Linear Algebra and Partial Differentiation Matrices

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Unit
MATRICES
1

Introduction
A matrix (plural: matrices), The term matrix was introduced by the 19th-century
English mathematician James Sylvester, but it was his friend the mathematician Arthur
Cayley who developed the algebraic aspect of matrices in two papers in the 1850s. Cayley
first applied them to the study of systems of linear equations, where they are still very useful.
They are also important because, as Cayley recognized, certain sets of matrices form
algebraic systems in which many of the ordinary laws of arithmetic (e.g., the associative and
distributive laws) are valid but in which other laws (e.g., the commutative law) are not valid.
Historically, it was not the matrix but a certain number associated with a square array of
numbers called the determinant that was first recognized. Only gradually did the idea of the
matrix as an algebraic entity emerge. Applications of matrices are found in most scientific
fields.
Applications in Engineering

❖ In every branch of physics, optics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, and quantum

electrodynamics, they are used to study physical phenomena, such as the motion of rigid
bodies.
❖ Matrices have also come to have important applications in computer graphics, where they
have been used to represent rotations and other transformations of images. In computer
graphics, they are used to manipulate 3D models and project them onto a 2-dimensional
screen.
❖ Matrices have wide applications in engineering, physics, economics, and statistics as well
as in various branches of mathematics. In probability theory and statistics, stochastic
matrices are used to describe sets of probabilities; for instance, they are used within
the Page Rank algorithm that ranks the pages in a Google search.
❖ In circuit theory, matrices are used to solve for current or voltage.
❖ In electromagnetic field theory which is a fundamental course for communication
engineering, conception of divergence, curl are important.
❖ For other fields of engineering, computer memory extensively uses the conception of
partition of matrices. If the matrices size gets larger than the space of computer memory it
divides the matrices into sub matrices and does calculation.
❖ Matrices can be cleverly used in cryptography. Exchanging secret information using
matrix is very robust and easy in one sense.
❖ Matrices are used in MATLAB. This software is widely used in engineering fields and
MATLAB's default data type is matrix.
❖ Evolution of matrix theory is from system of linear equations because mathematical
model of some physical system problem in the form of simultaneous equation which can
be solved by matrices method.

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Linear Algebra and Partial Differentiation Matrices
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Syllabus content:-Definition of Matrix:-
An arrangement of mn elements are arranged in m rows and n columns enclosed by
brackets called matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛. It is denoted by capital letters and its elements are
denoted by small letters.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 … 𝑎2𝑛
…
𝐴 = 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎3𝑛 = [𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]
: : : : :
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … 𝑎 ]
𝑚𝑛

 1 − 3 a 22 matrix; an
2 7.2 example of a square 14.3 a 11 matrix;
  matrix.
termed a scalar

8 2.5  A 32
6 − 3 1 a 23 rectangular  0 − 1.1
 2 0 9   rectangular
  matrix
− 5 − 3  matrix

A 31 matrix; an
 9 .1 
− 8 0 1.4 − 1.3
a 14 matrix; an
example of a row
 2 .8 
example of a
column matrix
 
matrix or row vector. − 0.7  or column
vector.

a 22 square matrix  0 4 8 A Leslie matrix

M F containing both .3 0 0 model of
2 7.2  
 numeric and text
 0 .9 0
population
elements dynamics.

TYPES OF MATRICES
1) Row matrix or vector: Any number of columns but only one row is called row matrix.
[1 1 6], [0 3 5 2]
2) Column matrix or vector: Only one column and any number of rows is called column
matrix.
1
1
[4] , [ ]
−3
2
3) Zero matrix or null matrix :A matrix containing all zero elements is called zero matrix.
0 0
0 0
[0 0] , [ ]
0 0
0 0
4) Rectangular matrix: Contains more than one element and number of rows is not equal to
the number of column(𝑚 ≠ 𝑛)

