Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers

2000, 32 (3), 482-500

A Japanese logographic character

frequency list for cognitive science research
NOBUKO CHIKAMATSU
DePaul University, Chicago, Illinois

SHarCHI YOKOYAMA
National Language Research Institute ofJapan, Tokyo, Japan

HIRONARI NOZAKI
Aichi University ofEducation, Kariya, Japan

ERIC LONG
National Language Research Institute ofJapan, Tokyo, Japan
and
SACHIO FUKUDA
Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

This paper describes a Japanese logographic character (kanji) frequency list, which is based on an
analysis of the largest recently available corpus of Japanese words and characters. This corpus com-
prised a full year of morning and evening editions of a major newspaper, containing more than 23 mil-
lion kanji characters and more than 4,000different kanji characters. This paper lists the 3,000most fre-
quent kanji characters, as well as an analysis of kanji usage and correlations between the present list
and previous Japanese frequency lists. The authors believe that the present list will help researchers
more accurately and efficiently control the selection of kanji characters in cognitive science research
and interpret related psycholinguistic data.

In many empirical psycholinguistic studies, word fre-
quency is used as an independent variable to select ma-
terials having desired frequency characteristics or as a
control variable to match two or more sets of materials in
order to minimize performance differences attributable
to word frequency effects in word recognition, memory,
or retrieval performance. It is sometimes important in
psycholinguistic research to focus on the frequency effects
oflinguistic units smaller than words, such as letter clus-
ters (e.g., bigrams or trigrams), syllabic-type units (sylla-
ble vs. nonsyllable), morpheme units, as well as position
(i.e., word-initial, word-middle, or word-final positions;
Appleman & Mayzner, 1981; Grainger & Jacobs, 1993;
Srinivas, Roediger, & Rajaram, 1992). For example, logo-
graphic character frequency is a crucial factor to consider
in word experiments using languages with logographic
scripts, such as Chinese, Japanese, or Korean, where each
logographic character may function as a word (Matsunaga,
1996). In short, it is important to carefully control the fre-
quency of printed characters and/or words when empiri-
cal psycho linguistic studies are conducted.
The authors thank the reviewers of the paper for their valuable sug-
gestions. Correspondence concerning this article may be sent to
N. Chikamatsu, Department of Modern Languages, DePaul University,
802 West Belden Avenue, Chicago, IL 60614 (e-mail: nchikama@
condor.depaul.edu).
In the past, compiling linguistic corpora was an ex-
tremely labor-intensive process, plagued by reliability
concerns caused by human error. However, as computer
technology continues to develop, researchers are obtain-
ing more reliable linguistic corpora and compiling word
or character frequency lists on the basis of these corpora
for linguistic or cognitive science research. For American
English, some widely used word frequency lists are the
Brown corpus (Kucera & Francis, 1967), the American
Heritage Word Frequency Book (Carroll, Davies, & Rich-
man, 1971), and the Thorndike-Lorge count (Thorndike
& Lorge, 1944; see the summary in Solso, Juel, & Rubin,
1982). Many of these corpora and lists are available in
computer database form and/or through the Internet. Con-
sequently, researchers may use these corpora and lists to
control word frequency in empirical language research
more easily, efficiently, and accurately than in the past.
Corpora for non-English languages, including Japanese,
remain limited in number or are still under development
(Edwards, 1993; Leech & Fligelstone, 1992).
Word and Character
Frequency Lists in Japanese
Over the last two decades, researchers in the area of
experimental psychology, especially word recognition and
memory, have increasingly focused on the Japanese lan-
guage, owing to the uniqueness ofits writing system (Kess

