or
spheroidal cells tufted with hair-like processes, arc found in several parts of the body where
movement of sub-
I «M I
stances is required in one direction upon the surface of the tissues lining such parts In the
air-passages, for instance, the ciliated epithelial cells which line them play an important
part in ridding them of dust introduced with the atmospheric air. This they do by keeping
the current of surface mucus flowing toward the larynx. For the rest transitional epithelium
which consists of two or more layers of epithelial cells of which the flatter are found at the
top, is found lining the bladder and in some other parts of the body. Stratified epithelium
consisting of several layers of epithelial cells superimposed is found in the skin, and in the
lining of the mouth, &c.; a sufficient description of stratified epithelium has however
already been given
We now come to the connective tissues, which are divided into five main divisions viz.,
fibrous tissue, clastic tissue, areolar tissue, adipose tissue and lymphoid tissue. There is
also another kind of connective tissue of a jelly-like consistency which during adult life is
only found in the eye. Connective tissues are found all over the Ixxly. binding and support-
ing the other tissues Connective tissue is the antithesis of epithelium tissue in that it has a
very smalt number of cells lying in a very large quantity of cementing material. Fibrous
tissue is very strong, and is composed of white non-elastic fibres arranged in bundles, the
cells being found between the bundles The cells are four-sided, and are joined together by
a cementing substance. Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, ligaments, in the
sheaths of the larger bundles of muscles &c. Elastic tissue is composed principally of
yellow clastic fibres, which may be found either in bundles (in ligaments, &c.) or they may
take a membranous form, as in the blood-vessels Yellow elastic fibres are found in the
body wherever elasticity of the tissues is a mechanical aid to the functions of the body.
They are found therefore in the blood-vessels, notably in the arteries in the lungs, and in
the ligaments. Areolar tissue is a tissue in which both white fibrous and yellow clastic
fibres arc found, and in the meshes which their fibres form there are also found connective
tissue corpuscles, which arc celts of varying shape, among which may be seen white blood
corpsucles which have wandered from contiguous bloodvessels Areolar tissue is found all
over the body, and is in fact, the most distinctively connective of the connective tissues,
forming sheaths for organs
[ «54 1
and binding them together internally. Adipose tissue is also distributed nearly all over the
body, and it consists of small cells more or less globular ia shape; these cells are really
minute bags of membrane formed by the substance of the cell, and these bags arc filled
with fat. Adipose tissue serves several purposes, it may merely act as a temporary store for
fat or it may serve us a protection for delicate organs which lie upon the soft and yielding
surface, or it may serve, as at the surface of the body, as a non-conductor of heat, thus
preserving the temperature of the body. This tissue, as we have seen, useful as it is in a
normal body, may by accumulation in a body which is not duly exercised lead to obesity,
and to serious danger to the general health. Lymphoid tissue consists of a network of
white fibres, in the meshes of which lymph corpuscles are found. Retiform tissues
consist of the same kind of network containing in its meshes a fluid substance. Lymphoid
tissue is found in the lymphatic glands, in the spleen, &c | I shall refer again to the lymph
corpuscles which are found multiplying in its meshes. The effect of exercise upon the
adipose tissue has been fully described on p. 1Э4. so there only remains to be considered