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1 1
1 1 1 0 0
[3 7 ] , [ ]
7 −7 2 0 3 3 0
7 6
5) Square matrix: The number of rows is equal to the number of columns(𝑚 = 𝑛)
1 1 1
1 1
[ ], [9 9 0]
3 0
6 6 1
6) Diagonal matrix: A square matrix where all the elements are zero except those on the
main diagonal i.e 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, . 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑗
3 0 0 0
1 0 0
[0 2 0] , [0 3 0 0]
0 0 5 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 9
7) Unit or Identity matrix: A diagonal matrix with ones on the main diagonal.
1 0 0
1 0
[ ], [0 1 0]
0 1
0 0 1
8) Symmetric matrix :A square matrix A is symmetric iff 𝐴′ = 𝐴, here 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖
1 3 −4
2 −1
[ ], [3 5 3]
−1 1
−4 3 2
9) Skew-symmetric matrix: A square matrix A is skew-symmetric iff 𝐴′ = −𝐴 ,here
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 , 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0
0 3 −4
0 1
[ ], [−3 0 3]
−1 0
4 −3 0
10) Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all main diagonal elements are equal (𝑎11 =
𝑎22 = 𝑎33 … ..) is called scalar matrix.
3 0 0 0
2 0 0
[0 2 0] , [0 3 0 0]
0 0 3 0
0 0 2 0 0 0 3
11) Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements below the principal
diagonal are zeros.
3 5 −1 2
1 2 3
[0 2 0] , [0 3 6 5]
0 0 5 −4
0 0 1
0 0 0 9
12) Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements above principal
diagonal are zeros.
3 0 0 0
1 0 0
[−2 2 0] , [ 1 3 0 0]
2 4 5 0
−3 4 1 9 −6 4 9
13) Singular matrix: A square matrix in called singular iff determinant is zero. 𝑖. 𝑒. |𝐴| = 0
1 0 0
[−2 2 0]
−3 4 0
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14) Non-singular or Invertible matrix: A square matrix in called non-singular iff

determinant is nonzero. |𝐴| ≠ 0
2 3 1
[1 2 3]
−1 1 0
Syllabus content:-Elementary Transformation of a Matrix:-
1) The interchange of any two rows or columns 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2 , 𝐶1 ↔ 𝐶2
2)The multiplication of any row or column by a non-zero number. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅1 → 2𝑅1 , 𝐶1 → 3𝐶1
3) The addition of a constant multiple of the elements of any row or column to the
corresponding elements of any other row or column. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2 , 𝐶1 → 2𝐶1 − 𝐶2
Syllabus content: -Rank of Matrix
Definition:-A positive integer ‘r’ is said to be a rank of matrix A if
1. There is at least one minor of order ‘r’ which is non zero and
2. All minors of order greater than ‘r’as zeros.
It is denoted by 𝜌(𝐴) and read as rank of A.
For example:-

 3 1 2
1) A = 2 0 5
 
1 2 3

Solution: The largest square sub matrix possible is of order 3 and that is [ A] itself. Since
det( A) = −23  0, the rank of [ A] = 3.

 3 1 2
2) A = 2 0 5
 
5 1 7

Solution: The largest square sub matrix of [ A] is of order 3 and that is [ A] itself. Since
det( A) = 0 , the rank of [ A] is less than 3. The next largest square sub matrix would be a 2 
2 matrix. One of the square sub matrices of [ A] is

B = 
3 1

 2 0
and det( B) = −2  0 . Hence the rank of [ A] is 2. There is no need to look at other 2  2 sub
matrices to establish that the rank of [ A] is 2.
Properties
1. Rank of a null matrix is zero
2. For a nonzero matrix A,𝜌(𝐴) ≥ 1
3.Non-singular matrix of order n has rank n
4.Rank of singular matrix of order n is always less than n

Rank of a Matrix by Echelon form:

Rank of a matrix by echelon form is obtained by performing row transformation and counting
number of nonzero rows in upper triangular matrix
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2 −3 4 4
Example 1.1:Find the rank of 𝐴 = [1 1 1 2]
3 −2 3 6
2 −3 4 4
Solution:-𝐴 = [1 1 1 2]
3 −2 3 6
Perform row operations to reduce into echelon form
2 −3 4 4
𝐴 = [1 1 1 2]
3 −2 3 6
Operate 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
1 1 1 2
𝐴 = [2 −3 4 4]
3 −2 3 6
Operate 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1, 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
1 1 1 2
𝐴 = [0 −5 2 0]
0 −5 0 0
No. of nonzero rows=3
∴ 𝜌(𝐴) = 3
Exercise 1.1
Find the rank of matrix
1 2 −1 3 1 2 3
1. 𝐴 = [ 3 4 0 −1] 6. 𝐴 = [2 4 6]
−1 0 −2 7 3 6 9
0 1 −3 −1
3 1 2
2. 𝐴 = [1 0 1 1]
7. 𝐴 = [6 2 4]
3 1 0 2
1 1 −2 0 3 1 2

1 2 −2 3 1 3 4 3
3. 𝐴=[ 2 5 −4 6] 8. 𝐴 = [3 9 12 9]
−1 −3 2 −2
1 3 4 1
2 4 −1 6
4 2 −1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘
𝐴 = [1 −1 2 1] Find K if [𝑘 3 3] has ranks ‘3’.
4. 2 2 −2 0 9. 𝑘 𝑘 3

1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘 2
𝐴 = [4 5 6] Find K if 𝐴 = [2 1 1 ] has rank ‘2’.
5. 7 8 9 10. 0 0 −5

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6 1 3 8 2 −2 −2 0 2
𝐴 = [ 4 2 6 −1 ] 3 −1 −1 4 1
11 10 3 9 7 12 𝐴 = 0 −1 0 1 2
16 4 12 15 1 1 3 2 −2
[2 2 4 6 −3]
3 4 1 1 1 2 3 4
𝐴=[ 2 4 3 6 ] 𝐴 = [2 1 4 3 ]
13 −1 −2 6 4 14 3 0 5 −10
1 −1 2 −3

Syllabus content: - Normal form of Matrix

Let A be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, using elementary row and column transformation matrix A is
reduced into
𝐼 𝐼 0
[𝐼𝑟 ], [𝐼𝑟, 0], [ 𝑟 ], [ 𝑟 ]
0 0 0
Where 𝐼𝑟 is identity matrix of order r, such form is called Normal form of matrix.
1 1 1
Example1.2: Find the rank of a matrix by normal form𝐴 = [2 −3 4]
3 −2 3
1 1 1
Solution :-Step I:- 𝐴 = [2 −3 4]
3 −2 3
Operate𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1, 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
1 1 1
𝐴~ [0 −5 2]
0 −5 0
Step II:-Operate 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 − 𝐶1, 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶1
1 0 0
𝐴~ [0 −5 2]
0 −5 0
Step III:-Operate 𝐶2 → 𝐶2/−5, 𝐶3 → 𝐶3/5
1 0 0
𝐴~ [0 1 1]
0 1 0
Step IV:-Operate 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
1 0 0
𝐴~ [0 1 1 ]
0 0 −1
Step V:-Operate 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶2

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1 0 0
𝐴~ [0 1 0 ]
0 0 −1
Step VI:-Operate 𝑅3 → (−1) ∗ 𝑅3
1 0 0
𝐴~ [0 1 0] = [𝐼3 ]
0 0 1
∴ 𝜌(𝐴) = 3
Example 1.3: Find the rank of a matrix by normal form
2 −3 4 4
𝐴 = [1 1 1 2]
3 −2 3 6
2 −3 4 4
Solution:-Step I: 𝐴 = [1 1 1 2]
3 −2 3 6
Operate 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
1 1 1 2
𝐴~ [2 −3 4 4]
3 −2 3 6
Step II: Operate 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1, 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
1 1 1 2
𝐴~ [0 −5 2 0]
0 −5 0 0
Step III: Operate 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 − 𝐶1, 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶1, 𝐶4 → 𝐶4 − 2𝐶1,
1 0 0 0
𝐴~ [0 −5 2 0]
0 −5 0 0
Step IV: Operate 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2

