Highway engineering I Chapter 3, Geometric design

CHAPTER 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

3.1 General

Geometric design is the stage of road design process where the dimension and layouts of roads
are related to the needs of drivers and vehicle operation. The safe, efficient and economic
operation of highway is largely determined by the geometric design.
The following are factors to be considered in geometric design:
 The road should aim at long service year
 Due consideration should be given to avoid faulty designs which may need large
costs of rectify.
 Design should be consistent with standard
 Design should include items such as road signs, lighting, intersection, etc.
 The design should also consider safety elements.
 The design should consider both initial construction costs and operation costs.

3.2 Design Controls and Criteria

 The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors:

 Functional classification of the road

 Nature of the terrain
 Traffic volumes expected on the road
 Design vehicle
 Design speed
 Sight distance
 Density and character of the adjoining land use and
 Economic and environmental considerations.
 As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have to be
constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrary, changes in the design are usually
required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors,
whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.

A. Road Functional Classification and Numbering

The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. The following are the
functional classes with their description.

I. Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked
with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. They are numbered with an "A" prefix: an example is the
Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present AADT 1000, although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT.

1
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

II. Link Roads (Class II)

Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers must
be linked between each other by link roads. A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year
AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT. They are numbered with a "B"
prefix.

III. Main Access Roads (Class III)

Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads. First
year AADTs are between 30-1,000. They are numbered with a "C" prefix.

IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher
class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400. They are
numbered with a "D" prefix.

V. Feeder Roads (Class V)

Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road.
First year AADTs are between 0-100. They are numbered with an "E" prefix.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.

B. Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the
road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
 Flat: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of
a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse
terrain slope up to 5 percent).
 Rolling: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
 Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
 Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added
to cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above
terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback

2
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).

Topography plays important roles in the location and design of highways. Design elements
should be related to specific terrain or relief. For example, in mountain area the design speed is
lower than the speed in the plain area. Topography also affects alignment, gradient, sight
distance and type of road cross sections.
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either
flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust
their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with
transverse terrain.

C. Traffic

 A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the
design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be
based in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and
directly affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data
for a road or section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of
annual average daily traffic (AADT).
 The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main
collector to link the trunk roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region
and it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to
over-design for the traffic levels actually encountered.
 Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was shown in Table
3.1. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day
(excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all single and dual
carriageway roads.
 Although the levels of flow at which design standards change are based on the best current
evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light
of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design
Traffic Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than
the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a
first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to 1,100 vehicles per day in the last year
of it‟s design life, should be constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3
(see Table 3.1)
 The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 – 1000 vehicles per day (DS4)
Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-design of the road during
almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide a solution that was less than
economic.

3
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Table 3-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

* The design two-way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Standard step in excess of the first year AADT (excluding
DS7). ** For traffic volume more than 15000 a different design approach should be followed. *** The width of each lane is 3.65m

Table 3-2:Shoulder Widths

Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)
Standard Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Parking Foot
Lane*** way Median!
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 (min) 5.0 (min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DS3 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0++ 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
+++
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a

4
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

* Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1

** Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1
*** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility
+ Where these classes of roads pass through urban areas, the road shall be designed
to Standard DS6
++ The actual shoulder width provided shall be determined from an assessment of
the total traffic flow and level of non-motorized traffic for each road section
+++ Depending on the development of the town & Includes a shoulder

! Median with trees (DS1) is allowed for cross section shown in the table i.e. 2lane +parking
lane + Footway if otherwise the median should be a covered and an open one without trees or a
lower width of a median barrier shall be designed . Similarly for DS2 Roads in the town
section i.e. One lane + parking lane +footway should have a covered median with no trees or
otherwise a lower width of a median barrier should be designed.
Table 5-6: Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Urban
Design Speed km/h 85 70 60 50 50
Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 155 110 85 55 55
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 340 275 225 175 175
% Passing Opportunity % 25 25 15 0 20
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius m 270 175 125 85 85
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 4 5 7 7 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 7 9 9 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Superelevation % 8 8 8 8 4
Crest Vertical Curve k 60 31 18 10 10
Sag Vertical Curve k 36 25 18 12 12
Normal Crossfall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Crossfall % 4 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50

D. Design Vehicle
 Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric
design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio,
minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road
elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve
widening, and junction design.