from the exercise point of view the other connective tissues. Of these the beneficial effect of
exercise upon the elastic tissues will be obvious to those who have read the chapter on the
circulatory and respiratory system, in the organs and vessels of which elastic tissue per-
forms valuable functions. White fibrous tissue must also directly benefit by exercise, from
its connection with the muscles and the articulations of the bones. The areolar tissue, on
the other hand, being probably of all the tissues of the body the most stationary, and
having for its function merely existence, is a tissue which if it is to derive benefit from
exercise other than by the improvement in general nutrition produced by exercise, must
benefit by the alternate pressure and relaxation caused by bodily movements, which, as I
have already said, I am firmly convinced is of direct licnefit even to the most stationary of
cells.
I do not think there is any occasion to give a description of nervous and muscular
tissues, both of which arc sufficiently described in the chapters dealing with the muscular
and nervous systems. So for the description of muscular tissue I refer my readers to p. 8a,
and for nervous tissues to p. bo. In the same way bone and cartilage arc adequately
described
t «** J
on pp. 98 and 99 respectively; and as mere repetition is undesirable I do noi propose to deal
with those tissues in this chapter.
With the blood and lymph 1 , however, think it is desirable to deal in detail again, for
although I have dealt with them in former chapters, the descriptions there given have been
necessarily subordinated to the general scheme of the chapters in which they were
mentioned. To take the blood first. The blood consists of corpuscles floating in a liquid
called plasma. The corpuscles arc white ami red. The white arc free-moving anunal cells,
and are larger and less numerous than the red; these cells have nuclei, and at times some of
them multiply by division. The red corpuscles, on the other hand, have no nuclei, and
therefore during adult life do not multiply by division, but are worn out and destroyed and
are replaced by red corpuscles formed by cells which are found in the red marrow of bones,
red blood corpuscles arc also, it is presumed, formed in the spleen. White blood corpuscles
are formed in the spleen, the lymphatic glands, and in red marrow. The white corpuscles
vary in sue ami in appearance, but they are all free-moving. The red, on the other hand, at
any rate when found in the blood, must be looked upon as the least animal-like of cells,
they having no power of reproduction. The plasma in which these corpuscles are found is
the liquid which carries the foodstuffs to the tissues, and which, as we have seen, exudes
through the thin walls of the capillaries, sometimes carrying with it red blood corpuscles.
The plasma exudes into a lymph space and at once joins the lymph stream where it is
known as lymph. Lymph consists therefore of this plasma and of lymph corpuscles which
resemble white blood corpuscles and which, indeed, in many coses arc white blood
corpuscles. Lymph also contains in certain of the lymphatic vessels the fatty foodstuffs
which it receives from the absorbent cells of the intestines, and the little understood but
most important secretions of the lymphatic and other ducdess glands. It also contains the
waste products of tissue change. The lymph, however, itself, with all its contents, cellular,
nutritive, secretory, and poisonous waste, joins the blood stream via the thoracic duct so
that it cannot be considered separately from the blood; the circulatory system and the fluid
circulation being continuous, although for a time the lymph in the lymphatic vessels takes
the semblance of a distinct fluid. To repeat
I «57 J
CHAP. XVIII.
The Cells and Tissues of the Body