Copyright 2000 Psychonomic Society, Inc. 482


& Miyamoto, 1994; Paradis, Hagiwara, & Hildebrandt,
1985; Yokoyama, 1997). In particular, kanji (characters
in a logographic script that is one of three scripts used in
writing Japanese) has been widely used in experimental
materials in order to examine new aspects of cognitive
processing, relative to alphabetic language systems, in
word recognition and memory and hemispheric involve-
ment in the acquisition and usage oflanguage. However,
although many studies have been conducted that use
Japanese words, the development of Japanese word fre-
quency lists or kanji character frequency lists has not kept
up with the demand for such lists. As a result, for exam-
ple, the kanji character or word frequency of selected
kanji items has often not been controlled or mentioned in
Japanese word recognition studies when frequency has not
been used as a dependent variable (e.g., Eko & Nakamizo,
1989; Flores d'Arcais & Saito, 1993; Flores d'Arcais,
Saito, Kawakami, & Masuda, 1994; Kikuchi, 1996; Mor-
ton, Sasanuma, Patterson, & Sakuma, 1992; Nagae, 1994;
Naito & Komatsu, 1989; Osaka, 1992; Sekiguchi & Abe,
1992; Wang, 1988; Yokosawa & Shimomura, 1993). In
many other studies, the frequency of kanji characters or
words is controlled on the basis of(1) the researcher's sub-
jective, intuitive judgment (e.g., Flores d' Arcais, Saito,
& Kawakami, 1995; Hatta, Koike, & Langman, 1994;
Shimomura & Yokosawa, 1991), (2) the examinee'sjudg-
ment, such as subjects' rating on selected items (e.g., Ya-
mada, Mitarai, & Yoshida, 1991), (3) the categorization
of kanji characters standardized by the Japanese Min-
istry of Education (e.g., Kyoiku kanji or Gakushu kanji 1;
see, e.g., Hayashi, 1988; Hirose, 1992; Nakagawa, 1994;
Sakuma, Itoh, & Sasanuma, 1989), (4) lists compiled by
examiners themselves (e.g., Wydell, Butterworth, & Pat-
terson, 1995; Wydell, Patterson, & Humphreys, 1993), or
(5) the National Language Research Institute's (NLRI's)
1962 or 1976 word/character frequency lists (Cabeza,
1995; Morikawa, 1985; Naito & Komatsu, 1988; Sasa-
numa, Sakuma, & Kitano, 1992; Tsuzuki, 1993).
One of the main impediments to the development of
Japanese word frequency lists is that the electronic rep-
resentation of Japanese characters is more complicated
than that of alphabetical languages. At present, there are
three primary electronic coding systems for Japanese
characters (i.e., kana and kanji): Japanese Industrial
Standards (JIS), Shift-JIS (SJIS), and Extended Unix Code
(EUC). Generally, EUC is used in Unix workstations on
the Internet, whereas JIS is used for Japanese electronic
mail. However, SJIS has been adopted for use with per-
sonal computers. Consequently, if different coding sys-
tems are used across tasks or methods, one must transfer
one character code to another, using a converter such as
the network kanji code conversion filter (NKF).
Another factor impeding the development of Japanese
frequency lists is the Japanese writing system itself,
which comprises three types of orthographies-hira-
gana, katakana, and kanji. Hiragana and katakana are
syllabic scripts in which each symbol represents a sound
unit (a syllable). These scripts each contain 46 basic forms,
with additional diacritic and historical forms giving a total
JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 483
of 83 hiragana and 86 katakana forms encoded in JIS and
EUe. Hiragana and katakana share the same syllabic-
sound representation and can be transcribed one by the
other (e.g., a syllable I sa I is transcribed as ~ in hiragana
and '!t in katakana). The third Japanese orthography,
kanji, is a logographic script adopted from the Chinese
language, in which each symbol represents meaning and
* B*
part ofa word (e.g., in
*
functions as a morpheme. A single kanji character may
represent an independent word (e.g., I hon I, book) or
Inihon/,Japan). The mean-
ing of each constituent (i.e., a single character) in a kanji
word is sometimes less clear or transparent than that of an
independent word. Owing to the manner in which kanji
characters were transferred from the Chinese to the Japa-
nese language over the centuries, a single kanji charac-
ter may have obtained more than one reading and may
be pronounced in several different ways. For instance,
the character Wi, which means head, is read as Ito/,
Idol, Izul, Iju/, /saki/, latama/, Ikashira/, Ikobe/,
I kaburi I, and /tsumuri/ (Coulmas, 1989). Furthermore,
a great number of homophones (i.e., kanji characters that
share a common pronunciation but represent different
meanings) occur in Japanese kanji usage. For instance,
(tree), ~ (feeling), • (chance), 1tl(toglow), WI (period),
*
and many others are all pronounced Ikil. Thus, in con-
trast to both hiragana and katakana, kanji characters do
not have a systematic sound representation or a one-to-
one relationship between sound and symbol. The number
of kanji characters is quite large and practically uncount-
able (i.e., kanji dictionaries may contain between 12,000
and 50,000 entries; Kindaichi, 1991; Morohashi, 1989).
Among hiragana, katakana, and kanji, usually only one
is conventionally chosen and used to write a given Japa-
nese word. Hiragana is used primarily for words that have
a grammatical function, such as particles or case-makers,
and for some native Japanese content words. Katakana is
used for loan words (i.e., words mainly borrowed from
western languages, such as English, French, and Por-
tuguese). Kanji is used for content words, such as nouns,
verbs, and adjectives.? Thus, a single Japanese sentence
is usually written with all three scripts combined.
However, choice of script is not always consistent and
may vary, depending on a writer's intention or a publish-
er's guidelines for style. For instance, the Japanese word
meaning egg, pronounced Itamago I, could be written as
'k"iJ;.Z:: in hiragana in one context, but as j~ in kanji in
another context. In their study ofthe subjectivefrequency
ofscript type, Ukita, Sugishima, Minagawa, Inoue, and
Kashu (1996) studied 750 Japanese words that can be
written in more than one Japanese script. The study was
conducted by asking 836 Japanese college students to
judge whether a given word (written in a given script) is
seen often, occasionally, or rarely. The results showed
that more than half of the tested words were identified as
words seen in more than one script. This inconsistency in
orthographic representation makes word counting in Japa-
nese extremely difficult and complicated. In addition,
word segmentation in Japanese is more complex than that
in English, since word boundaries are not separated with
484 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA
spaces in written texts. A single kanji character could be
a morpheme of a part of a word or a word by itselfand may
be pronounced differently, depending on the context. With-
out clear word boundaries, compound words are easily
formed. Thus, complications in word counting and seg-
mentation present nontrivial challenges for those compil-
ing word frequency lists in Japanese.
Owing to these problems, few have attempted to make
word and kanji character frequency lists in Japanese. The
NLRI in Japan published a word frequency list in 1962,
based on a corpus derived from 90 different journals and
magazines with five different genres, all published in
1956. A total of 140 million tokens, consisting of 40,000
different words (i.e., types), were analyzed in order to de-
velop a frequency list of words possessing a frequency of
at least nine. In 1976, the NLRI also published a kanji
(character) frequency list based on a corpus published in
1966 derived from three major newspapers, Asahi, Yomi-
uri, and Mainichi. This corpus provided a total of
991,375 kanji tokens and a frequency list of 3,213 dif-
ferent kanji characters. This was the first attempt to an-
alyze a Japanese corpus with computers, and the results
were used to standardize and regulate the use of kanji
characters for mass media and education in Japan. For
the past three decades, researchers have used these lists as
an informative resource for many language-related re-
search projects. In 1997, the NLRI published its 1962 list
in floppy disk format (NLRI, 1997).
However, several problems are associated with the use
of the NLRI lists for empirical studies. First, the lists are
based on dated media samples. Almost three or four
decades have passed since the corpora of the 1962 and
1976 lists were collected. Consequently, the reliability of
these lists is open to question, since the use of words or
kanji in mass media and education may have changed.
Second, the 1976 list does not identify low-frequency
kanji. The 1962 word list does not contain words possess-
ing a frequency less than nine, and the 1976 kanji list does
not provide characters possessing a frequency less than
nine. Low-frequency words or characters with the fre-
quency of one are required for many empirical language
studies. Third, the lists are not easily accessed, since
both were available only in hard copy form until recently.
Although the NLRI 1962 list is now available in floppy
disk format' it is not as accessible, especially to re-
searchers outside Japan, as other language lists that are
available over the Internet. It is crucial that these lists be
accessible to researchers in computer database format to
help make the control and selection ofword and kanji fre-
quency simpler, more effective, and more accurate.
In 1994, the situation for Japanese corpus linguistics
changed for the better, when CD-ROM databases ofnews-
paper articles became available at a relatively low cost.
These computerized corpora of newspapers made it pos-
sible to develop an updated kanji frequency list accessible
on computers and over the Internet.
The purpose ofthe present project is to develop a new
kanji character frequency list to be made accessible
through the Internet. In consideration of the word seg-
mentation and other problems mentioned above, the au-
thors decided to start by developing frequency lists ofkanji
characters before attempting kanji word frequency lists.
Furthermore, the current usage of kanji in printed mass
media is analyzed on the basis of a comparison with 1966
frequencies from the NLRI 1976 list.
Source of Data, Method of Analysis, and Results
The present corpus is available on a CD-ROM entitled
CD-HIASK'93 (Nichigai Associates & Asahi, 1994),
which contains the text of articles appearing in a major
newspaper, covering 1 year of morning and evening edi-
tions published in 1993. The data analysis was conducted
on Unix workstations, with the program written by the
authors in Perl and awk. First, headlines were excluded-
from the approximately 110,000 articles> in the data. Sec-
ond, all the printable characters were counted and ranked
by frequency from highest to lowest in each category (e.g.,
kanji, hiragana, or katakana). Frequency ratio (%) and cu-
mulative frequency ratio (%) were also calculated.
The corpus provided a total of 56,563,595 printable
characters,v making it, at the time, the largest corpus
used for the compilation of Japanese word/character fre-
quency lists. Ideally, in addition to newspapers, corpora
would be collected from other printed texts, such as mag-
azines and novels of various genres. However, most of
these printed materials are not yet available in computer-
readable form. As a result, it is not currently feasible to
gather sufficient amounts of data from these materials.
Furthermore, copyright issues complicate the process of
copying and studying printed mass media in Japan and
may pose an obstacle to making lists based on such ma-
terials freely available to the public.
The 56,563,595 characters in the 1993 collection ofthe
Asahi newspaper form the basis of the present character
frequency list and break down into the general categories
shown in Table I. A total of23,408,236 kanji tokens were
found, making up 4,476 different types. Kanji covered
41% of all the printable characters in the newspapers.
The central result of this survey is a list ofthe kanji char-
acters found, sorted according to their frequencies. The
first 3,000 characters are listed in Appendix A with their
ranking, raw frequency, frequency ratio (%), and cumu-
lative frequency ratio (%). In addition, frequency lists of
hiragana and katakana characters are also included in Ap-
pendices Band C,7 respectively, with the same headings.
Cumulative percentage of kanji character use. The
cumulative frequency ratio of kanji characters, ranked
from high to low frequency, is shown in Table 2. Although
it has been conventionally said among learners and
teachers of Japanese that knowledge of 2,000~3,000
kanji characters is required for one to read Japanese news-
papers, this conventional wisdom was not supported by
the present data. According to the results of the present
analysis, the top 500 most frequent kanji characters ac-
counted for approximately 80% oftotal kanj i use. Further-
more, the top 1,600 most frequent characters covered 99%

