Highway engineering I chapter 2 ,Route Selection

CHAPTER 2: HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION

2.1 Project Cycle

Projects are planned and carried out using a sequence of activities known as the “project
Cycle.”
The cycle is composed of the following steps: identification, feasibility, design commitment
and negotiation, operation, and evaluation. Route corridor selection comprises of portion of
the first three of these activities.

2.1.1 Identification

The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. This is sometimes known as the
“prefeasibility” stage. There are many sources from which suggestions may come, including well-
informed technical specialists, local leaders, proposals to extend existing programs or projects, and
from operating agencies responsible for project implementation. The decision to proceed to the
feasibility stage arouses expectations for the project. Dubious projects shall therefore be rejected at
the identification stage. It becomes increasingly difficult to stop a project at the later stages of the
cycle.

2.1.2 Feasibility

The feasibility study will provide sufficient information to decide whether to proceed to a more
advanced stage of planning. The level of detail of this study will depend on the complexity of the
project and how much is already known about the proposal. The feasibility study shall define the
objectives of the project. It shall consider alternative ways of achieving these and eliminating poor
alternatives. The study provides the opportunity to mould the project to fit its physical and social
environment to maximize the return on the investment. Once the feasibility study has indicated
which project is likely to be the most worthwhile, detailed planning and analysis can begin. Less
promising projects will have been eliminated by this time, and the selected project may be redefined
and modified as more detailed information becomes available. At this stage, studies of traffic,
geotechnics and design will be carried out to refine the prediction of costs and benefits and to enable
an economic analysis to be carried out.

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2.1.3 Design

Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be very
costly (up to 15 percent of project costs), usually follows a provisional commitment to the project.
Numerous decisions, which will affect economic performance, are taken throughout design; and
economic appraisal often results in redesign.

2.1.4 Commitment and Negotiation

Commitment of funds often takes place is a series of stages. This is followed by invitation to tender
and negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage, there are still
considerable uncertainties.

2.1.5 Implementation

Several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the implementation.
The better and more realistic plan, the more likely it is that the plan can actually be carried out and
the full benefits realized. A flexible implementation plan shall be sought. It is almost inevitable that
some circumstances will change during the implementation. Technical changes may be required as
more detailed soils information becomes available or as the relative prices of construction materials
change. Project managers may need to change and re-plan parts of the project to take account of such
variations. The more innovative and novel the project is, the greater is the likelihood that changes
will have to be made during implementation.

2.1.6 Operation

This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are realized and
maintenance is undertaken.

2.1.7 Evaluation

The final phase of the project cycle is evaluation. This consists of looking back systematically at the
successful and unsuccessful elements of the project experience to learn how planning can be
improved in the future. For evaluation to be successful, it is important that data about the project is
collected and recorded in a systematic way throughout all stages of the project cycle. Without this, it
is usually impossible to determine details of events and information that were available during
periods leading up to the taking of important decisions. Many different people may carry out
evaluation. For each stage of the project, data shall be collected for identifying problems that need to

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be brought to the attention of the project’s management. The evaluation shall result in specific
recommendations about improving aspects of the project design, which can be used to improve on-
going and future planning.

2.2. Alignment

Definition: The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is
called the alignment.
• Improper alignment of a road facility implies capital loss initially in construction as
well as loss in costs of maintenance and vehicle operation
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due
to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road
side.
• Hence careful considerations while finalising the alignment of a new road need not
be over-emphasised.
2.2.1 Requirements of an ideal alignment
• Requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminals include:
 Short
• A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be
several practical considerations which would cause a deviation from
the shortest path
 Easy
• Easy to construction
• Easy to maintain
• Easy for operation with easy grades and curves
 Economical
• Design should consider initial capital cost, maintenance cost, and
operation cost
 Safe
• Safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of
stability of natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes, and foundations
• Safe for traffic operations with easy geometric features such as
sharpness of curves, grades, side slopes and etc.