T
4» J.NIJ
IHE F

At Rut Мо>ш|[. Multiplying by Dinwn

АМСЕВА HIGHLY MAGNIFIED.
here all the benefits that systematic exercise can confer on the circulatory system and
the fluid circulated would be practically to rewrite the book, so I would again refer the
reader to former chapters, especially to Chapters IX. and X., in which the beneficial
effects of systematic exercise upon the blood and lymph are fully described.
 I ND E X

Пичг им in iateaiiaal DAEMON.

In Inteatine*. 50, Prugt, axiti. Ductleaa gland*. 60,
OR 61.
Lymphatic alitxii, to.
Abenrption of food*, EG. la flooanch, $$. In Thyroid gland, 6a
iaMfinca, 54. Sola Urve IALNTIOM, ]l.
ADLPOAE HMIII, 11 J. Duodenum, 49, jo, JJ.
AJARCNT nerve*. 91. Dlgeetmn in, jo
\„ -. П Л ■** Jtlire* pmtred Into, 50 Diipepeia, не
indigtratvon.

Air-liibea. 74. EnVrenl nerve*, *> Elaatic cartilage, 98. Klaitic fibre*,
Alimentary canaL 47 te JJ. Anuria, t> II* ii}. Elephantui.it, tgj, 144-Einuliiri. atum of fat, 14.
Apparaiut, rutcuc with, 4 Append:*, {I. A root) uf bde on, Jo.
Areolar lu«ic, 11 $. Aricne*. <A Actina of pincmatii: juice on to. Epithelium,«.}, tit.
Blood flow ia, }6. Exerne. 1 tog,
Conatrui tioo of, 56, Aaricie* <rf W.th apparatua, 4.
butt, 15. A iaa-cj finder erf nerve*, «V Without apparaltii. $.
Setting muvclex, $,
naciaiia, i» Relaxation, 8
Acuna of hydrochloric acid on, 40 The habu of, $, 6, 7-
В 49-
'■<■■ Exercise—tmHmuii.
lit пае In dige*tion, $0. For INN. JI to 14.
In ev-reiion oecianary. *S-Blood, JJ, For women, JJ to »
$7, «57. Btaodcotpuacie*, J7, 6j, l$y. For rh.Mreo, 40 to 4«V
Blood i»r.«urr. «Д Iti effect RAN DIGTMLKIN. 66.
In enenea, {6 щ th< circttUlion. AV
In vein*, 56. И М rr*pimt'r>EI 77
In capillari**, (7
Blood-ve* wit—
Л■ <■.. $«,

Vetaa, 5 V .....................nerve*. 9J.

CapUiariet, $5, JL. » „ „ bone*, lot.
1WXK-\ 09. HR4IN, the, 91k Functional eifacta of. 19 to 14
Bngauunc, 78. Strartwral „ 16 to it.
Bniochi. Mural „ 1$ to 30
EEPIRALKWI, 7),
74.
Bninncr' The mechenixm of, 7$.
• (land*,
1 p. Farce*, ji
Eiett lie ami the etpuUion of, JJ, let. jo.
The digettum of, 50.
Cecum, ITM, Tlie abaorptioa of, $4, $9.
51. Canalicoli The им of, In Ihe body, XJ.
erf bone, 99, Tbe undue arrumnUtion of. I JO
Cancellin The «вест of tm.ie upon, I JO Fibro-
tintie of bone. candage. 98. Flbroux tiittte. 1 1 j. fUtris
99. Cancer, Хлщвгяи ' : ' - ■ ■ * < ■ 14) I Inti. tee muvcle.
14J Capillar Food-
tea, 55. The iligniion of 47.
Blood. ». Starch, 47, jo.
Lymph, UL Sugar, JO.
Effect of eaerr iae upon, 6f PPOWKIV at, jo
blood-preuora In, 69. Fat, JA
Carbohydrate*— Starch, 47, JO-
The AHAORJUKM of JJ.
The atalmilatton of. $3 to 64.
Cartmbe acid, 55.
In fnrmaiioa, J$ 09.
CAAGLU,

I11 Сама—
removal Oxygen. $$, yj. Caiborwc arid. JJ, 7>
. 7 j. 7}. Caatnejuiee. 48, $x. I'epxm. 4». IP-
Cant-.41 Hydrochloric arid. 48, II* lt« effect мл
(Landa, proteid*, 48, J J
IJJ. (.LINDA -

Carubq Hrunoet'a. if *. Cardiac, IJJ, Intnl.rial, JO,

re, AT, Li.'jciLaliii ц I fa-Liver, 60.
li»
lormaii I' BO ]

oa. a*. I .LIMIT IXXXXH AAVF.

Cell*—
Abuirbent, 5J
Bona cella, 99.
Cartilage cell,, too.
|<-.-. of the body, 1 SO.
Epithelial cella, 1 u. 1)1.
I'al cella, 115.
Liver eeJI*. I CI.
Lymph cella, $3.
Muacle celt*, TO.
Nerve celt*, 89.
Secretin
g cell*. 115.
Cerebellum,
91.
Ceeebro-apiiial nervoua ay turn.
90. Cerebrum, 90-Cheat, 7>
HI.-UIGTRTIENI of. by «y»tem*li<

саегоас, 7* Chyle, 65. Chyme. 49.

Cilia, 1 1 5

I 49 )
(:itruUlion of blood. (4 to $7-
IN КСМГЛ. CT

lo artenea, <A

In MPIUARIET, 17. Colon, the, JJ.