1 0 0 0
𝐴~ [0 −5 2 0]
0 0 −2 0
Step V: Operate 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 2𝐶2
1 0 0 0
𝐴~ [0 −5 0 0]
0 0 10 0
𝑅2
Step VI: Operate 𝑅2 → , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3/(10)
−5

1 0 0 0
𝐴~ [0 1 0 0] = [𝐼3: 0]
0 0 1 0

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∴ 𝜌(𝐴) = 3
Exercise 1.2

Reduce the matrix A to its normal form and hence find its matrix:-
2 3 −1 −1
2 1 −3−6
1. 𝐴 = [1 −1 −2 −4]
6. 𝐴 = [3 −3 1 2 ]
3 1 3 −2
6 3 0 −7 1 1 1 2

2 3 4 5 2 −2 −2 0 2
𝐴=[3 4 5 6 ] 3 −1 −1 4 1
2. 4 5 6 7 7. 𝐴 = 0 −1 0 1 2
4 10 11 12 1 1 3 2 −2
[2 2 4 6 −3]
2 −1 31 3 2 1 3 2
𝐴 = [1 −4 −21]
3. 8. 𝐴 = [1 0 2 1 4]
5 2 43 2 3 3 4 6
1 2 4 1 8
0 1 2−2 1 1 −1 1
𝐴 = [4 0 26] 𝐴 = [1 −1 2 −1]
4. 2 1 31 9. 3 1 0 1

2 −3 4 4 3 2 5 7 12
𝐴 = [1 1 1 2] 𝐴 = [1 1 2 3 5]
5. 3 −2 3 6 10. 3 3 6 9 15

Syllabus content: - Consistency of system of linear equations

Matrix algebra is used to solve a system of simultaneous linear equations. In fact, for
many mathematical procedures such as the solution to a set of nonlinear equations,
interpolation, integration, and differential equations, the solutions reduce to a set of
simultaneous linear equations.
There are two types of system of equations, homogeneous and non homogeneous system of
equations.
A general set of m linear equations and n unknowns,
a11 x1 + a12 x2 +  + a1n xn = c1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +  + a2 n xn = c2
……………………………………
…………………………………….
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ........ + amn xn = cm
can be rewritten in the matrix form as

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 a11 a12 . . a1n   x1   c1 

a a 22 . . a 2 n   x 2   c 2 
 21
     =  
    
      
a m1 am2 . . a mn   x n  c m 

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
Where𝐴 is called the coefficient matrix, 𝐵 is called the constant matrix and 𝑋 is called the
variable matrix or solution vector.

System of equations
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

Homogeneous if Non homogeneous if

B=0 B≠0

𝐴𝑋 = 0 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

Augmented Matrix:
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 is a systems of equations then the augmented matrix is defined

a a12 ...... a1n  c1 

 11 
 a 21 a 22 ...... a 2 n  c 2 
A B  =    
 
   
a m1 am2 ...... a mn  c 
n

There are two methods to find solution of system of equation

1. By Inverse Transformation (Non homogeneous)
2. By using rank of a matrix (Homogeneous and Non homogeneous)
System Solution by Inverse Transformation
Consider the system of equations𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
1
Where 𝐴−1 = |𝐴| 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
Consistency of Non homogeneous System of Linear Equations:-

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Reduce augmented matrix [𝐴: 𝐵] to echelon form by using elementary row operations
and find rank of matrix A and augmented matrix[𝐴: 𝐵].
i) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = number of unknowns, then system is consistence and has unique
solution.
ii) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) < number of unknowns, then system is consistence and has
infinitely many solutions.
iii) If 𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) then system is inconsistence i.e. it has no solution.