 The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles
and overloaded trucks. Until more detailed information becomes available regarding the
makeup of the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 3.3 should
be used in the control of geometric design:
Table 3.3: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

5
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang (m) Wheelbase Min. Design
Vehicle (m) Turning
Designation Height Width Length Front Rear Radius (m)

4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7
Combination 13.2

 Roads conforming to Design Standards DS1 trough DS5 should be designed to accommodate
the most restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standards DS6 and DS7, two lane roads should
accommodate all but the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standards DS8 and DS9, for single
lane roads should be designed similarly to DS6 and DS7; and Standard DS10 roads need only
accommodate the requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars - DV1.

E. Design Speed
 The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment. .
 Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. The
design speeds given in Table 3-1 have been determined in accordance with the following
guidelines:

i. Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
ii. On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.
iii. Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic
conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a
lower speed of operation.
iv. Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher
design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily
trafficked road in similar topography.
v. Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be
affected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed
gradually. The change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed step,
and the section with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be clearly
recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single curve).
vi. It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e. from mountainous to
flat terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be
provided with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is
not possible, i.e. a Departure from Standards, special attention shall be given to the

6
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to alert the driver to the changing
conditions.

 It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should
ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way,
avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular
location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.

F. Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use

For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors. In
such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the
presence of other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-of-way
constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of note is the fact that
the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It is possible that this limit will be
increased in the future. A design speed through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h shall be
used, although such segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits should not
necessarily be used as design

G. Sight Distance

The driver‟s ability to see ahead contributes to safe and efficient operation of the road. Ideally,
geometric design should ensure that at all times any object on the pavement surface is visible to
the driver within normal eye-sight distance. However, this is not usually feasible because of
topographical and other constraints, so it is necessary to design roads on the basis of lower, but
safe, sight distances.

There are three different sight distances that are of interest in geometric design:
i. Stopping sight distance;
ii. Meeting sight distance;
iii. Passing sight distance.
Stopping Sight Distance:

The Stopping sight distance comprises two elements: d1 = the distance moved from the instant
the object is sighted to the moment the brakes are applied (the perception and brake reaction
time, referred to as the total reaction time) and d 2 = the distance traversed while braking (the
braking distance).

7
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

The total reaction time depends on the physical and mental characteristics of the driver,
atmospheric visibility, types and condition of the road and distance to, size color and shape of
the hazard. When drivers are keenly as in urban conditions with high traffic intensity, the
reaction time may be in the range of 0.5 – 1.0 seconds while driver reaction time is generally
around 2 – 4 seconds for normal driving in rural conditions. Overseas Road Note 6 assumes a
total reaction time of 2 sec..

The distance traveled before the brakes are applied is:

d1 = 0.278 * V * t
where:
d1 = total reaction distance in m;
V = initial vehicle speed in Km/h
t = reaction time in sec.
The braking distance, d2, is dependent on vehicle condition and characteristics, the coefficient
of friction between tyre and road surface, the gradient of the road and the initial vehicle speed.
d2 = V2 / (254(f + g/100))
where:
d2 = breaking distance in meters;
V = initial vehicle speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction;
g = gradient( in %; positive if uphill and negative if downhill)
The determination of design values of longitudinal friction, f, is complicated because of the
many factors involved. The design values for longitudinal friction used in Overseas Road Note
6 are shown in table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Coefficient of Longitudinal friction
Design speed
(Km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
F
0.60 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.35

Meeting Sight Distance:

8
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Meeting sight distance is the distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles traveling in
opposite directions to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to each other.
Meeting sight distance is normally calculated as twice the minimum stopping sight distance.

Passing Sight Distance:

 Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway
roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another
vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at
the design speed
 The passing sight distance should be long enough to permit a vehicle to safely pass
or overtake vehicles and return to the right lane with reasonable clearance before
meeting on coming vehicles in the opposite lane. In computing safe passing sight
distance the following assumptions are made:
 The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.
 The passing vehicle is required to follow at the same speed until there is an
opportunity to pass.
 The driver of the passing vehicle requires a certain period of time to start his
maneuver.
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and its average
speed during its occupancy of the left lane is greater than that of the
overtaken vehicle.