Columnar Epithetiijm. 11$. Connective
ciuue, 11 J.

Ctwtiactitiihty of mum Ir, lo, tl.

Coevotalioo* of brain, go.

Caepttecle* of blond, tt blood сое per*

lei. Crypt* of Ltcbctkbhn, ja Jaice
accreted by, to, Ц :

LLEGRNCRALKWI, loin it,

Karial, it.
Individual, II.
Illtiitialiou of, IJ, 14-Duiphnagxn,
66.
Ill m In digeitioo, 67. In use in
rcapiralion, 74

l),ge«twin, 47 W> 71
Mechamam of, 47.
In mouth, 47.
In ttooiach, 49.
Involuntary Their fun. 1-no. i t . Their
mux.)««, 6ev nerve*. It, M.
H«*> aJTeitrd IN exeicixr of the volunterv

Thyroid, to. t.tmphotd limit. 59. 1 j;.

Maltnac, 64.
Tbt actum of titrrnt cntavtctit a pan, Л*.
In IH* liver, li II. THE .hum IT. »4 Maturation. 47.
lit impoitime, 47.
MedrdU nUocigat*. 91.
I .ft^-malter - It* functnan, 91.
In UM IVW on. Medululed nerve*, So,
thC : . . fc).
IN I LIF OS Menstruation, to,
ihe tpintl column, ox.
In Faulty, ihe effect of сасшм thereon, 111
Ciowih. ir* Meurwliem. 113.
|>anng сЬхМЬеиИ, 117. 1 if
iiiuerte, Ij. Mutcle, 80.
E6ecl of caxtrcixe on. 81. tt? Voluntary, So
The effect of eaerciac upon, 8 V Involuntary, So.
Подл, it-Trie pumping ncli'o of the. JJ. Cardiac end plain. Ho, Bi. The effect of eicrtme
The effect of rxartire upon the, 140 upon, 86. Muscular fibre*. 80.
Heart troobte, 140. Serve icala, Co,
(lent in thebodf.m. How generated, Nerve*. 88
84. i:«idhe»t. «A The effect of ехешэе upon. g{. Ncreoat
ИЫ^САГЧ^О* dteotders, I J*. Ser.niH tytitein*. 88.
I'll* ceteluo vpltui, 9a
The trmpathatir. 93,
Niltegett—
In food. «1
Oudulwin of, IU lien***, 76. Nucleus it).

Inxjiitalion. 74- Obeiuy, i)A-

The roechonitm of, 74 lEtopliagut, 48-
The им» of, 75- Muacular act ion id. 48. liatrohlatl* bone
The effect of екгске upon, 77 latexctllubi nuking «II» 1, V) Otieottana 1 boo* destroying
nuitler, 15a Intestinal Juice, ttt uve. 5a In ten celbA 101
тех, 49 to jx.
1
1
feetTotl in. 41; to JI. The twpuruaoi of, 7*. 77-Ute* of. 76.
Absorption la, JJ, (4. Secret ion lit. jo The mtplration of end exchange for rw-
KAVct of exercise upon, 66, 67. bonir and in lung*. 7$. Effect of 1 \cn t
MtxtcxjUr action of, JI. %c upon, 77.
II