Non homogeneous System

AX=B

Consistent System if Inconsistent System if

rank(A)=rank(A:B) rank(A) ≠ rank(A:B)

No Solutions
Unique Solution if Infinite Solutions if
Rank (A) =number of unknowns Rank (A) < number of unknowns

Example1.4: Test the consistency and solve

𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4,
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 6
Solution:
Step I: write the system in the matrix form
AX=B
1 1 1 𝑥 3
Where [1 2 3] [𝑦] = [4]
1 4 9 𝑧 6
1 1 1: 3
[𝐴: 𝐵] = [1 2 3: 4]
1 4 9: 6
Step II: Operating 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
1 1 1: 3
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 1 2 : 1]
0 3 8: 3
Step III: Operating 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅2

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1 1 1: 3
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 1 2 : 1]
0 0 2: 0
Step IV:𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 3
System is consistent and solution exist
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 = 3
Step V: System has unique solution
1 1 1 𝑥 3
[0 1 2] [𝑦] = [1]
0 0 2 𝑧 0
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 3
𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 1
2𝑧 = 0 → 𝑧 = 0
By using backward substitution𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 0

Example1.5: Test the consistency and solve

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 1
3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = 1
Solution:
Step I: write the system in the matrix form
AX=B
2 −3 5 𝑥 1
Where [3 1 −1] [𝑦] = [2]
1 4 −6 𝑧 1
2 −3 5: 1
[𝐴: 𝐵] = [3 1 −1 : 2]
1 4 −6: 1
Step II: Operating 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3
1 4 −6: 1
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [3 1 −1 : 2]
2 −3 5: 1
Step III: Operating 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
1 4 −6: 1
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 −11 17 : − 1 ]
0 −11 17: −1
Step IV: Operating 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
1 4 −6: 1
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 −11 17 : −1]
0 0 0: 0
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 2
Step V: System is consistent and solution exist
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐶) = 2 < 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 = 3
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System has infinite number of solution

1 4 −6 𝑥 1
Step VI:[0 −11 17 ] [𝑦] = [−1]
0 0 0 𝑧 0
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = 1 (1)
−11𝑦 + 17𝑧 = −1 (2)
Here we have 2 equations and 3unknowns,so for one variable we assigned one arbitrary
constants, let z = k put in eq.(2) to get value of y and put value of y, z to get value of x then
solution is given by
7 − 2𝑘 1 + 17𝑘
𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 = 𝑘
11 11
Example1.6: For what value of 𝜆 the set of equations
3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 3,
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 𝜆,
5𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 6𝑥3 = 15,
Have i) No Solution ii) Infinitely many solution
Solution:
Step I:
3 2 4 𝑥1 3
𝑥
[1 1 1 ] [ 2 ] = [ 𝜆 ]
5 4 6 𝑥3 15
A𝑋 =𝐵
Step II:-
3 2 4 ∶ 3
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [1 1 1 : 𝜆 ],
5 4 6 ∶ 15
Step III:-Operating 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
1 1 1 ∶ 𝜆
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [3 2 4 : 3 ],
5 4 6 ∶ 15
Operate 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1
1 1 1 ∶ 𝜆
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 −1 1 : 3 − 3𝜆 ],
0 −1 1 ∶ 15 − 5𝜆
Operate 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 ,
1 1 1 ∶ 𝜆
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 −1 1 : 3 − 3𝜆 ],
0 0 0 ∶ 12 − 2𝜆

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Step IV:-
𝜌(𝐴) = 2 , 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 3
System consistent iff𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 2
𝑖. 𝑒. 12 − 2𝜆 = 0
12=2 𝜆
𝜆=6
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 2
n=3
It has infinite no. of solutions
Step V:-
1 1 1 𝑥1 6
𝑥
[0 −1 1] [ 2 ] = [−15]
0 0 0 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 6, (1)
−𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −15, (2)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥3 = 𝑡, 𝑥2 = 15 + 𝑡
𝑥1 = 6 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 = 6 − 15 − 𝑡
𝑥1 = −9 − 2𝑡
If 𝜆 ≠ 6 then system is inconsistent
𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵)and it has no solutions.
Example 1.7: For what value of 𝜆 and 𝜇 the system
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇
has i) No Solution ii) Unique Solution iii) Infinitely many solution.
Solution:
Step I: write in matrix form
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 1 1 𝑥 6
[1 2 3] [𝑦] = [10]
1 2 𝜆 𝑧 𝜇