Table 1
Printable Character Type Totals
Characters Types Tokens Frequency Ratio (%J
Kanji 4,476 23,408,236 41.38
Hiragana 83 20,711,361 36.62
Katakana 86 3,608,288 6.38
Punctuation and symbols 99 7,406,035 13.09
Arabic numerals 10 1,169,902 2.07
Latin alphabet 52 259,773 0.46
of total use and the rest-that is, the next 3,000 charac-
ters-made up only 1% of the total kanji use.
The cumulative frequency ratio obtained from the
1966 corpus (i.e., the NLRI 1976 list) is also indicated in
Table 2. The results from the two corpora, which are
30 years apart, indicate almost identical ratios for each
frequency level. Furthermore, according to the current
frequency list, of the 500 most frequent characters ranked
in 1966, 445 characters are also ranked among the 500
most frequent characters in the 1993 corpus, but all of
those 55 characters lower than the first 500 fall within the
1,000 most frequent characters in the 1993 corpus. Thus,
the high-frequency kanji characters that account for over
80% of the total kanji use have not changed much in the
last 30 years.
Correlation coefficient of chronological character
use. To examine change in kanji usage over the past 30
years, a correlation analysis was conducted between the
present 1993 list and the NLRI 1976 list based on the 1966
newspaper corpus. The raw frequencies of the 3,000
highest frequency characters in the present list'' and the
equivalent characters in the NLRI 1976 list were con-
verted to their base-1 0 logarithmic equivalents? and sub-
mitted to a Pearson correlation coefficient analysis. The
result indicates a high correlation (r = .95) and was sig-
nificant [F(l,3029) = 28,037.67,p < .01]. In Figure 1,
although low-frequency characters scatter more than high-
frequency characters, the distribution is close to linear.t?
Thus, on the basis ofthe analysis, it appears that the over-
all pattern of kanji usage has not significantly changed
over the past 30 years.
Discussion
In the present project, the authors introduced the first
computer-based kanji character frequency lists derived
from the largest corpus of Japanese newspaper texts. It
is important to control the frequency of kanji characters
in psycholinguistic studies, although researchers have
often neglected this variable, owing to the unavailability
of reliable frequency lists. Using the present list, the au-
thors have compared kanji usage observed in data from
1966 and 1993. Although changes in language usage are
often discussed in Japanese linguistic studies in terms of
syntax, phonology, lexicography, and pragmatics, the
usage of kanji characters did not show any significant
variation over the past 30 years.
However, there are several issues left to discuss in the
present study. First, the corpus ofthe present word list was
JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 485
developed from a single newspaper. Although the news-
paper used in the present project is a major Japanese news-
paper that currently publishes 10 million copies every
day for 120 million people in Japan (one paper is usually
read by more than one person), there may be some bias
in terms of the selection of topics and style. Goto (1995)
warned ofthis problem for researchers using a corpus de-
rived from newspapers, arguing that newspapers usually
focus heavily on politics, economics, and foreign policy.
As a result, vocabulary related to those areas may appear
in newspapers more often than in other types ofpublished
materials. In addition, each newspaper has its own regu-
lations or standards for choosing words and expressions.
Furthermore, the number of newspaper writers, compared
with the number of readers, is limited, and consequently,
the effects of idiosyncratic writing styles and word selec-
tion may be exaggerated, causing a bias in any analysis
based exclusively on such data. Since the present char-
acter list was made from a corpus of newspapers, future
research should be aimed at employing a variety of genres
and types of publications to develop linguistic corpora.
To examine this issue of the bias in the present news-
paper corpus, a correlation analysis ofkanji frequency was
conducted among the present list developed with 1993
newspapers, the NLRI 1962 list with 1956 magazines,
and the NLRI 1976 list with 1966 newspapers. The re-
sults indicated a significant and high correlation be-
tween the 1956 magazine list and the 1966 newspaper
list (r = .92,p < .01), and between the 1956 magazine list
and the 1993 newspaperlist, (r= .89,p < .01; see Table 3).
The higher correlation between the 1956 and 1966 lists
was probably due to the closer timing of data collection,
compared with that between the 1956 and 1993 lists.
However, these high correlation results may indicate that
the data collected from a single newspaper in this present
analysis may be a reliable resource for predicting kanji
character frequency in printed mass media in general.
To examine the reliability of the present list, an addi-
tional correlation analysis was conducted with the kanji
characters grouped according to frequency level. The
3,000 ranked characters were divided into three groups:
(l) high-frequency characters ranked from 1 through
1,000, (2) mid-frequency characters ranked from 1,000
Table 2
Cumulative Frequency Ratio of Kanji Character Use
Cumulative Frequency Ratio (%J
Frequency Rank 1993 1966
10 10.00 10.61
50 27.41 27.64
100 40.71 40.15
200 57.02 56.05
500 80.68 79.42
1,000 94.56 93.88
1,500 98.63 98.40
2,000 99.72 99.63
2,500 99.92 99.90
3,000 99.97 99.98
Note-Frequency rank ~ size of the group of highest frequency char-
acters.
486 CHlKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

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1966 [log 10 (r aw frequency+ 1)]
Figure 1. Kanji usage correlation distributions of top 3,000 characters between 1966
and 1993.

though 2,000, and (3) low-frequency characters ranked
from 2,001 through 3,000. Although the correlations vary,
depending on the levels and lists, all were significant at
the p < .01 level (see Table 4).
The results indicate high correlations at the high-
frequency levels between the present list and the other
two lists. Notably, a high correlation of the 1993 news-
paper list with the 1966 newspaper list at the high-
frequency level (r = .92) indicates again that the present
list can be a reliable resource, especially at the high-
frequency levels, although the data were collected from a
single newspaper.
In contrast, at the low-frequency levels, the correla-
tions of the present list are low with the 1966 list (r = .43)
and with the 1956 list (r = .28). This may imply a drastic
change of kanji usage over the decades or some unrelia-
bility of the present list at the low-frequency level. The
first interpretation is easily dismissed, considering the
overall high correlations with other lists, as indicated in
Table 3, and the similar low correlation between the 1966
and 1956 lists at low-frequency level (r = .40), which
were developed relatively close in time. Does this mean
that the present list is not reliable at the low-frequency
list? That does not have to be the conclusion. The most
likely interpretation is that the low correlations are due
to the differences in size of the corpora of the three lists.
The size of the 1993 kanji corpus was much greater than
the other two, containing 23,408,236 tokens and 4,476
types. The 1966 list was compiled on the basis of 99 1,375
kanji tokens and 3,213 types, and the 1956 list was based
on 280,094 kanji tokens and 3,328 types. Since the pres-
ent correlation analysis was conducted with the 3,000
highest ranked characters in the 1993 list, some charac-
ters did not even exits in the 1966 or 1956 list. For in-
stance, among the 38 characters ranked at 2,996 in the
1993 list, 17 characters were not included in the 1956
list, and 23 characters were not included in the 1966 list.
Thus, the size difference in the corpus seems to be the
most probable reason for the low correlation between the
lists. If that is the case, the largest corpus could be the
most reliable information for low-frequency characters-
that is, the present list can be plausibly used as the most
Table 3
Correlation of Kanji Frequency Among 1993, 1966,
and 1956 Lists With All 3,000 Ranked Characters
1993 N 1966 N 1956 M
List r r r
1993 N 1.00
1966 N .95 1.00
1956M .89 .92 1.00
Note-N, newspapers; M, magazines.

Table 4
Correlation of Kanji Frequency Among 1993,
1966, and 1956 Lists With High-, Mid-,
and Low-Frequency Ranked Characters
1966N 1956M
List Frequency r r
1993N high .92 .80
mid .68 .55
low .43 .28
1966N high 1.00 .86
mid 1.00 .60
low 1.00 .40
Note-N, newspapers; M, magazines. High = characters ranked from
1st through 1,000th. Mid = characters ranked from 1,001st through
2,000th. Low = characters ranked from 2,001st through 3,000th.
reliable resource. Thus, the correlation analysis among
the three lists can support the high reliability of the pres-
ent list.
Another issue relating to the present project is the re-
liability of a computerized Japanese corpus (i.e., CD-
HIASK'93), transformed from the original hard copy
form (i.e., the Asahi newspaper). There are few instances
in which kanji characters appearing in the newspaper did
not appear encoded as kanji in the current CD-ROM cor-
pus. The original locations of those characters in the
newspaper were marked by symbol characters, such as
the "geta mark" (=) in the electronic format (Yokoyama,
Sasahara, Nozaki, & Long, 1998). This is due to several
revisions made in JIS, 11 which is an electronic character
encoding standard and assigns a code to approximately
6,300 kanji characters. Although only a few hundred of
these cases were observed out of23 million kanji tokens
in the current CD-ROM corpus and these were among
the lowest frequent characters, this inconsistency between
printed and electronic data formats should be kept in mind
when low-frequency characters are used or focused on.
In the present project, a new kanji character frequency
list was developed with the largest newspapers corpus in
Japanese corpus linguistic history. Although there are
still some issues left, the present list provides useful in-
formation on kanji usage in the current printed media.
Furthermore, the present list has become available and
accessible in computer database over the Internet, 12 which
helps researchers control and interpret logographic psy-
cholinguistic studies more accurately and efficiently.
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NOTES
I. The set of Kyoiku kanji contains 881 characters to be taught in el-
ementary schools. These characters were selected by the Ministry of
Education in 1948. This set was revised, and 1,006 characters were se-
lected and defined as Gakushu kanji for the same purpose in 1989.
2. Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are often written in a combination
of kanji and kana characters. The stem of those words, which does not
change in conjugation, is written in kanji, and the inflectional endings
in hiragana. For instance, 1t""oQ Ita-berul(to eat), *~L' loo-kiil
(big), and !!!< Ihaya-kul (early) are all written with the first character
in kanji and the rest in hiragana.
3. Owing to Japanese copyright ownership issues, it may not be fea-
sible to provide the 1976 NLRI kanji list in computer database form in
the near future.
4. Headlines were excluded from the present analysis because incon-
sistencies were observed in headlines in hard copy versions ofthe news-
papers, as compared with headlines downloaded from the CD-ROM.
5. In addition to the articles downloaded from CD-ROM, 114 articles
were input manually into the database, since they were not included in
the CD-ROM.
6. These printable characters include kanji, hiragana, katakana, Latin
alphabets, Arabic numerals, punctuation, and symbols (commas, peri-
ods, quotation markers, etc.).
7. Appendix C, katakana frequency list, is cited from Nozaki, Chika-
matsu, and Yokoyama (1997).
8. The first 3,000 ranks included 3,031 characters in the 1993 list.
9. Logarithmic transformation was used because the data were posi-
tively skewed-that is, there were more low-frequency characters and
fewer high- frequency characters. A value of I was added before the log-
arithmic transformation,-that is, log I0 (raw frequency+ 1) instead of
10gi0 (raw frequency). This is because many oflowest frequency char-
acters in the 1993 list were not found at all in the 1966 list (i.e., zero oc-
currence), which would make the logarithmic transformation impossi-
ble.
10. No value of logarithmic transformation was plotted between 0
and I in the y-axis because all top 3,000 ranked characters occurred
more than 13 times in the 1993 list and the value oflog IO(raw frequency
+ I) was more than I.
II. lIS has been revised four times over the last two decades, in 1978,
1983, 1990, and 1997. In each revision, a few new codes were added or
replaced with old codes for kanji characters. Consequently, although it
is very rare, some characters may appear different, depending on the
version used for decoding on computers. For instance, four kanji char-
acters that are part of the 1983 JIS standard were replaced by symbol
characters on the CD-ROM. For further discussion, see Yokoyama et al.
(1998).
12. The presently developed kanji character frequency list is available
at http://nozaki-Iab.ics.aichi-edu.ac.jp/on the World-Wide Web.
 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 489