(1) (3) (3)

(1) (1) (2) (2) (2) (1)

d1 d2 d3 d4

 d1 is the distance traveled during preliminary delay time; d2 is the distance

traveled by passing vehicle on the left lane; d3 is the distance b/n passing
vehicle at the end of the maneuver and the opposing vehicle; d4 the distance
covered by the opposing vehicle.
 Safe or minimum passing sight distance(PSD) is d = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
 d1 = 0.278 t1 (V1 – m + at1 /2 ), Where t1 = time of initial maneuver in
seconds, a is average acceleration in km/h/s ,V1 is the average speed of

9
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

passing vehicle in km/h, m is difference in speed of passed vehicle and

passing vehicle in km/h
 d2 = 0.278 V2t2 Where V2 is average speed of passing vehicle, km/h, t2
is time passing vehicle occupies left lane, in second
 d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver,
is dependent on ambient speeds as per Table 3.5:

Table 3.5: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3 (m) 30 55 80 100

 d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately

equal to d2 less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering
the left lane, estimated at: d4 = 2d2/3

Table 3.6: Elements of safe passing sight distance (AASHTO)

Speed group,V (km/hr) 48-64 64-80 80-96
Preliminary delay time t1(sec) 3.6 4 4.3
Average speed of passed vehicle,V1, (km/hr) 40 54.3 68.4
Average speed of passing vehicle,V2, (km/hr) 56.1 70.5 84.5
Average acceleration of passing vehicle, a, m/s2) 0.63 0.64 0.66
Time vehicle occupies the opposing lane, t2(sec) 9.3 10 10.7
Safety distance d3 in (m) 30 55 76

 Resulting stopping and passing sight distances, according to the above

relations are given in table 3.7.

Table 3.7: Sight Distances

Design Coefficient of Stopping Sight Passing Sight Reduced Passing Sight

Speed Friction (f) Distance (m) Distance for design (m)
(km/h) Distance (m)

20 0.42 20 160 50
30 0.40 30 217 75
40 0.38 45 285 125
50 0.35 55 345 175
60 0.33 85 407 225
70 0.31 110 482 275
85 0.30 155 573 340
100 0.29 205 670 375
120 0.28 285 792 425

10
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Control of Sight Distance

 Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to
meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the
determination of sight lines (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2):

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
Figure 3.1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Figure 3.2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

11
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

H. Traffic Volume

Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition and traffic loading are important factors in
the determination of the appropriate standard of a road. The traffic has a major impact on the
selection of road class, and consequently on all geometric design elements. The traffic
information is furthermore necessary for the pavement design.

For low volume roads the design control is the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) in the
„design year‟. For routes with large seasonal variations the design control is the Average Daily
Traffic (ADT) during the peak months of the „design year‟. The design year is usually selected
as year 10 after the year of opening to traffic.

I. Design Vehicle

The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; the
vehicle height affects the clearance of the various structures. Vehicle weight affects the
structural design of the roadway.

The design engineer will select for design the largest vehicle that is expected to use the
roadway facility in significant numbers on a daily basis.

12
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3 Geometric Design Elements

The basic elements of geometric design are: the horizontal alignment, the vertical alignment
and the cross-section. The following elements must be considered when carrying out the
geometric design of a road:
Horizontal Alignment:
 Minimum curve radius (maximum degree of curvature);
 Minimum length of tangent between compound or reverse curves;
 Transition curve parameters;
 Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance on horizontal curves.
Vertical Alignment:
 Maximum gradient;
 Length of maximum gradient;
 Minimum passing sight distance or stopping sight distance on summit (crest) curves;
 Length of sag curves.
Cross-section:
 Width of carriageway;
 Crossfall of carriageway;
 Rate of super elevation;
 Widening of bends;
 Width of shoulder;
 Crossfall of shoulder;
 Width of structures;
 Width of right-of-way;
 Sight distance;
 Cut and fill slopes and ditch cross-section.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They complement
each other and proper combination of horizontal and vertical alignment, which increases road
utility and safety, encourages uniform speed, and improves appearance, can almost always be
obtained without additional costs.

13
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.1 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment should always be designed to the highest standard consistent with the
topography and be chosen carefully to provide good drainage and minimize earthworks. The
alignment design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform operating speed. Therefore the
standard of alignment selected for a particular section of road should extend throughout the
section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature. Where a sharp curvature is
unavoidable, a sequence of curves of decreasing radius is recommended.

The horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves, with
or without transition curves.

3.3.1.1 Straights (Tangents)

Long straights should be avoided, as they are monotonous for drivers and cause headlight
dazzle on straight grades. A more pleasing appearance and higher road safety can be obtained
by a winding alignment with tangents deflecting some 5 – 10 degrees alternately to the left and
right. Short straights between curves in the same direction should not be used because of the
broken back effect. In such cases where a reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of
long, transitions or compound curvature should be considered.