Step II:-
1 1 1 : 6
𝑪 = (𝑨 ∶ 𝑩) = [1 2 3 : 10],
1 2 𝜆 : 𝜇
Step III:- Operating 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 ``
1 1 1 : 6
𝑪~ [0 1 2 : 4 ],
0 0 𝜆 − 3 : 𝜇 − 10

Step IV:-1) For No Solution

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If𝜆 = 3 and 𝜇 ≠ 10
𝜌(𝐴) = 2 , 𝜌(𝐶) = 3
𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 𝜌(𝐶)
System is inconsistent and has no solution
Step V:-1) For Unique Solution
If𝜆 ≠ 3 and 𝜇 can take any value
𝜌(𝐴) = 3 , 𝜌(𝐶) = 3
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐶) = 3 = 𝑟,
System is consistent, number of unknowns = n = 3, n = r
System has unique solution
Step VI:-1) For Infinite Solution
If𝜆 = 3 and 𝜇 = 10
𝜌(𝐴) = 2 , 𝜌(𝐶) = 2
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐶) = 3 = 𝑟, System is consistent
n > r, System have infinite solution

Exercise 1.3
1) Test the consistency and solve if consistent
12𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2, 2. 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −2,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2,
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4,
4𝑥 − 7𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 2
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −5

3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3, 4. 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 1,

2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1, 3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 2,
4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 2 𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = 1

5. 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 +3𝑥
6𝑧−=2𝑦
8, + 𝑧 = 4 6. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6,
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5,
15𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 21 3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8

7. 2𝑥 + 𝑧 = 4, 8. 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 +2𝑥2𝑧−=2𝑦1,+ 3𝑧 = 7
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 7 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4,
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1 10𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −2

9. 3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3, 10. 2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 2𝑥
− 𝑥−3 3𝑦 −4𝑧==8,5
+ 3𝑥
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = −3 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 + 2 = 0,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 6
4𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = −8

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2) For what value of 𝜆 and 𝜇 the system

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 9,
7𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 8
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇
has i) No Solution ii) Unique Solution iii) Infinitely many solution.
3) Find value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 so that the equations
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 2,
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2
5𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑏
has i) No Solution ii)Unique Solution iii) Infinitely many solution.
4) Show that the system
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 𝛼,
4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 𝛽
5𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 𝛾
is consistent only when 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are in arithmetic progression
5) For what value of k the equations
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1,
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 𝑘
4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 10𝑧 = 𝑘 2
have infinitely many solution. Hence find the values of k for which the equations are
inconsistent.

Homogeneous System
Consider a homogeneous linear system 𝐴𝑋 = 0, the augmented matrix is [𝐴 ∶ 0]
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 0)
∴ Every homogeneous system is always consistent and has unique or infinite solution

Homogeneous System
[A][X]= [0]

Always Consistent System

rank (A) = rank (A:B)