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2.2.2 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

 Obligatory Points
 Points through which the alignment is to pass
 Chosen Bridge Site, Intermediate town to be accessed between
the termini, a mountain passes, etc.
 Points which should be avoided
 Areas requiring costly structures, highly developed expensive
areas, marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly
terrain where there is a possibility of land slides, etc.
 Traffic
 The alignment should suit the traffic requirements
 Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted
 Traffic “Desire line” should be drawn showing path of traffic flow
 Geometric Constraints
 Design factors such as max. gradient, minimum radius of curve, minimum
available sight distance, maximum allowable super-elevation, etc. should be
within the limits of allowable design values which are governed by the
expected traffic speed
 Economy
 Total transportation cost including initial construction cost, maintenance cost,
and operation cost
• Example :
 Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to
be constructed, etc. increases the initial cost of construction.
 Other considerations
 Drainage considerations
 Hydrological factors
 Political considerations
 Monotony

In general, the aim of alignment selection process is to find a location for the new road that
will result in the lowest total construction, land, traffic and environmental costs. Before an
attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway improvement, data must
be available regarding traffic desires and needs the planning intentions within the area to be
traversed, and estimates or the future physical characteristics of the highway itself: Location
surveys involving geologic and photogrammetric skills provide the basic information for
structural design, as well as the economic analysis that have a considerable influence on the
final location of the highway.

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Steps in route location:

 Know the termini points of the scheme.
 From the study of a map of the area, identify and locate:
 National parks
 Any ancient relics, castles and the likes
 Existence of monasteries
 Mining sites
 Existing transport facilities
 Other public facilities (electricity, water)
 Location of construction materials
 Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on pertinent
details of topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and any other factors.
 Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor.
 Identify a number of possible centerlines within the corridor.
 Make a preliminary design for the possible alternative alignments and plot on a base
map.
 Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of earthwork,
drainage, crossing structures, etc to select the best alternative route.
 Make final design and location of the selected best alternative route.

Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location

There are certain guidelines that must be borne in mind in selecting the alignment and
locating the route. They are:
 The route of the highway should be so selected that it can handle the traffic most
efficiently and serve the inhabited localities.
 A direct alignment usually results in overall economy.
 The gradients and curvature should be kept to the minimum necessary for the terrain.
Excess of both may result in economy of initial cost, but will involve high operation
costs, time costs and accident costs.
 The location should minimize the use of agricultural land. If a road already exists, it may
be advisable to make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.
 The location should involve the least impact on the environment.
 Obstructions such as cemeteries, places of worship, archaeological and historical
monuments should be steered through.
 Proximity to schools, playgrounds and hospitals should be avoided.
 Interference with utility services like electric overhead transmission lines, water supply
mains, sewers, pipelines, etc should be avoided as far as possible.
 Frequent crossing and re-crossing of railway lines should be avoided.
 Locate the highway close to sources of embankment materials and pavement materials.

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 Avoid marshy and low-lying land areas having poor drainage.

 Avoid areas liable to flooding.
 Steep terrain should be avoided as much as possible.
 Deep cutting and costly tunnels should be avoided as far as possible.
 When the alignment has to cross major rivers, the crossing point should be fixed
carefully.

2.2.3 Route Location Surveys

• To aid in the decision making process, a classical conceptual approach has tended to
be developed with regard to gathering information about the areas being evaluated.
In order to select the best road corridor, the following engineering surveys are
usually carried out:
• Reconnaissance Surveys
• Preliminary Surveys
• Detailed (Final Location) Surveys
i. Reconnaissance Survey

The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more
corridor routes for a highway between specific points that may be many kilometers away.
Mostly a desk study, good reconnaissance survey can be the greatest single money-saving
phase in the construction of a new road. Hence the engineer should make ample provision in
both time and finance for this stage of highway location study. The following is a useful
checklist of the general information required in the first phase of the reconnaissance study
for a major highway, irrespective of whether it is in a rural or in a urban area.

