PROCESS OF RESEARCH

F. M. Kapepiso
 Learning objectives

At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Discuss the basic steps of the research process
• Formulate a research problem
• Compile a literature review
• Explain what the statement of the problem entails
• Define approaches to research
 Introduction – Process of Research
• Research is an activity undertaken for generating fresh
knowledge.
• Its principal goal is description, prediction, control and
understanding the nature and the human beings,
individuals as well as groups.
• Though research is a continuous activity, for
understanding the complete process it can be taken to
pass through certain distinct stages, one following the
other.
• These steps are essentially inter-linked and starting with
conception of the problem and selection of the area of
investigation end with documentation of the research
findings.
 Stages in Research
1. Selection of Area of Research
2. Review Literature
3. Formulation of Research Problem
Decide the Objectives of Research
Identify the Research Questions
Formulate the Research Hypotheses
4. Design the Research
Methodology of Research
5. Conduct Research / writing research proposal
6. Analyse the Results
Test the Significance of Results
7. Report the Findings of Research
 Selection of Area of Research
Based on -
• Personal Interest of Researcher
• Preference of Researcher
• Knowledge Base and Discipline
• Facility in Obtaining Information
• Time and Resource availability
• Local and institutional Requirement
• If obligatory then best of the available alternatives
• Wider consultations with peer group, supervisor, user group and
other stakeholders
 Selection of a Problem for Research
• A researcher is expected to identify a problem suitable for
research, define it, submit a plan of research to the sponsoring
agency/ regulatory authority and obtain its approval before
proceeding further.
• A problem is a challenge as well as an opportunity for a researcher
to give his best and prove his ability.
 A Research problem
• A research problem in general refers to some theoretical or
practical situation requiring solution.
• Some unresolved issue or a unique situation, profitable business
opportunity, some issue of urgent public interest, or some
unexplored area of knowledge can be a problem of research.
• A research problem should offer
a) one or more possible courses of action, and
b) possibly one or more outcomes, which may be pursued to
achieve the desired objective.
 Essential Features of a Research Problem
• However, a problem/situation may or may not be suitable
for research.
1. Viable – can be tackled with available resources.
2. Do-able – can be done using knowledge and skill with in
the available time.
3. Sustainable – capable of holding interest and
commitment.
4. Original – not re-inventing the wheel.
5. Acceptable – conforms to standards and requirements of
regulators.
• The researcher is expected to evaluate the different
alternatives and options and identify the most suitable one,
which may ensure optimum use of resources in the given
situation and achieve the desired objectives.
 Types of Research problems
• Depending upon how they originate the research problems can be broadly
divided into two types, presented problems and constructed problems.
1. Presented problem: A problem that comes to a researcher or is
given to a researcher or happens to a researcher is known as a
presented problem. The problems are presented to the researcher
by world outside. Some of the examples of presented problems are
as under:
1. Operational Problem: A part of the machinery breaking down in the plant.
2. Marketing Problem: A target set for the group by marketing head not achieved.
3. Financial Problem: Recapitalisation of a business struck in difficult situation.
4. Financial Problem: A sudden increase in the interest rates.
2. Constructed problem: A constructed problem is a problem
identified or developed by the researcher himself. There may be
some thing wrong somewhere and the researcher may be
interested in searching for the problem or doing something about
it. Some examples of constructed problems may be as under:
1. Identification and pointing out the serious limitations in a system.
2. Improvement in the performance of a group.
3. Innovation in a product or a service.
4. Increase in the market share of the company.
5. Improvements in an existing service.
 Differences between Presented and Constructed
Problem
1. A presented problem arises out of the conflict between what is
and what ought to be. A constructed problem includes a conflict
between what is and what might be.
2. The defining feature of a constructed problem is the created gap
between current conditions and potential future conditions. There
might not have been a problem until it was constructed.
Literally the research team constructs a problem for itself.
 Guidelines for Selection of Problem
1. The subject matter of research should be of researcher’s interest. His
educational background, work experience being the main considerations.
2. In the search of a suitable problem the literature available on the subject may be
surveyed. Suggestions and guidance may be sought from supervisor, seniors,
co-workers, peers and other knowledgeable persons. However, in the ultimate
the researcher is expected to make final decision.