The following guidelines may be applied concerning the length of straights:

 Straights should not have lengths greater than (20 * V) meters, where V is the design
speed in km/h.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have lengths
greater than (6*V) meters, where V is the design speed in km/h.
 Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular curves
should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total superelevation run-off.

14
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.1.2. Circular Curves

Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and
safety of a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds and lowering of highway
capacity.

Figure 3.1: Parts of a Circular Curve

Note:
 PC – point of curvature
 PI – point of intersection
 PT – point of tangency
 Δ – central angle
 R – radius of curve
 D – degree of curve that defines,
a. Central angle which subtends 20m arc (arc definition),
b. Central angle which subtends 20m chord (Chord definition)
From arc definition,
R = 1145.916 / D
From chord definition,
R = 10 / Sin (D/2)

15
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

 Tangent (T): distance from PC to PI(backward tangent) or from PT to PI(forward

tangent)
T = R*tan (Δ/2)
 External distance (E): distance from PI to middle of curve.
E = R*(Sec (Δ/2) – 1 or E = T*tan (Δ/4)
 Middle ordinate (M): length from the middle of chord to the middle of curve.
M = R*(1- Cos (Δ/2))
 Long chord(C): straight-line distance from A to B.
C = 2R*Sin (Δ/2)
 Length of Curve (Lc): distance from PC to PT along the curve.
Lc = 20* Δ/D or Lc = R*π* Δ/180
 Sub-arc angles di: are angles subtended by an arc less than the degree of curve (D).
di = Ai*D/20
where:
di = angle subtended by sub-arc of length Ai
Ai = arc less than 20m.
 Sub chord angle (dj): are angles subtended by a chord less than the degree of curve (D).
cj = 2R*Sin(dj/2)
Also
cj = 20Sin(dj/2)/Sin(D/2)
Where:
dj = angle subtended by sub-chord of length cj
cj = chord less than 20m.
 Deflection angles: The angle that a chord deflects from a tangent to a circular curve is
measured by half of the intercepted arc.
Deflection angle for Lc m = Δ/2
Deflection angle for 20m = D/2
Deflection angle for Ai m = di/2
 Stations of PC, PI, and PT:
PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T

16
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Several variations of the circular curve deserve consideration when developing the horizontal
alignment for a highway design. When two curves in the same direction are connected with a
short tangent, this condition is referred to as a “broken back” arrangement of curves. This type
of alignment should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way
conditions dictate otherwise. Highway engineers generally consider the broken back alignment
to be unpleasant and awkward and prefer spiral transitions or a compound curve alignment with
continuous superelvation for such conditions.

Figure 3.2 identifies elements of a typical compound highway curve with variable definitions
and basic equations developed for a larger and smaller radius curve, based on the assumption
that the radius dimensions RL and RS and central angles ΔL and ΔS are given or have been
previously determined.

Figure 3.4 Properties of a Compound Curve

17
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Another important variation of the circular highway curve is the use of reverse curves, which
are adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions. The alignment illustrated in figure 3.3,
which shows a point of reverse curvature, PRC, and no tangent separating the curves, would be
suitable only for low-speed roads such as those in mountainous terrain. A sufficient length of
tangent between the curves should usually be provided to allow removal of the superelevation
from the first curve and attainment of adverse superelevation for the second curve.

Figure 3.5 Properties of a Reverse Curve

18
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves:

(a) (b)
Figure 3.6 Sight Distance Around Horizontal Curve: (a) S < Lc and (b) S > Lc

Situations frequently exist where an object on the inside of a curve, such as vegetation, building
or cut face, obstructs the line of sight. Where it is either not feasible or economically justified to
move the object a larger radius of curve will e required to ensure that stopping sight distance is
available. The required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of the obstruction from the
centerline and the sight distance.

Case 1. S < Lc
S = 40 * Cos-1 ((R-M)/R) / D
Case 2. S > Lc
M = Lc* (2S - Lc) / 8R
Night driving around sharp curves introduces an added problem related to horizontal sight
distance. Motor-vehicle headlights are pointed directly toward the front and do not provide as
much illumination in oblique directions. Even if adequate horizontal sight distance is
provided, it has little useful purpose at night because the headlights are directed along a
tangent to the curve, and the roadway itself is not properly illuminated.

19
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Switch Back curves

Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and
escarpment terrain. Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they are
generally outside of the standards for all road design standards DS1-DS10, and are specified
using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section (subchapter 2.2) of ERA
geometric design manual-2002.