1. General Land Survey

a) Location of site on published maps and charts
b) Aerial survey, where appropriate
c) Site boundaries, outlines of structures, and building lines
d) Ground contours and natural drainage features
e) Above ground obstructions to view and flying, e.g. transmission lines
f) Meteorological information
2. Permitted use and restrictions
a) Planning and statutory restrictions applying to the particular areas
b) Tunnels, mine-works (abandoned, active and proposed)
c) Ancient monuments, burial grounds, etc
3. Approaches and access (including temporary access for construction purpose)
a) Road c) By water
b) Railway d) By air
4. Ground conditions
a) Geological maps

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b) Flooding, erosion, landslide and subsidence history

c) Construction and investigation records of adjacent sites
d) Seismicity
5. Sources of material for the construction
a) Naturals
b) Tips and waste materials
c) Imported materials
6. Drainage and sewerage
a) Names of the sewerage and land drainage
b) Location and levels of the existing systems
c) Existing flow quantities
d) Flood risk to the proposed works
7. Water supply
8. Electric and gas supply
9. Telephone and others
The first step in the reconnaissance survey is the location and acquisition of all maps and
data relating to the area, as well as the most suitable air photographs. These are then
thoroughly studied. A visit to the area may also be considered desirable at this stage. Where
appropriate, additional information may be obtained from the relevant offices. Next, armed
with questions generated by the desk study, the engineer will evaluate the engineering
economic aspect of the area and delimits areas that are obviously unsuitable for highway
construction.

Upon completion of the reconnaissance survey, the engineer should be at least in a position
to design the more detailed geotechnical investigations which are likely to follow, and
should also have sufficient information available which, when taken in combination with the
social, ecology, traffic, economic, and political inputs, will enable the selection of one or
more apparently feasible corridor routes. If the reconnaissance survey has been very
thorough, and the necessary data are readily available, it may be possible immediately to
carry out the necessary economic and environmental comparisons to aid in the determination
of the best route.
The results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its barest essentials,
this report should state the service and geometric criteria to be satisfied by the project,
describe the preferred route(s), and present tentative estimates of the cost.

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Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes

• Design standards
– Minimum design standards (max permissible gradient, etc ) are normally
fixed prior to the survey and any one of the feasible routes that economically
fits in these standards would be feasible
• Grading and Earthwork
– Grading is a function if ruggedness of terrain and routes following contour is
cheaper
– The type of material encountered is another factor in the cost of earthwork.
Excavation of Hard Rock might need blasting and thus expensive!!
• Foundation Conditions
– Complete foundation study is not done during Reconnaissance, but the
presence of Marshy and bogy areas are unsuitable
• Geological Conditions
– Related to stability of side slopes, good quality and quantity of construction
materials near site
• Drainage
– Likely surface & sub-surface drainage problems, type and number of
drainage structures
• Right of Way
– Acquisition of land for the location of a transportation system may cost
much; shifting the alignment a little may reduce the cost considerably
• Effect on Population
– Services offering the nearby population, its effect on the development of the
community – schools, churches, public buildings, etc, undesirable effects
such as pollution, etc
• Traffic Characteristics
– how best will a route fit with traffic requirements of the area
• Maintenance Costs
– An extraordinary maintenance cost (landslide, etc), and user costs from
inconveniency due to closure of the facility due to maintenance problems

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General criteria used in analysis of route alternative

 selected
The relative length of the alternatives was considered. mostly the shortest is
 The average and mean gradient was computed for each route. Normally the
least severe grade alternative is preferred. However, minimum grade mostly give
larger length.
 Route more closely follow an existing road or track are preferred.
 Routes face least severe terrain type was considered.
 Route remain longer on the crest of the terrain minimize drainage structure.
 Alignment minimizes for land acquisition and demolition of buildings and houses are
preferred.
 Trial number of cross drainage structures is considered.
 Routes result in least environmental disturbance is preferred.
 Route with least overall project cost are preferred.

After evaluating the alternative routes proposed, one or more routes will be
recommended. If more than one routes passed the reconnaissance survey detail study is
made to choose one best route in the preliminary survey.

ii. Preliminary Location Survey

The preliminary survey is a large-scale study of one or more feasible corridor routes. It
results in a paper location and alignment that defines the line for the subsequent final
location survey. This paper location and alignment should show enough ties to existing
topography to permit a location party to peg the centerline. In many cases field details for
final design may also be obtained economically during the preliminary survey phase.