Unique Solution or trivial solution Infinite Solutions

(|𝐴| ≠ 0) ( |𝐴| = 0)
Rank(A)=number of unknowns Rank(A)< number of unknowns

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Example1.9: For different values of k discuss the nature of solution of the following
equation
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 + (𝑘 + 7)𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + (𝑘 − 3)𝑧 = 0
Solution: Step 1: Write in matrix form
𝐴𝑋 = 0
1 2 −1 𝑥 0
[3 𝑘+7 −3 ] [𝑦] = [0]
2 4 𝑘−3 𝑧 0
1 2 −1
Step 2:-|𝐴| = |3 𝑘 + 7 −3 |
2 4 𝑘−3
= [(𝑘 + 7)(𝑘 + 3) + 12] − 2[3𝑘 − 9 + 6] − [12 − 2𝑘 − 14] = 𝑘 2 − 1
Step 3:-1) For Unique Solution
If|𝐴| ≠ 0 , 𝑘 2 − 1 ≠ 0 i.e. 𝑘 ≠ ±1
System is consistent and has unique solution 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0
Step 4:-1) For Infinite Solution
If|𝐴| = 0, 𝑘 2 − 1 = 0 i.e. 𝑘 = ±1
System is consistent and has nontrivial or infinite solution
Step 5:-1)Solution Fork=1
1 2 −1 : 0
𝑪 = (𝑨 ∶ 𝟎) = [3 8 −3 : 0],
2 4 −2 : 0
Step 6:- Operating 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
1 2 −1 : 0
𝑪~ [0 2 0 : 0],
0 0 0 : 0
Step 7:- again write in matrix form AX = 0
1 2 −1 𝑥 0
[0 2 0 ] [𝑦] = [0]
0 0 0 𝑧 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 (1)
2y = 0 (2)

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From (2) 𝑦 = 0 and assume 𝑥 = 𝑘1 , 𝑧 = 𝑘1

Solution for k =1 is 𝑥 = 𝑘1 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑘1
Step 8:-1) Solution For k = -1
1 2 −1 : 0
𝑪 = (𝑨 ∶ 𝟎) = [3 6 −3 : 0],
2 4 −4 : 0
Step 9:- Operating 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
1 2 −1 : 0
𝑪~ [0 0 0 : 0],
0 0 −2 : 0
Step 10:- again write in matrix form AX = 0
1 2 −1 𝑥 0
[0 0 0 ] [𝑦 ] = [ 0]
0 0 −2 𝑧 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 (1)
-2z = 0 (2)
From (2) 𝑧 = 0 and assume 𝑦 = 𝑘2 , 𝑥 = −2𝑘2
Solution for k = -1 is 𝑥 = −2𝑘2 , 𝑦 = 𝑘2 , 𝑧 = 0.
Example1.10: Examine the following system of equation for consistency and solve it.
4𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 0
Solution:
Step 1:- Write in matrix form
𝐴𝑋 = 0
4 −1 1 𝑥1 0
𝑥
[1 2 −1] [ 2 ] = [0]
3 1 5 𝑥3 0

4 −1 1
Step 2:-|𝐴| = |1 2 −1| = 47 ≠ 0
3 1 5
System has trivial solution 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 0, 𝑥3 = 0
Exercise 1.4
1) Solve the following system of equations
1 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 =0 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 =0
4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 0

3 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 4 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 =0 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 =0
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
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𝑥−𝑦+𝑧 =0

5 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 6 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 =0 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 6𝑧 =0
𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0

7 4𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 8 2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 + 3𝑥4 = 0

2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = 0 4𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0
3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0 3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 + 4𝑥4 = 0
𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 7𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = 0

2) Show that the system of equations

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 0
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 =0
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 = 0
has a nontrivial solution only if 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 or if a = b = c. Find the nontrivial solution
when the condition is satisfied.
3) Show that the system of equations
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 𝜆𝑥1
3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 𝜆𝑥2
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 𝜆𝑥3
Can have a nontrivial solution only if 𝜆 = 6. Obtain the solution for real values of 𝜆
4) For what value of 𝜆 the system has non-trivial solution? Hence solve it completely
(1 − 𝜆)𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 =0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
5) Find the value of 𝜆 for which the following system has non-trivial solution, hence solve it
completely
𝜆𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
−𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝜆𝑥3 = 0

6) Find the value of 𝑘 such that the system of equations has non-trivial solution, Find the
solution
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 =0
7𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
Syllabus content: - Gauss Jordan Elimination Method
• This method is used for nonhomogeneous system of equations.
• Reduce the augumented matrix by using only row transformation into identity
matrix.
• The solution is obtained for the desired variables.