3.3.1.3. Superelevation

20
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Anybody moving rapidly along a curved

path is subject to an outward reactive force
called the centrifugal force. If the surface is
flat, the vehicle is held in the curved path
by side friction between tires and
pavement. The total of these friction forces
balances the centrifugal force. Expressed in
terms of the coefficient of friction f and the
normal forces between the pavement and
the tires, the relationship is

m *v2/R = (NL + NR)*f = m*g*f

Figure 3.5 Forces acting on a vehicle moving or
f = v2 / ( g * R)
along a curved path.

When velocity v(m/s) is stated in V(Km/h), and the radius of curve(R) in meters, the equation
reduces to
f = V2 / (127*R)
On highway curves, this centrifugal force acts through the center of mass of the vehicle and
creates an overturning moment about the points of contact between the outer wheels and the
pavement. But a stabilizing (resisting) moment is created by the weight acting through the
center of mass. Thus for equilibrium conditions,
(m * v2 / R) * h = m * g * d/2
and
h = d / (2v2 / gR) = d / 2f
where
h = height of the center of mass above pavement
d = lateral width between the wheels

For the moment equation, if f = 0.5, then the height to the center of mass must be greater than
the lateral distance between the wheels before overturning will take place. Modern passenger

21
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

vehicles have low center of mass so that relatively high values of f have to be developed before
overturning would take place. In practice, the frictional value is usually sufficiently low for
sliding to take place before overturning. It is only with certain commercial vehicles having high
center of mass that the problem of overturning may arise.

In order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force, and to enable vehicles to round curves at
design speed without discomfort to their occupants, the pavements are “tilted” or
“superelevated” so that the outer edges are higher than the inner edges. This tilting, plus
frictional resistance between the tires and the pavement provides a horizontal resistance to the
centrifugal forces generated by the circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.
Analysis of the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius
indicates that the theoretical Superelevation can be expressed as:
e + f = V2 / (127*R) ……………………………………………(*)
where:
e = rate of Superelevation(m per m)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral friction)
V = speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curvature (m)
Equation (*) above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of curve, the
Superelevation and the coefficient of lateral friction. This equation forms the basis of design of
horizontal curves.

The value of coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief among
them being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surfaces, and type and
condition of the tyres.

Table 3.4 Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Design Speed 50 65 80 100 120 130
(Km/hr)
Maximum f 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11

22
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Advantages of providing super elevation

1. Super elevation increases the stability of the fast moving vehicles on horizontal curves.

2. Super elevation reduces the accidents in curves (skidding, toppling).

3. On super elevated curves the vehicles need not necessarily to slowdown.

4. Due to super elevation as the whole width of the road is drained to one side.

From equation (*), the minimum radius or maximum degree of curvature for a given design
speed can be determined from the rate of Superelevation and side friction factor.
R = V2 / (127*(e + f))
D = 1145.916 / R
Attainment of Superelevation:

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a superelevated
surface into two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it
is level. In the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation.
1. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centreline
constant.
2. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the center and the outer
edge.
3. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and the
outer edge.
Method (i) is the most generally used.

The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal to a superelevated section,
commonly referred to as the transition runoff, is a function of the design speed and the rate of
Superelevation.

23
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Superelevation transition section consists:

 Superelevation runoff section: the roadway length needed to accomplish a change

in outside-lane cross slope from zero (flat) to full Superelevation, or vice versa.

 Tangent runout section: the roadway length needed to accomplish a change in

outside-lane cross slope from normal cross slope rate to zero (flat), or vice versa.

24
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Figure 3.6 Attainment of Superelevation:

25
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Maximum Superelevation Value:

If eqn (*) is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum superelevation
that can be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country.

According to ERA
 emax = 8%
 fmax = 0.16

3.3.1.4. Transition Curves

Transition curves provide a gradual change from the tangent section to the circular curve and
vice versa. For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a normal
lane width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary. However, along high-speed
roadways with sharp curvature, transition curves may be needed to prevent drivers from
encroaching into adjoining lanes.

A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid is commonly used in highway design. The radius
of the spiral varies from infinity at the tangent end to the radius of the circular arc at the end of
the spiral. The radius of the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the distance from its
beginning point.