The preliminary survey is made for the purpose of collecting the additional physical
information that may affect the location of the highway within a given corridor area, the
shape of the ground, any potential ground subsidence problems, the limits of the catchment
areas, the positions and invert levels of streams and ditches, and the positions of trees, banks
and hedges, bridges, culverts, existing roads, power lines and pipe lines, houses and
monuments are determined and noted. These are then translated into maps, profiles and
(frequently) cross sections that can assist the engineer in the determination of preliminary
grades and alignments and the preparation of cost estimates for alternative centerlines.

Two approaches are available for preliminary survey mapping: aerial surveys and ground
surveys, either separately or in various combinations.

The ground method is best used in the situation where then corridor is closely defined,
narrow right-of-way are contemplated, and the problems of man-made culture are clear.
Ground surveys, beginning with a traverse baseline, will probably furnish necessary data

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quite economically. Additional operations that can be quite easily included are the profile
levels and cross-sections, and the ties to land lines and cultural objects.

The aerial survey is likely to be more suitable and economical in the following instances:
 Where the reconnaissance was unable to approximate closely the final alignment
 Where a wide right-of-way is necessitated
 Where it is desired to prevent the premature or erroneous disclosure of the details of
probable location (preventing any land speculation or the premature awakening of
local public concerns).
The choice of method should be an educated one, based on an advanced cost analysis that
takes into account the overall project schedule and the time and need requirements of
various techniques. The following discussion is primarily with the carrying out of the
traditional type of ground survey.
 The first step is the carrying out of a baseline traverse – a series of connecting
straight lines and tangents stationed continuously from the beginning to the end of
the survey.
 The degree of accuracy commensurate with the importance of the project and the
nature of the topography being traversed.
 Angles between connecting lines should be measured in accordance with accepted
highway surveying procedures and every single point should be carefully referenced
to at least two points established well outside the area that might be occupied by the
highway construction.
 To furnish date for a profile of the baseline, levels should be taken at all marked
stations, as well as at all important breaks in the ground. Elevations should also be
noted at all cross roads, streams, and other critical points on the line.
 After the baseline has been pegged and levels run over it, the topography elevations
may be taken by one of the several methods, i.e. cross sectional leveling. These are
done at the same time as the profile levels. Observations are made at right angles
from each station as far as is considered necessary to cover the expected construction
area for a given centerline.
 At the same time locations of all trees, fences, building and important elements are
noted so that they can be shown on the preliminary map

iii. Final Location Survey

This survey, much of which is very often carried out as part of the preliminary survey,
serves the dual purpose of fixing the centerline of the road, while at the same time
collecting physical data which are necessary for the preparation of plans for construction
purposes.

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Tasks during Final Location Survey

1. Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at 30m intervals with
reference to preliminary traverse base line (if used earlier) or a control survey (if
aerial survey was used).
2. Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate points between stations
where there is a significant change in the slope to obtain the representative profile of
the ground
3. Cross-section Levelling: at each station (!) and at points with significant change in
ground slope
4. Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all intersecting roads, profiles,
and cross-sections for some distance on both sides
5. Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross section levelling of the
banks of the stream/river
Drawings & Reports
• The data, after the necessary investigation and final location survey, is sent to the
design office to be used for
– geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other
structures, preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
• A complete sets of drawings for a road design includes:
– Site plan of proposed alignment
– Detailed Plan & Profile
– Cross-sections for Earth work
– Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions)
– A mass-haul diagram
– Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts,

2.3 Topographic Contour maps

Alignments are traced out using topographic contour map of 1:50000 scale. Thus, the
knowledge of reading and interpreting contour maps are mandatory in accomplishing
roadway alignment.
Contour lines connect points of equal elevation. Index contours are used to label the
elevations of their associated points. Contour indexes are usually bolded to facilitate the
reading of the map, often occur in intervals of five contour lines.
2.3.1 Contour map characteristics
Contour intervals: horizontal distance between two contours shows how steep or flat a given
topography is. If contour intervals are close together then it indicates steep topography.
Whereas, if it is far apart it shows gradual slope as shown in the figure 2.3a

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