APPENDIX A
Kanji Character Frequency List
R C r R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
1 B 336465 51 1't 79543 101 1& 50477 151 M 36776 201 [Ii] 29488 251 W 25212
2 285089 52 13 79040 102 ffl 50447 152 3t 36750 202 *li 29372 252 m 24992
3 + 254534 53 iI1li 76965 103 N1 50357 153 f1:J 36728 203 Ili'iJ 29329 253 ~ 24944
4 223075 54 pq 76927 104 !JiI. 49844 154 1JQ 35822 204 ~ 29150 254 m 24852
5 A Ei
*
218967 55 76402 105 $ 49730 155 rfij 35672 205 29075 255 ~ 24761
6
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~ ~ uu ~ 24643
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8 ~ 214989 58 ;<E 72917 108 0 48710 158 '!X. 35185 208 ,Iiij 28645 258 11 24598
9
10
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160
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34984
34845
209
210
~
is
28644
28343
259
260 *i1' 24517
24395
Jl :$: 170127 61 ~ 72438 1Il !I!f 47088 161 ~
~ 34842 211 ~ 28332 261 Itk 24379
/2 :& 141025 62 Cf 71638 112 )J[ 46819 162 71< 34761 212 '31 28252 262 1ilIi 24237
.....
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114 *
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28035 265 at: 24010
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flJ 28026 266 :(£ 23961
17 t± 116636 67 4- 66659 Il7 IK 45537 167 'I: 34184 217 itt 27919 267 ~ 23799
18 rTi 116094 68 it 65066 Il8 11= 45442 168 J~\ 34036 218 Idf 27543 268 'It 23693

* it!:
114768 64462 119 45322 169 34030 219 ;X 27526 269 IJ
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19 69 ~ 23422
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21 1m 113331 71 64144 121 ~ 44641 171 B 33828 221 *t 27355 271 m 23300
22 :fL 113226 72 f-J 62107 122 ~ 44302 172 ~t 33755 222 ~ 27353 272 ~ 23215
23 [jiJ 107910 73 tJ 61533 123 ~ 44160 173 j(; 33499 223 ;f)t 27286 273 ~ 23190
24
25
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32 A
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44 tIT 84073 94 l!!1 52743 {44 5i 37577 /93 ~ 30617 244 If: 25377 294 ~ 21456
1f. /45 3jZ 1*

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490 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
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 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 491

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
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CF 86.6954 CF 88.2397 CF 89.6189 CF 90.8281 CF 91.9183 CF 92.8971
492 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C I' R C F R C F R C F R C F
90/
902 ttJ
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'" 2259
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905 i2't aD 3854 m 3358 IJ& 2537 1/55 Ml
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907 it 4293 957 IlJ 3840 1007 1$ 3344 1057 :J$ 2874 //06 m 2528 1/55 11( 2240
908 1'11 4284 958 7 3835 1007 Ii 3344 1058 ~ 2857 //08 r.t 2519 1/58 w!l 2239
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909 ~ 4278 960 M; 3831 1010 ~ 3308 1060 ~ 2848 1110 1>] 2513 1/60 =§ 2236
9// i'l] 4271 961 iliIil 3827 1011 trf 3290 1061 ~ 2846 1111 ~ 2509 1/61 *L 2235
9/2 frj1 4262 962 r;h 3820 1012 Ilfi1 3287 1062 nl'l 2814 1/12 ~ 2501 1162 j;j,t 2232
913 fro 4261 963 ~ 3818 1013 m 3260 1063 ~ 2810 1113 ~ 2496 1163 ~ 2230
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940 fl1fl 3963 990 fl 3511 1040 fOC 3004 1090 iii 2645 1140 ~ 2334 1190 ~X; 2043

•
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943 nt 3953 993 {tj 3467 1043 ~ 2959 1093 ~ 2631 1142 ~ 2320 1193 l PJ 2028
944 5J, 3923 994 m 3465 1044 ~ 2948 /094 4:i 2622 1144 ~ 2312 1194 ~ 2025
945 M 3919 995 1W 3452 /045 tilQ 2925 1095 5£ 2621 1145 l'i!i 2303 1194 Ml 2025
946 ~~ 3913 996 {l.. 3451 1046 ~ 2923 1096 ~ 2599 ll46 ~ 2294 1196 ~ 2022
947 tR 3900 997 JJ! 3430 1046 itt 2923 1097 7/lf 2595 ll47 m 2281 1197 ~ 2019
948 W 3893 998 ~ 3412 1048 f,Ij 2918 1097 ~ 2595 1148 ~ 2274 ll98 llli 2011
949 W 3887 999 ~ 3393 1049 .Ii 2912 1099 lIT 2580 1148 ~ 2274 ll99 :it 2008
950
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~ 3880 1000
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 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 493

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
1201 liF 2000 1251 *- 1774 1301 m 1616 1351 ~ 1425 1401 M 1222 1451 ~ 1075
r¥ *,J
•
1202 if 1996 1252 ~ 1771 1301 ~ 1616 1352 1424 1402 ~ 1221 1452 1070
1203 l!'P 1991 1253 1767 1303 Mi 1615 1353 R1l. 1408 1403 Jli 1212 1453 ifIJ 1067
1204 ~ 1982 1254 fJt 1758 1304 iJil 1614 1354 ~ 1406 1404 #3 1210 1454 JJL 1063
1205 r:i 1959 1255 rAe 1756 1305 ~ 1612 1354 ~ 1406 1405 ~ 1204 1455 m 1060
1205 ~ 1959 1256 j:j[ 1754 1306 .Ii 1611 1356 ~ 1404 1405 :ill! 1204 1456 ~ 1056
1207 ~ 1957 1257 ~ 1748 1307 lit 1608 1357 it 1395 1407 tt 1201 1456 r\Jl 1056
1208 ".
m 1954 1258 ""1"1 1747 1308 ~ra 1607 1357 m 1395 1408 ~ 1200 1458 1J1! 1054
1208 ilP 1954 1259 ~ 1744 1309 :f.!l. 1601 1359 R 1391 1409 1* 1199 1458 Iii 1054
1210 iWl 1952 1260 }il 1743 1310 {~~ 1600 1360 ~ 1389 1410 {'R 1195 1460 ~ 1052
1211 ij! 1950 1261 ~ 1741 1310 tt 1600 1361 *'J 1387 1410 ~ 1195 1461 rM 1046
1212 ~ 1946 1262 ~ 1737 1312 tt 1596 1362 ~ 1380 1410 Ili1 1195 1462 ~ 1045
1213 11 1943 1263 §'\ 1736 1313 m 1584 1363 rll 1377 1413 !IEl 1189 1463 '/[ 1041
1214 ~ 1941 1264 ~ 1734 1314 )jJ 1578 1363 '>l'~ 1377 1413 ~ 1189 1463 u 1041
1215 ;fiil 1940 1264 ~ 1734 1315 f'J, 1577 1365 ~ 1373 1415 ~ 1187 1463 )(IJ 1041
.!} til iii 11
•
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1217 if! 1933 1267 1731 1317 ~ 1568 1367 M 1360 1417 1.! 1183 1467 r~ 1035
1218 ~ 1926 1268 ~ 1730 1318 r~ 1566 1367 foil 1360 1418 11 1181 1468 jrli 1031