Jejuuum. Pain—emplaining ihe connection between the

the, to J sympathetic and cerajbnv «репа!
шеех— tett/rmt, 96.
<^M0^4«. I . .r „ - 41a
I NTCTLMTVIJ $0 Pancreatic mice, to. to. 14. Am
I'ANCTMLIC, 40.
t'pni the alarchei, 49.
Kixinejt, (Д Upon fat, to.
Their Heptin, 48.
It* edrect apon the proteid*, 48. I'hagocyte*
function, Ы.
(aravenger crll.t, 0>
Kidney troubles I
jxV Pharynx, the, *3.
Lacteals $0, 1лве
1'la.imit. 17-Pleural
interline* JI. cavity. 73.
Of feet юл in, jo.
Portal circulation, JO.
ЛЬхоггиЮс, In, JJ.
PreMure—
Muxculiir action of, JI
Enect of EXERT ue upon, 66. Ijxtynt, U*e of ihe pressure brought about by evercMr
C-I.EXKOT yles ftj.
na the arirne*. 68, On tbe vein*. 68. Ort the
Their number in health, b y lymph* kt, 68. •In the 1 - - 1 .. it*, 1 $6.
Their functjrex, 6> Protcida. tl
l.ietterktlhn't glands Jo. l6x l.iver, The digeaii.ei of, 48. 40.
61. The alworption of. 14
lit functions 61.
Urea formed in, 61. Pulmonary circulation, the. 7»-Vent*, 7»-Artcry.
' "I'.ycuwcn formed in. rxi
7J-
lldiary accretion, 61.
Blood in. 61.
Effecti of елегсте upon, 67.
Lung troublex. 140. I.nig', 7J. lit inapotuncr m nervmti rotnfiainta. 97
I ■ •■чип 1 1. 9
Their fuoct-.ns • с
Я .
Bronchi of. 74. How ..in 1 I.vit. 4 Renal
Air-tact of. 74- circulation, tbe. t*. Reproductive
Capiltarirt of. 74- futtctiona, 107.
fcffect. of etereix* upon, 77.
Lymph, |7- The effect of age upon. III.
Otigin of, 69 Reapimlami. 73
Function of. 17. The rncchanum of, 74-Th* fund nan of, 7»
Oixtnbntioa of, $7, (A The effect of eaerciac upon, 7*-
l.ytnph tpacea. 5I. ttrenm, jl-j, Katdorm tiatne, 11$.
capillaries jt
г пёс* of exercite ujion the AW
of. J8. I.ymphatict, И Saliva. 4»-
Coot truer юн nC JR. lit effect мрем March, 47.
Salivary g lands 47. «S»-
ЧагсЫешгпо, 8o
1бГ ] Set rating gland*--
Cuntrvlling nerve* of, 94 Enact of caerci aa
аров, 9$
l.ilr : i t . i c i n . . c UIHII. i > 1 : 4 1 1 ; l i n n
U'KrCili .secretion, tie.
»*• -1 -.. 6s, 1,1.
I 16. j

5° 4
tot, }l« 8
i»e upon, 6*. .
At M £1

re, 141.
ind
---- —, ~ » - othct
l)ia««ti(j<i of, in the mouth, 47. »иц*г.
It „ ,. mt«tine*, ja Animal starch 50,64.
(glycogen), 61, 65.
[Hi in the
intcsunc*. yO linn,
LNNTIRIKIION OF, 46-
54.
r.61.
1 the body, ■< 4
1 rirtni.-, ftl.
i 1. . 1 1 . 1 . •■ duct, the, $9. Thyroid ,: I.IU.I, the. 60.
Tiuues of the body— Bluod, 157.
bone and cartilage, 98. 99, Connective, ISJ. Large inteatinr, 51. Lymph at u:v
Epithelial, 151. Muscular, 80. eg StiMii.u h, 48, 49. Vein*,
$6. Vein*. $6.
NRRVOLLV. 89.
Trachea, 73- Voluntary muscle*, во White

Unicellubt ammals, 113. Urea, 61. Uric acid, 6a, 137- cprpu*. Ie», i$7-Yellow claatic
Unne, 66.
fibre. 73- *SS-

163
 A NOTE ON DIET. SYSTEMATIC exercise, I
am convinced, is to be preferred before any strict system
of dietary from the point of view both of the patient and
the physician. There is one dietetic medium, howcvci,
which I strongly advocate, es|>ectally when it is clotted to
lo>cn the bulk ol the toorl coiiMtinctt,
01 in cu>cs where a high.)
nutritious diet t> clou able. I refer to " Plasmon," which I
consider n most useful and convenient adjunct to the
genera! mixed diet I always recommend. I have myself
long been in the habit of using " Plasmon " with my food,
and can therefore bear personal testimony to it- nutritive
value.

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