Example1.13:Solve the system of equations by using Gauss Jordan elimination method

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𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 8
4𝑥 + 5𝑧 = 2
Solution:
Step I: AX=B
1 1 1 𝑥 5
[2 3 5] [𝑦] = [8]
4 0 5 𝑧 2
Step II:-
1 1 1 ∶ 5
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [2 3 5 ∶ 8],
4 0 5 ∶ 2
Step III:- Operate 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1

1 1 1 ∶ 5
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 1 3 : −2 ],
0 −4 1 ∶ −18
Operate 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 4𝑅2
1 1 1 ∶ 5
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 1 3 : −2 ],
0 0 13 ∶ −26
Operate 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 /13
1 1 1 ∶ 5
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 1 3 : −2],
0 0 1 ∶ −2
Operate 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅3 , 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 ,
1 1 0 ∶ 7
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 1 0 : 4]
0 0 1 ∶ −2
Operate 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
1 0 0 ∶ 3
(𝐴: 𝐵) = [0 1 0 : 4]
0 0 1 ∶ −2

1 0 0 𝑥 3
Step IV:- [0 1 0] [𝑦] = [ 4 ]
0 0 1 𝑧 −2
𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = −2

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Exercise 1.5
Solve the following system of equations by using Gauss Jordan elimination method
1) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 2, 6𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 9𝑧 = 6, 7𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 21𝑧 = 13
2) 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2, 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3, 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 4
3) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 1, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑡 = −2, 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 − 2𝑡 = 4, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 𝑡 = 0
4) 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 22, 3𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 27, −𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2
5) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5, 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −3, 𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 10

Syllabus content: - Orthogonal Matrix

Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if, 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐴, If matrix A is orthogonal then
𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑇
For orthogonal matrix |𝐴| = ±1
Example1.13: Show that the matrix is orthogonal
2/3 1/3 −2/3
[−2/3 2/3 1/3 ]
1/3 2/3 −2/3
Solution:
Step I:
To verify A is orthogonal matrix check that 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
Step II:
2/3 1/3 −2/3 2/3 −2/3 1/3 1 0 0
𝑇
𝐴𝐴 = [−2/3 2/3 1/3 ] [ 1/3 2/3 2/3 ] = [0 1 0] = 𝐼
1/3 2/3 −2/3 −2/3 1/3 −2/3 0 0 1
∴ A is orthogonal matrix
cos 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃
Example1.14: Show that [ 0 1 0 ] is orthogonal and find 𝐴−1
− sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃

Solution:
StepI:
To verify A is orthogonal matrix check that 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
Step II:
cos 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 − sin 𝜃 1 0 0
𝑇
𝐴𝐴 = [ 0 1 0 ][ 0 1 0 ] = [0 1 0] = 𝐼
− sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 0 0 1
∴ A is orthogonal matrix

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Step III: To find 𝐴−1 =𝐴𝑇 for orthogonal matrix

0 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
−1
𝐴 1 0 ]=[ 0
0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
0 2𝑏 𝑐
Example1.14: Determine the values of a,b,c when [𝑎 𝑏 −𝑐] is orthogonal
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
Solution:
StepI:
Given that A is orthogonal matrix ∴ 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
Step II:
0 2𝑏 𝑐 0 𝑎 𝑎 1 0 0
[𝑎 𝑏 −𝑐] [2𝑏 𝑏 −𝑏] = [0 1 0]
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 −𝑐 𝑐 0 0 1
4𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 1, 2𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 = 0, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 1, 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 = 0
1 1 1
𝑎=± ,𝑏 = ± ,𝑐 = ±
√2 √6 √3

Exercise 1.5
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
1) Show that [ ] is orthogonal and find 𝐴−1
−sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1/3 2/3 𝑎
2) If 𝐴 = [1/3 1/3 𝑏 ] is orthogonal and find a, b, c .
2/3 −2/3 𝑐
2 1 −2
3) Is 𝐴 = [−2 2 1 ] is an orthogonal matrix? If not can it be converted into an
1 2 −2
orthogonal matrix.

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