•
1219 1£ 1923 1269 ~ 1729 1319 ~ 1562 1369 '$ 1354 1419 JlI!i 1179 1469 ~ 1030
1220 ~ 1922 1270 1726 1320 ~ 1560 1369 ~ 1354 1420 iff 1174 1470 ~ 1028
1221 $ 1919 1271 /ffJJ 1706 1321 'Jt 1559 1371 ijj;JJ 1351 1421 #
j~'" 1172 1471 IE 1023
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1223 ~ 1915 1273 ~ 1704 1323 fj- 1541 1373 ~ 1345 1423 -5 1160 1473 fE 1017
1224 ~ 1905 1274 it 1688 1324 Y: 1538 1374 fA 1338 1424 JfJ 1159 1474 1't 1016
1225 nt 1904 /275 qJ)II; 1687 1325 1J~ 1531 1375 *5J 1332 1425 ~ 1151 1474 L![ 1016
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1234 iB 1864 1284 ~ 1658 1334 1\ 1507 1384 ~ 1292 1434 tr ll20 1484 FJi 987
1235 fk 1860 1285 tfi 1656 1335 ~ 1490 1385 III 1289 1434 it 1120 1485 3t 978
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494 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C r R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
1501 Ilt 943 1551 rfj 818 1601 H 729 1650 ~ 649 1701 ~ 559 1750 m 484
1502 ~ 942 1552 lli 815 1602 ;!I 728 1652 m 648 1702 m 558 1750 f\1t 484
1503 f~ 940 1553 :R 814 1603 11 727 1653 ~ 645 1703
'tM* 555 1753 n~ 483
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1508 ff 932 1558 ~ 807 1608 :$ 719 1656 lb 634 1708 ~ 545 1757 ~~ 474
1508 P~ 932 1559 *1l 796 1609 I~ 716 1659 Z 632 1709 ~t1i 541 1759 :£ 472
1510 llJii 929 1560 .& 793 1610 !9! 715 1659 fliIi 632 1710 $ 540 1760 ~ 469
1511 fib 919 1561 '& 792 1611 £iii 714 1659 lt=li 632 1711 ~ 539 1761 8 466

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1514 *4 913 1563 ~ 786 1614 if 706 1664 if 625 1714 535 1764 7ifl 462
T m 704 1665 j l

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1522 !'! 876 1571 lft 779 1622 :n 695 1671 Wt' 614 1722 ~ 527 1771 ~ 451
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1542 jffl 846 1592 #: 750 1642 7f 659 1692
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1543 71< 843 1593 lIPJ 748 1643 r,E 572 1742 #i 490 1793 iii 425
1544 iii 842 1594 ?!t 747 1643 656 1694 it 567 1744 III 489 1793 IJlIi 425
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1546 1$ 832 1596 741 1646 It 652 1694 :B 567 1744 00 489 1796 ~Q 423
1547 fi!i 825 1597 tJjIj 739 1646 Ii'{ 652 1697 ~ 566 1747 n 487 1797 ~ 419
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 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 495

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
1800 f,jj 415 1851 ~ 363 1901 ~ 302 1951 !'KJ 254 2000 ~ 206 2049 f~ 169

*
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1804 ,fl¥j 408 1854 Ii 358 1904 ~Ill 295 1951 1t 254 2004 ~ 202 2054 .~ 166
1804 frIiX 408 1855 ,j:g 354 /904 ~ 295 1955 z, 252 2004 JM 202 2055 m 165
1806 mE 405 1856 ~ 351 1904 #l! 295 1956 ifir 251 2006 ifl 201 2056 ~ 164
1806 ~ 405 1857 ~ 350 1907 M 293 1957 iii 250 2(J(J6 ~ 201 2(J57 m 163
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1808 ~ 404 1857 *7) 350 1907 293 /959 Iii 249 2008 199 2059 ~ 162

* t& 198 162

1808 404 1860 ifJ; 348 1907 ifIIJ 293 1960 248 2010 ~ 2059 f~
1808 ~~ 404 1861 tt 346 19J1 *It 292 1960 l!4 248 2011 ~ 197 2059 f!£ 162
1812 ~ 402 1861 ffl! 346 1912 5* 288 1962 ~I'J 247 2011 iii 197 2062 15k
fJJ
161
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/8/4 f7e 400 1864 ~ 344 /914 ~ 287 1964 Mi 245 2014 II~ 194 2064 !f 159
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1815 ~ 399 1864 ~ 344 1914 287 1965 f1I 243 2015 ~ 193 2064 $ 159
1816 i1J. 398 /866 '$: 340 1916 f;lk 286 1966 M< 241 2016 M 191 2066 157
1817 ¥* 397 1867 ~ 334 /9/7 ~ 285 1967 B 239 2016 ~ 191 2066 jij!j 157
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396 1869 R 333 /9/9 283 1969
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•
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18/8 396 1869 Ef$ 333 19/9 283 1969 ~Ij 236 2016 1i 191 2070 frl!i 155
1821 ~~ 395 1871 ~ 332 1921 ~~ 282 /971 J§ 233 2016 ~ 191 2070 iI 155
1821 ~ 395 1872 X 329 1922 ~ 278 1971 $Jt 233 2022 fji 190 2072 ~ 154
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•
/824 388 1874 f~ 326 1924 Ilij 277 1974 # 230 2023 JI\ 189 2073 153
1825 ~ 385 1874 326 1925 nfOJ 274 1975 ~ 228 2025 1'5 188 2073 if! 153
1826 fiJi 384 1876 ill 323 1925 Ijl 274 1976 ~ 225 2U26 J![ 187 2073 :~ 153
JIt *lE 150

•
1827 ~ 383 1876 f'f 323 1925 R 274 1977 ~ 223 2026 187 2077
1828 i'Jll 382 1878 ~ 322 /928 272 1978 ~ 221 2028 t* 185 2078 itJ 149
1829 Jlft 380 1878 '!!i 322 1929 It! 271 1978 tv 221 2028 JO.: 185 2U79 ~ 148
1830 ~ 379 1880 ~ 321 1929 JL 271 1978 1'& 221 2028 M 185 2079 11 148
m
183/
/831
}L
f.m
377
377
1880
1882
'II
!f:t
321
320
/93/
/93/
j(:
RJJ
269
269
/981
1982
~
»f.
219
217
2028
2032 it:
185
183
2081
2081 *
il
146
146

* '1
•
183/ ~ 377 1883 319 193/ 269 1982 ~ 217 2032 ~ 183 208/ ~ 146
1834 ~ 376 1883 ~ 319 1934 lOft 268 1984 216 2032 f!f 183 2081 m 146

**
1835 tt 374 1885 i~ 316 1934 i'l 268 1984 f8 216 2032 183 2085 ~ 142
4- :tit 141

•
1836 ;i 373 1886 1f. 315 1934 ~ 268 1984 216 2036 182 2086

•
1836 B 373 1886 tu 315 1937 267 1987 III 214 2036 ~ 182 2087 ~ 140
f's. 140

•**
/838 ~ 372 1888 t~ 314 1937 ~ 267 1987 214 2038 181 2087
1!?39 fl 371 1889 ~ 312 1939 m 266 1989 1# 213 2039 180 2089 JlJR 139
/839 II 371 /890 7iIJ 311 1940 ~ 265 1990 ~ 212 2040 iilli 179 2089 5Mi 139
371 /890 ~ 311 1940 ~ 265 1990 1!It 212 2041 i!iJJ 176 2091 )i 138
/839 ~

•
JiiI

•
1842 ill 370 /892 00 310 1942 ~ 264 1990 JlI 212 2041 ~ 176 2091 138
1842
1844
1l!
~
370
369
1892
1894
Jlt
IPl
310
309
1943
/943 *'
u~
263
263
1993
1994 tHI
210
209
2043
2044 it
.ftf
175
173
2091
2094
f!l
at
fIfi
138
137
136

•
1845 J! 368 1895 ill« 308 /945 lfl 262 1995 ~ 208 2045 172 2095
/846 6 367 1895 fR 308 1945 262 1995 *- 208 2045 it 172 2095 tt 136