Figure 3.6 Main Elements of A Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

26
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Some of the important properties of the spirals are given below:

 L = 2Rθ
 θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
 θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
 Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
 S = Ls2 / 24Rc
 Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc
Note:
θs = spiral angle
Δ = total central angle Ts = tangent distance
Δc = central angle of the circular arc Es = external distance
extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs S = shift
Rc = radius of circular curve HIP = horizontal intersection point
L = length of spiral from starting BS = beginning of spiral
point to any point BC = beginning of circular curve
R = radius of curvature of the spiral at EC = end of circular curve
a point L distant from starting point. ES = end of spiral curve
Length of Transition:
The length of transition should be determined from the following two conditions:
 The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,
Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)
Where:
V = speed (Km/hr)
Rc = radius of the circular curve (m)
 The rate of change of Superelevation (Superelevation application ratio) should be such
as not to cause higher gradients and unsightly appearances. Since Superelevation can be
given by rotating about the centerline, inner edge or outer edge, the length of the
transition will be governed accordingly.

27
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.1.5. Widening of Curves

Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow
the front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the
vehicle in relation to the lane width of the roadway. Studies of drivers traversing curves have
shown that there is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the actual curve, shifting the
vehicle laterally to the right on right-turning curves and to the left on left-turning curves. Thus,
on right-turning curves the vehicle shifts toward the inside edge of the pavement, creating a
need for additional pavement width. The amount of widening needed varies with the width of
the pavement on tangent, the design speed, and the curve radius or degree of curvature.

The widening required can be calculated from

We = n *B2/ 2R + V / 10 R
Where:
We = total widening
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed (Km/hr)
n = number of lanes

27
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.2. Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe, economical operation of the
motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of a highway design. The vertical
alignment, which consists a series of straight profile lines connected by vertical parabolic
curves, is known as the profile grade line. When the profile grade line is increasing from a level
or flat alignment, this condition is referred to as a “plus grade”, and when the grade is
decreasing from a level alignment, the grade is termed a “minus grade”. In analyzing grade and
grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change on the centerline profile of the
roadway.

In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced against the
fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. All earthwork
hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and within a relatively short distance
from the origin, due to the expense of moving large quantities of soil. Ideal grades have long
distances between points of intersection, with long curves between grade tangents to provide
smooth riding qualities and good visibility. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise
or fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In rock cuts and in flat, low-lying or swampy
areas, it is necessary to maintain higher grades with respect to the existing ground line. Future
possible construction and the presence of grade separations or bridge structures can also act as
control criteria for the design of a vertical alignment.

3.3.2.1 Grades and Grade Control

Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade
to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times
it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general
existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of
more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.

In the analysis of grades and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the
effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline

28
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

consumption, a reduction in speed, and an increase in emissions and noise are apparent when
grades are increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added cost of grade
reduction against the annual costs and impacts of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An
accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which
can be obtained by means of a traffic survey.

Minimum grades are governed by drainage conditions. Level grades may be used in fill
sections in rural areas when crowned pavements and sloping shoulders can take care of the
pavement surface drainage. However, it is preferred that the profile grade be designed to have a
minimum grade of at least 0.3 percent under most conditions in order to secure adequate
drainage.

3.3.2.4. Vertical Curves

The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade tangents. The
primary reason for the use of this type of curve in vertical highway alignments is the convenient
manner in which the vertical offsets can be computed and the smooth transitions created from
tangent to curve and then back to tangent. When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with
a negative grade, it is referred to as a “crest curve”. Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a
negative grade with a positive grade, it is termed a “sag curve”. Various configurations of crest
and sag curves are illustrated in figure 3.7. Various definitions and basic equations for a typical
vertical curve are presented in figure 3.8. The sign conventions for g1 and g2 allow the use of
the same formulas in the calculation of offsets and elevations for a sag curve also.

All distances along vertical curves are measured horizontally, and all offsets from the tangents
to the curve are measured vertically. Accordingly, the length of a vertical curve is its horizontal
projection. The error resulting from this assumption is negligible in practice since the curve is
quite flat. Unless otherwise defined, vertical curves are symmetrical in the sense that the
tangents are equal in length.

29
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Figure 3.7 Types of crest and sag vertical curves

30
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Figure 3.8 Properties of a typical vertical curve

31
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.2.5. Length Of Vertical Curves

A. Crest Curves:

For crest curves, the most important consideration in determining the length of the curve is the
sight distance requirement.

Case1: S < L

AS 2
L
( 2h1  2h2 ) 2

Case 2: S > L

2( h1  h2 ) 2
L  2*S 
A

Where:
L = Length of the crest vertical curve (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft)
A = The change in grades (|g2-g1| as a percent)
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (ft)
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway (ft)
AASHTO recommendations:
 For stopping sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 0.15m
 For passing sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 1.30m

The heights in the calculations above should be those that correspond to the sight distance of
interest. For the stopping sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 0.5 ft. For the passing sight
distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 4.25 ft.