*
/847 *Ji: 366 1897 307 1947 Itt 258 1995 00 208 2047 ~ 171 2095 tri'i 136
/848
1848
~
~
365
365
1898
1899
11.1
~
305
303
1948
1949
~
W.
256
255
1998
1998
JIjj
~
207
207
2048
2049
'*if!, 170
169
2095
2099
~
~
136
135
/850 ;DL
a 364 1899 is 303 /949 ~ 255 2000 m 206 2049 ~ 169 2099 ~ 135
CF 99.5445 CF 99.6146 CF 99.6736 CF 99.7226 CF 99.7627 CF 99.7953
496 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
2099 ~ 135 2150 m 112 2200 i#. 95 2249 ~ 79 2298 m 67 2351 ~ 59
2099 1L 135 2152 ffi. 111 2200 flUj 95 2249 ~ 79 2298 '1~ 67 2351 JlJit 59
2103 fIX 134 2152 R: 111 2203 ff 94 2253 ~ 78 2298 w: 67 2351 :tt 59
2103 ~ 134 2152 jIJl 111 2203 ~ 94 2253 m 78 2298 ~ 67 2351 itJ 59
2105 }J:t 133 2152 fc 111 2205 ~ 93 2253 7f 78 2305 li; 66 2351 m 59

*
2105 133 2156 ~ 110 2205 {IE 93 2256 • 77 2305 ijI 66 2351 BrlJ 59
2105 *f1f 133 2156 JIti' 110 2207 iii 92 2256 te 77 2305 {g 66 2351 i1t 59
2105 fill 133 2156
*
2159 j1(
110 2207 III 92 2256 :M! 77 2305 ~ 66 2351 rlJj
2351 M
59

•m
2105 ~ 133 109 2209 ~ 91 2256 ~ 77 2305 1{ 66 59
2110 132 2160 ~ 108 2209 ~ 91 2260 ;ti~ 76 2310 JiI\ 65 2351 ~Dl 59
2110 132 2160 ft 108 2209 ~ 91 2260 ~ 76 2310 ~ 65 2351 ~ 59
2112 ;9t 131 2162 ffii 107 2212 ~ 90 2260 if 76 2310 ~ 65 2351 M 59
2112 :It 131 2162 ~ 107 2213 1f 89 2260 nI 76 2310 ~ 65 2351 ¥- 59
21/-1 !Ill 130 2164 !i!! 106 2213 ~ 89 2260 ill!! 76 2310 1if 65 2364 'If 58
21/-1 H 130 2165 J#! 105 2213 ~ 89 2265 ~ 75 2310 ~ 65 2364 J!l 58
2116 1m 129 2165 ~ 105 2213 ~t 89 2265 • 75 2310 .t1J 65 2364 ti£! 58
2116 j! 129 2167 11$ 104 2213 ~ 89 2265 ~ 75 2317 Ii 64 2364 1i 58
2118 PI'l 128 2167 it 104 2213
*
2219 jlJf
89 2265 jt!
2265 :Ii
75 2317 {bo
1!f
64 2364 M 58

*
2118 ~ 128 2167 ~ 104 88 75 2319 63 2369 ~ 57
2219 JE

•
2120 'I&- 127 2167 iIi: 104 88 2270 74 2319 ?(i 63 2369 itE 57
2121 !llf 126 2167 M 104 2219 88 2271 1!- 73 2319 1:>1 63 2369 ~13 57
2167 if 2219 it 2271 fm II! 2369 tit

•
2122 ~ 124 104 88 73 2319 63 57
2123 iffi 122 2167 m 104 2223 ~ 87 2271 • 73 2319 63 1373 1fI\ 56
2123 I!l!I 122 2174 $ 103 2223 I!!l 87 2274 ~ 72 2319 ~ 63 2373 it 56
2125 !lII1:i 120 2174 n 103 2223 ~ 87 2274 if 72 2319 URP 63 2373 ~8 56
2125 iI 120 2174 1f 103 2226 *t 86 2274 fIA 72 2326 !,it. 62 2373 ~ 56
2127 fit 119 2174 if 103 2226 $1 86 2277 Jiir 71 2326 m 62 2373 U{t 56
2127 ~ 119 2174 !tt 103 2226 1m 86 2277 m 71 2326 tJ 62 2373 t$ 56
2226 iii m
•
2129 ~ 118 2179 ~ 102 86 2277 ~ 71 2326 ~ 62 2379 55
2130 ~ 117 2179 ~ 102 2226 ~ 86 2277 ~ 71 2326 fJ> 62 2379 55
2179 n± m 11
•
2379 ;lit

•
2130 fJ 117 102 2231 85 2281 ~ 70 2326 62 55
2130 % 117 2182 m 101 2231 85 2281 jJ" 70 2326 4iJf 62 2379 55
2130 M§ 117 2182 it 101 2233 m 84 2281 Ii 70 2326 I:}'i 62 2379 ruk 55
2134 it 116 2182 lit 101 2234 ~ 83 2281 ~ 70 2326 ~ 62 2379 a& 55
2281 fiij 1M.
•
2134 ~ 116 2185 ~ 100 2235 ~ 82 70 2326 62 2385 ~ 54
2134 116 2186 !IE 99 2235 1m 82 2281 §l!j 70 2336 III 61 2385 #Ii 54
2134 '&£ 116 2186 ~ 99 2235 m 82 2287 III 69 2336 i'lJ 61 2385 flL 54
2134 "'"
'E 116 2186 ~ 99 2235 ~ 82 2287 rt 69 2336 W: 61 2385 ~ 54
2139 ~ 115 2186 1& 99 2235 1ft 82 2289 ~ 68 2336 Wlf 61 2385 f# 54
2139 11.ti 115 2186 ~ 99 2235 P)l 82 2289 ~ 68 1336 15 61 2385 11 54
2139 V 1I5 2191 ~ 98 2235 ~ 82 2289 :m 68 2336 ({] 61 2385 ~ 54
2139 ~ 115 2191 ttli 98 2235 iii 82 2289 ~ 68 2336 ~ 61 2385 ~ 54
m
•
2143 ft 114 2191 ~ 98 2243 ~ 81 2289 11f 68 2336 61 2385 ~ 54
2143 JfiJ 114 2194 ~ 97 2243 81 2289 m 68 2336 ~ 61 2385 ~~ 54
m:
•. .
2143 ff. 114 2195 96 2243 Jfla 81 2289 U 68 2336 ftlt 61 2385 ;jl 54
2143 IIMJi 114 2195 ~ 96 2243 (£ 81 2289 68 2336 'It 61 2396 MIl 53

•
2147 8 113 2195 Iff 96 2247 IW 80 2289 68 2347 ~ 60 2396 53
2147 ~~ 113 2195 ~ 96 2247 80 2298 ~ 67 2347 ~ 60 2396 Pm 53
2298 m

•
2147 ~ 113 2195 ~ 96 2249 ~ 79 67 2347 {Jt 60 2396 @ 53
2150 ft 112 2200 It 95 2249 il¥ 79 2298 ;fib 67 2347 ~ 60 2400 52
CF 99.8220 CF 99.8434 CF 99.8626 CF 99.8776 CF 99.8926 CF 99.9039
 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 497

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R e F R C F R C F R C F R C F
2400 B 52 2449 ~ 46 2496 J.Il 40 2543 !Ill 35 2599 ~ 31 2646 ~ 28
2402 ~ 51 2449 !l5e 46 2496 it 40 2543 ~ 35 2599 m 31 2646 ~ 28
2402 J& 51 2449 1ri! 46 2503 ~ 39 2543 :I!l 35 2599 It 31 2646 FoX 28
If?{ !\!\! .m let
•
2402 51 2449 ~ 46 2503 39 2543 ~ 35 2599 31 2646 28
2402 ~ 51 2449 ~ 46 2503 Ii 39 2543 jlj 35 2599 !!1. 31 2646 28
2402 ~ 51 2449 if:! 46 2503 ~ 39 2543 ~ 35 2599 tit 31 2646 14' 28

•
2402 ~ 51 2449 ~ 46 2503 jili)i 39 2543 ~ 35 2599 ifi 31 2646 ~J 28
2402 ffi. 51 2449 J]p 46 2503 ~ 39 2543 :f!lt 35 2599 31 2646 1.t 28
2402 ~ 51 2459 ~ 45 2503 ~ 39 2559 ~ 34 2599 it 31 2646 ~ 28
2402 fJi 51 2459 i'Jf 45 2503 MIJ 39 2559 nit 34 2599 ~ 31 2646 ~ 28
g WJ
*" 34 2599 IlfB
2411 50 2459 ~ 45 2503 39 2559 31 2646 ~ 28
2411 fi 50 2459 at 45 25/2 il!I 38 2559 ~ 34 2599 Il 31 2646 {lL 28
2411 ~ 50 2459 A 45 25/2 ~ 38 2559 ~ 34 2599 mJ 31 2646 QOO 28
24fl @ 50 2464 'Pf 44 2512 JlIl 38 2559 :It 34 2599 !I'J 31 2664 ~ 27
24fl
2411 *
J]lf
50
50
2464
2464
fIJ
-;Jf
44
44
2512
25/2 m
~ 38
38
2559
2559
~
lil
34 2599 Pfi
34 2616 it:
31
30
2664
2664
Il!J:
;1'2
27
27

•
Wi
•
2411 {# 50 2464 44 2512 ~ 38 2559 ~ 34 2616 ~ 30 2664 ~ 27
2411 ~ 50 2468
* 43 2512 38 2568 ~
/Rl
33 2616
33 2616 1m
30 2664 ~
fi
27

•
24JJ ~ 50 2468 ~ 43 2512 ~ 38 2568 30 2664 27
24fl ~ 50 2468 iif 43 2512 38 2568 ~ 33 2616 im 30 2664 00 27
24JJ ~ 50 2468 ~ 43 2512 *BIt 38 2568 iIJJi 33 2616 M 30 2664 ~ 27
2422 ~ 49 2468 ~ 43 25/2 ~ 38 2568 ~J 33 2616 JtE 30 2664 1m 27
-m
.,
2422 ~ 49 2468 ~ 43 25/2 38 2568 tal 33 2616 i;Ili 30 2664 '$ 27
2422 1# 49 2468 ~ 43 2512 IIi* 38 2568 ~ 33 2616 3": 30 2664 ~ 27
2422 g 49 2475 42 25/2 ~ 38 2568 III 33 26/6 !Itt 30 2664 i? 27
2422 5E
m
49 2475 ~ 42 2512

•
(4f 38 2568
*
m
33 26/6 mt 30 2664 ~ 27

,. ••
2422 49 2475 M 42 2527 37 2568 33 2616 :g£ 30 2664 ~ 27
2422 1M; 49 2475 ia 42 2527 PI 37 2568 33 2616 ~ 30 2664 ~ 27

•
M
•
2422 ~ 49 2475 42 2527 37 2568 33 2629 ~ 29 2664 ~ 27
2422 Fr 49 2475 42 2527 B: 37 2568 ~ 33 2629 29 2664 !Rt 27
2422 i1lJ 49 2475 IIf 42 2527 it( 37 2581 $ 32 2629 iAl 29 2681 M 26

.
W
•
2432 48 2475 ~ 42 2527 ~ 37 2581 ~ 32 2629 ~ 29 2681 ~ 26
2432 'I1J 48 2475 m 42 2533 i1ill 36 2581 ~ 32 2629 $ 29 2681 26
2432 II 48 2475 42 2533 ,fit! 36 2581 M 32 2629 II 29 2681 1C. 26
2432 #!!! 48 2475 7.X 42 2533 lit 36 2581 ~ 32 2629 !M 29 2681 ~ 26
2432 m 48 2486 ~ 41 2533 51! 36 258/ ffl'I 32 2629 ~ 29 2681 m 26
2432 P1! 48 2486 :it 41 2533 i'ili 36 258/ ~ 32 2629 ~ 29 2681 ~ 26
2432 l'IJ 48 2486 IBJ 41 2533 4: 36 2581 tt 32 2629 ~ 29 268/ ~ 26
2432 11: 48 2486 iltf 41 2533 IT 36 258/ lit 32 2629 iI 29 268/ :~ 26

•
2440 ~ 47 2486 ~ 41 2533 {iJi 36 258/ P'f 32 2629 i~ 29 2681 W 26

"
2440 ~ 47 2486 41 2533 ~ 36 2581 ~ 32 2629 29 2681 tl 26
2440 !ill 47 2486 ~ 41 2533 !i 36 2581 ~ 32 2629 W 29 2681 ~ 26
2440 1$ 47 2486 Pl! 41 2543 ~ 35 2581 i6!t 32 2629 Jft; 29 268/ fa 26
2440 ~ 47 2486 trJi 41 2543 Ii 35 2581 WI. 32 2629 $ 29 2681 M 26
m
•
2440 mi 47 2486 it 41 2543 ~ 35 258/ ~ 32 2629 ~ 29 2681 26
2440 #i 47 2496 tlj 40 2543 it 35 258/ ~ 32 2646 ~ 28 268/ 26
2440 ~ 47 2496 ~ 40 2543 m 35 2581 !G 32 2646 # 28 2681 ~ 26

'* :Ill:
2440 11# 47 2496 ~ 40 2543 35 258/ 32 2646 ~ 28 2681 .I;€ 26

•
2449 :¥Ill 46 2496 TiIJj 40 2543 w.Jt 35 2599 ~ 31 2646 1# 28 2681 ~ 26
2449 ~f 46 2496 Em 40 2543 Yi 35 2599 31 2646 f! 28 268/ M 26
CF 99.9139 CF 99.9239 CF 99.9331 CF 99.9381 CF 99.9431 CF 99.9481
498 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIX A (Continued)
R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F R C F
268/ IR 26 2725 ~Ji 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 :¥f 19 2886 if! 17 293/ m IS

•'*
2702 Il!k 25 2752 J5 23 2785 ~ 21 2836 It 19 2886 ~ 17 2931 Ii~ 15

•
2702 It 25 2752 ~ 23 2785 21 2836 p~ 19 2886 ?&. 17 293/ jg IS
2702 ~ 25 2752 ~ 23 2785 21 2836 *HI 19 2886 ~ 17 2931 IS
2702 ~ 25 2752 fiji 23 2785 ~ 21 2836 1l 19 2886 ~ 17 2931 ft IS
2702 &Ii 25 2752 Ilf 23 2806 II 20 2836 1Il~ 19 2886 m 17 2931 JEt 15
2702 ~r 25 2752 ,~ 23 2806 Jjf 20 2836 Sf 19 2907 ft 16 2931 ~i'f 15
2702 t:I 25 2752 III 23 2806 Kl 20 2836 1# 19 2907 IlR 16 293/ frJI 15
2702 flI 25 2752 ~ 23 2806 ~ 20 2836 rtJ 19 2907 3i.} 16 293/ ~ 15
m
•
2702 ~ 25 2752 23 2806 ~ 20 2836 • 19 2907 fa: 16 2931 ~ 15
m
•
2702 i1lt 25 2752 Q 23 2806 20 2861 ~ 18 2907 16 2931 10 15
2702 ~ 25 2752 23 2806 ~ 20 2861 ¥J). 18 2907 *L 16 2931 mJ 15
a:
2702
2702 ~
Il% 25
25
2752
2752
:!1i
~
23
23
2806
2806
lEI
V1f
20
20
2861
2861 :Ii!i
18
18
2907
2907 *
m
16
16
2931
2931
!I*
!IW
IS
15
2702 ~ 25 2752 ~ 23 2806 II#i 20 286/ ** 18 2907 ~ 16 2931 '!Ii 15
2702 *n 25 2752 .IE 23 2806 ~ 20 2861 ~ 18 2907 :RlJ 16 2966 j$ 14
2702 ,w 25 2752 m 23 2806 ~ 20 286/ ~ 18 2907 WJl 16 2966 11 14
2702 ~ 25 2752 ~ 23 2806 ~ 20 286/ JJJZ 18 2907 7§. 16 2966 1m 14
2702 ~ 25 2752 &if 23 2806 fi 20 2861 tI 18 2907 ~ 16 2966 JI3't 14
2702 Jl1{ 25 2752 ~ 23 2806 ii!i 20 2861 FX 18 2907 '& 16 2966 R 14