32
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

B. Sag Curves:

For sag curves, the criteria for determining the length are vehicle headlight distance, rider
comfort, drainage control and general appearance.
B.1 Headlight Sight Distance:

Case 1: S < L

OR

S 2G
L
1.22  0.035 * S

Case 2: S > L

OR

 1.22  0.035 * S 
L  2S   
 A 

Where:
L = Curve length (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft) (normally the stopping sight distance)
B = Beam upward divergence (°) (normally assumed as 1°)
H = Height of the headlights (ft) (normally assumed as 2 ft)
A = Change in grade (|G2-G1| as a percent)

33
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

B.2 Riding Comfort

 The effect of comfort of driving in vertical direction is more pronounced in sag curves
than on crest vertical curves. The effect is not measured readily but a general conclusion is that
riding is comfortable on sag curves when radial acceleration does not exceed 0.3m/sec2.

V2
Let radial acceleration be a, a = . Since the parabola practically concide with a circle of
R
radius R, L = ΔR, where Δ is in radians. Expressing Δ in percentage of the difference in the
A V 2A
downward and upward grades, Δ = , combining all the above equations L = .
100 100a
V 2A
If a = 0.3m/sec2, then L =
30

B.3 general appearance

For aesthetics purpose the length of the curve must be greater than 30A
L=30A

3.3.2.4 Sight Distances At Underpass Structures:

Case 1: S < L
S 2G
L
8m
Where:
m = C – (h1+h2)/2
C = Vertical clearance distance

Case 2: S > L

8m
L  2S 
G

 AASHTO recommendations: h1 = 1.829m, h2 = 0.457m and C = 5.182m

34
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line
of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual
defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be
able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe
stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more
than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such defects
often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a psychological
obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may
endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A sharp bend hidden
by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.

Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident,
no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects occur, phasing
may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical
and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common station. In some cases,
depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common
station.
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.
 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS ONE END OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver‟s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed because
his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The position of the
crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient following
the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected change of direction is
consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal curve, an apparent kink may
be produced, as indicated in Figures 3.4.2.2b and c.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the
horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the horizontal
curve is of longer radius.
 INSUFFICIENT SEPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false
reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve.
This is a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 3.4.2.2d. Corrective action consists of increasing the
separation between the curves, or making the curves concurrent, as in Figure 3.4.2.2a.
 BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical
curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An example of

35
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

such a visual defect is shown in Figure 3.4.2.2e. The corrective action is to make both ends of
the curves coincident as in Figure 3.4.2a, or to separate them.
 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created
because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical
curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is
less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is
because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a
downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to
the horizontal curve. No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined
with a gentle horizontal curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip,
depending on the “hand” of the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment. The
corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
 OTHER MIS-PHASING
Other types of mis-phasing are also indicated in Figure 3.42.2:
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 3.4.2.2. This
illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design. A double sag curve occurs at one
horizontal curve in Figure 3.4.2.2h. This illustrates the effect in this case of a broken back
vertical alignment on design. Figure 3.4.2.2i shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical
curves. In this case, the vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the
horizontal alignment.

 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing

The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the designer is
prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of
extra earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic. He will normally
accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases when the advantage due to phasing is
aesthetic, the designer will have to balance the costs of trail alignments against their elegance.

36
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Figure 3.4.2.2: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves

37
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

3.3.3. Cross-Section

The cross-sectional elements in a highway design pertain to those features that deal with its
width. They embrace aspects such as right-of-way, roadway width, central reservations
(medians), shoulders, camber, side-slope etc.

Right- Of –Way
The right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved to the public for road
purposes. The right-of-way should be adequate to accommodate all the elements that make up
the cross-section of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development.
Road Width

Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction and maintenance,
whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and safely.

The following factors need to be taken into account when selecting the width of a road:
1. Classification of the road. A road is normally classified according to its function in the
road network. The higher the class of road, the higher the level of service expected and
the wider the road will need to be.
2. Traffic. Heavy traffic volumes on a road mean that passing of oncoming vehicles and
overtaking of slower vehicles are more frequent and therefore that paths of vehicles will
be further from the center-line of the road and the traffic lanes should be wider.
3. Vehicle dimensions. Normal steering deviations and tracking errors, particularly of
heavy vehicles, reduce clearances between passing vehicles. Higher truck percentages
require wider traffic lanes.
4. Vehicle speed. As speeds increase, drivers have less control of the lateral position of
vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed.