•
2702 ~ 25 2752 #. 23 2806 ffi 20 2861 it 18 2907 M: 16 2966 ~ 14
2702 :fa 25 2772 iii 22 2806 20 286/ If{; 18 2907 tilt 16 2966 1ft 14
1@: !l t-J
•
2702 ~ 25 2772 22 2806 T1J:. 20 2861 18 2907 16 2966 ~ 14
m:
,.
2702 25 2772 1* 22 2806 ffl 20 2861 18 2907 ~ 16 2966 J:l 14
2725 !l'I 24 2772 ~ 22 2806 ~p 20 2861 fJ 18 2907 !mi 16 2966 ~ 14
2725 ~ 24 2772 ~ 22 2806 1t 20 286/ %5 18 2907 16 2966 ~ 14
2725 ~ 24 2772 & 22 2806 ~ 20 2861 fit! 18 2907 il& 16 2966 ~ 14
2725 ~ 24 2772
of±
IT,," 22 2806 Wi 20 2861 ~~ 18 2907 i!!I. 16 2966 ~ 14
2725 £j~ 24 2772 jjfl 22 2806 i$ 20 2861 ~ 18 2907 ~ 16 2966 lth 14
2725 JJJD 24 2772 ~~ 22 2806 ~ 20 2861 ~ 18 2907 fit 16 2966 T 14
2725 Wi 24 2772 ~ 22 2806
*~ 20 2861 ~ 18 2931 ~ 15 2966 m 14
2725 ft{ 24 2772 7Mt 22 2806 20 2861 :Hi 18 2931 ~l 15 2966 vJ; 14
2725 :II\! 24 2772 ~ 22 2806 ;!!!;;
7C 20 2861 Jm 18 2931 00 15 2966 ~ 14
2725 ~ 24 2772 ~ 22 2806 {frt 20 2861 ~ 18 2931 ~ 15 2966 :;~ 14
2725 Pm 24 2785 ,fl 21 2806 1£ 20 2861 ~ 18 2931 ii 15 2966 flIL 14
2725 iii 24 2785 wm 21 2836 it 19 2886 • 17 2931 ~ 15 2966 t1i 14
2725 #i! 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 ~ 19 2886 If* 17 2931 to 15 2966 m 14
2725 m 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 :n 19 2886 m 17 2931 ~ 15 2966 til 14
2725 ~ 24 2785 tJ 21 2836 :tS 19 2886 ~ 17 2931 if IS 2966 :II 14
iOO 24 2785 IIQl: 21 2836 ~ 19 2886 • 17 2931 Ii IS 2966 14
""
2725
ft EI
•e
2725 ~ 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 ~ 19 2886 17 293/ IS 2966 ~ 14
2725 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 T* 19 2886 II 17 2931 ~ IS 2966 ~ 14
2725 24 2785 ~ 21 2836 ~ 19 2886 :jp 17 2931 fIij IS 2966 .fti 14
2725 til 24 2785 1$ 21 2836 IJlI¥ 19 2886 ~ 17 2931 tJi IS 2966 W 14
2725
2725
2725
Il'F
J$
.z:
24
24
24
2785
2785
2785
fllJ
;l
l4l
21
21
21
2836
2836
2836
~
~
~
19
19
19
2886
2886
2886
Il\I
ff1
rx
17
17
17
293/
2931
2931
*fA
m
15
15
15
2966
2996
2996
~
J$i
ilH 13
14
13

f<f it m
•
2725 ilk 24 2785 5'1 21 2836 19 2886 Jl1J 17 2931 15 2996 13
2725 -tJ; 24 2785 IliH 21 2836 tIl 19 2886 .5l!l 17 2931 l,t 15 2996 13
2725 :i\l; 24 2785 m 21 2836 ~ 19 2886 1l! 17 2931 m IS 2996 III 13
cr 99.9531 CF 99.9581 CF 99.9631 CF 99.9681 CF 99.9731 CF 99.9781
 JAPANESE CHARACTER FREQUENCY LIST 499

APPENDIX A (Continued) APPENDIXB

R C F Hiragana Letter Frequency List
2996 ;m 13 R C F R C F
2996 ~ 13 1 (J) 1918313 49 '1 48752
2996 !Ill 13 2 vi: 1108840 50 '" 47013
2996 JlI(f 13 3 t: 1067566 51 rJ 32312
2996 ill 13 4 v\ 1060284 52 tJ 31212
13 5 I;): 937811 53
~.
26965
2996 ~ '-

2996 *!Ji: 13 6 :a: 936356 54 :tJ. 23490

2996 fi 13 7 .!:: 927938 55 ~ 23280
2996 :JjiiJ 13 8 ~ 916652 56 <" 21549
2996 m 13 9 tJ' 860742 57 ~ 19865
2996 ~ 13 10 L- 848132 58 V- 19148
2996 ~ 13 11 -r: 764834 59 J: 14425
2996 :r-J 13 12 -c 758316 60 .-:5 13125
13 13 tt. 720156 61 1£ 12402
2996 '"
2996 I!DII 13 14 tJ' 537294 62 « 12108
2996 1Jtf 13 15 -o 467350 63 h 11606
2996 fj 13 16 n 450805 64 ~ 11522
2996 11{; 13 17 G 423294 65 e 10047
2996 IiIiI 13 18 b 396142 66 I1l 8486
2996 f7} 13 19 ? 352965 67 -If 6893
2996 ~ 13 20 T 340654 68 ~ 5124
2996 11 13 21 ~ 333999 69 1-;1: 4349
2996 ii\'f 13 22
~
~ 312227 70 ~ 2755
2996 n 13 23 ti. 280911 71 rJ 1608
2996 m 13 24 't 278599 72 It 1315
2996 !tj 13 25 ~ 258960 73 ~ 986
2996
2996
~
M
13
13
26
27
~
~
233505
223806
74
75
'"i:> 477
125
2996 ~ 13 28 < 221960 76 ;t 106
2996 ~ 13 29 .:b 204256 77 "t? 82
2996 ~ 13 30 It 199362 78 2- 75
2996 it'S 13 31 E 196555 79 d;) 48
2996 ~ 13 32 Iv 190068 80 ;to 21
2996 ~ 13 33 ;t 163664 81 v- 21
CF 99.9815 34 J:: 154206 82 n 3
35 -o 153999 83 :; 1
Note-R = Rank of frequency, C = Character ofkanji, F = Frequency
occurrence in23,408,236 character corpus. 36 ~ 146156
37 -t- 131611
38 b 123077
39 ij 99183
40 7-f.. 89264
41 tt 83444
42 0 73467
43 t!:" 72228
44 j;J 65870
45 t;. 56857
46 A. 56005
47 i' 53256
48 Ij' 49126
Note-R = Rank of frequency, C = Character of hiragana, F = Fre-
quency occurrence in20,711,361 character corpus.
500 CHIKAMATSU, YOKOYAMA, NOZAKI, LONG, AND FUKUDA

APPENDIXC
Katakana Letter Frequency List
R C F R C F
1
2
3
:/
Iv
A
290948
189442
178214
49
50
51
*jJ
/'\
22462
22061
21839
4 !- 162802 52 '7 21784
5 7 127845 53 'J 20784
6 .{ 120807 54 -7 20633
7 '7 117203 55 'E 20070
8 !J 106744 56 J 19572
9 17 98209 57 7:' 19240
10 ~'/ 86894 58 I! 18692
J1
12
7J
~
82982
80626
59
60 *zr;
18204
17817
13 lj 75319 61 :3 17731
14
15
0
F
75301
74257
62
63
"'::1'" 14881
13931
16 '/ 61171 64 .y 12526
17 7 61115 65 ~ 10732
18 i- 60608 66 ::l 10318
19 j. 60230 67 ~ 10144
20 ::J 58724 68 7" 10121
21 -:(' 56123 69 -tt' 7689
22 7' 54159 70 t 7289
23
24
T
s;
53404
50758
71
72
'"
::L
7129
6653
25 T 48437 73 If 6481
26 /-\ 44970 74 :t 6245
27 ~' 44462 75 ~ 2897
28 If 40433 76 '/ 2640
29 :\'- 39608 77 ij 1145
30 r7 39323 78 ? 1050
31 -t)- 39202 79 T 149
32 ::::- 38711 80 'Y 127
33 -r 38047 81 =:1 122
34 J:. 36458 82 I 73
35 7' 35920 83 4- 40
36 /-\ 35416 84 ;h 14
37 -e 34883 85 'J 9
38 ;;f" 34718 86 -7" 2
39 -1 33747
40 T 32665
41 ::t. 32616
42 ~ 29262
43 -\' 28144
44 ~ 26651
45 lj' 26396
46 'Y 24541
47 ~ 23742
48 .r( 22755
Note-R = Rank of frequency, C ~ Character of katakana, F = Fre-
quency occurrence in3,608,288 character corpus.

(Manuscript received February 2, 1999;

revision accepted forpublication February 27, 2000.)