The cross-section of the road is usually maintained across culverts, but special cross-sections
may need to be designed for bridges, taking into account traffic such as pedestrians, cyclists,
etc., as well as motor traffic. Reduction in the carriageway width may be accepted, for instance,
when an existing narrow bridge has to be retained because it is not economically feasible to
replace or widen it. It may also sometimes be economic to construct a superstructure of reduced

38
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

width initially with provision for it to be widened later when traffic warrants it. In such cases a
proper application of traffic signs, rumble strips or speed bumps is required to warn motorists
of the discontinuity in the road.

Shoulders

Shoulders provide for the accommodation of stopped vehicles. Properly designed shoulders
also provide an emergency outlet for motorists finding themselves on a collision course and
they also serve to provide lateral support to the carriageway. Further, shoulders improve sight
distances and induce a sense of „openness‟ that improves capacity and encourages uniformity of
speed.

In developing countries shoulders are used extensively by non-motorized traffic (pedestrians,

bicycles and animals) and a significant proportion of the goods may be transported by such
non-motorized means.

Cross-Fall

Two-lane roads should be provided with a camber consisting of a straight-line cross-fall from
the center-line to the carriageway edges, while straight cross-fall from edge to edge of the
carriageway is used for single-lane roads and for each carriageway of divided roads.

The cross-fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so
great as to be hazardous by making steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water
varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of
cross-fall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the pavement structure
effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of a material starts to become a
problem.

Due to the action of traffic and weather the cross-fall of unpaved roads will gradually be
reduced and rutting may develop. To avoid the rutting developing into potholes a cross-fall of 5
– 6% should be reestablished during the routine and periodic maintenance works.

39
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Shoulders having the same surface as the carriageway should have the same cross-slope.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be about 2% steeper than the cross-fall of the
carriageway.

Side Slopes

The slopes of fills (embankments) and cuts must be adapted to the soil properties, topography
and importance of the road. Earth fills of common soil types and usual height may stand safely
on slopes of 1 on 1.5 and slopes of cuts through undisturbed earth with cementing properties
remain in place with slopes of about 1 on 1. Rock cuts are usually stable at slopes of 4 on 1 or
even steeper depending on the homogeneity of the rock formation and direction of possible dips
and strikes.

Using these relatively steep slopes will result in minimization of earthworks, but steep slopes
are, on the other hand, more liable to erosion than flatter slopes as plant and grass growth is
hampered and surface water velocity will be higher. Thus the savings in original excavation and
embankment costs may be more than offset by increased maintenance through the years.

Median

The portion of divided highway separating the travelled ways for traffic in opposite direction
Median are always provided on divided multilane highways to provide a separation of opposing
traffic lanes

Uses of median

 Provides space for left-turning vehicle

 To collect some of the surface water ◦ To collect some of the surface water

 Adding future lanes

 Provide space for pedestrian on crossing streets

 Where there is snow, it can be use for storing snow

 Reducing the effect of headlight glare

 Provide temporary lanes and cross-over during maintenance

40
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Roadside Ditches
For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to Highway Engineering II. However, a summary
of minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows.
Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m
elsewhere, using a “v-ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally be no less than 1:2.
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils.
Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the
embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Fig. The
ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.

Figure 3.4.3.2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils

Curbs

These are raised structure made of either PCC or bituminous concrete that are use mainly of
urban highways to separate the pavement edges and pedestrian walkway.

Application of Curbs

 Control drainage

 Improve aesthetics

 Reduce travelled way

Gutter

Mostly called drainage ditches, usually located on the pavement side of a curb to provide the
principal drainage facility for the highway.

It can be designed as V-type section or as broad, flat, rounded section with 1 to 6ft wide and 5
to 8% cross slope,

41
 Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

Four Lane or Divided Road; frequently use in urban areas. This will include a 5m median as
provision for left-turning vehicle

Single Lane; for low volume vehicles (<100ADT). It should have passing bays at 300 to 500m
depending on the terrain and geometric condition

Clear Zone

Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an encroachment
depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable
slopes will minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas is options in the development of safer
roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified,
or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is
readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that is as
wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a minimum of 15
meters each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road standards.
For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It should extend beyond
the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge
of the carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe culverts, box
culverts and bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if this clearance
is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert installations, and
extensions to same, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the
edge of the carriageway.

42
Highway engineering I Chapter 3 Geometric design

43