3. The problem selected should be neither too narrow nor too broad. It should be
proper considering utility as well as resources.
4. Controversial and irrelevant problems should be avoided.
5. Personal considerations like researcher’s capability and resources required to
complete the research and social considerations like its contribution to
wealth and welfare of the society also should be examined.
6. The problem selected should be useful and feasible.
7. In case of difficulty a preliminary feasibility study may be undertaken to
understand the nature and dimensions of the challenge involved in
conducting research and finding a solution to the problem.
 Defining a Research problem
• Defining a research problem involves laying down the limits within which the
research work will be carried out keeping in view the pre-determined objectives.
• A research problem should be defined in clear and unambiguous terms. This is
essential to delimit the scope of research and also to discriminate between
relevant and irrelevant.
• The effort, time and cost of research may be wasted if the problem is not properly
defined. The researcher may end up doing something he was not required to do,
leaving something which was an essential requirement of research.
• Care for details is required at this stage, so that a suitable research design may be
prepared and the work may be carried out without much difficulty.
• Defining research problem requires knowledge of the field of investigation and
experience. A young researcher may find some difficulty in defining research
problem. He should better seek the guidance of seniors and research supervisor
in this respect.
• It should be done in unhurried and systematic manner, first stating the problem in
a general way, surveying the relevant literature, developing proper understanding
through discussions and consultations and finally defining the problem in an
appropriate manner.
 Process of defining a problem
• The process of defining a research problem involves
(a) Discussions with decision makers, interview with subject
experts and other knowledgeable individuals,
(b) Analysis of secondary data and existing literature on the
subject.
(c) Develop understanding of the background and context of the
research problem and environmental factors having a bearing
on the problem, etc.
 Survey of Literature
• Survey of relevant literature is extremely useful in understanding
the problem of research.
1.Besides bringing to light certain aspects considered essential it
opens up new areas and provides alternatives.
2.Survey of literature is also helpful in developing expertise in the
area and towards identifying what contribution can be made for
developing appropriate research design.
3.The survey of literature reveals what other researchers have done
and how others have attempted similar and related research
problems.
 Survey of literature
a. Identification of sources
b. Review of literature
c. Bibliography cards
d. Evaluation of literature
 Identification of sources
• The sources of literature relevant to the problem under
investigation are identified. The sources can be local or
outstation, public or private or both. Public libraries,
institutional libraries, research libraries, government
departments are important sources of useful literature for
social sciences research.
• The available literature may be in the form of books,
monographs, articles in research journals, research reports,
administrative reports submitted by government
departments, proceedings of parliamentary committees,
encyclopaedia, etc. Besides printed form the literature may
be also available in the form of videotapes, films, microfilms,
floppies, web sites, etc. A researcher has to reach all these
sources and access the relevant literature.
 Review of literature
• For review the literature has to be read. However, while
reviewing the literature it is not necessary to read each and
every word of each and every reference. Only relevant portions
of the book, article, etc., should be carefully read and notes of
important portions should be taken. These can be recorded in
the form of direct quotation, or paraphrasing or summarisation
• Direct quotations may be taken down in case the statement
explains a point or a concept more clearly and suitably than it is
possible otherwise.
• In paraphrasing the basic structure of the expression of the
author is retained but the information is condensed.
• In summarization while the author’s views and the concept are
retained the literary style and the idea is expressed through
minimum words and in minimum space. Whatever method is
adopted the idea is to ensure easy recall at a later stage of the
major portion of the literature surveyed.
 Bibliography cards
• On the basis of the insight gained from survey of literature a
reading list is prepared. The reading list may be organized in the
form of bibliography cards, one for each source. The bibliography
cards should contain name of author(s), title of publication,
publishers, year of publication, edition and pages. The name of
the library and library accession number may be also recorded for
future reference.
 Evaluation of literature
• The material collected from different sources may vary in quality,
completeness and accuracy. The opinion expressed and the conclusions
arrived at even under similar situations may be different from one to the
other or at times conflicting and contradictory. An evaluation of the
literature surveyed should therefore, be done considering the following:
1. Accuracy and dependability of the literature.
2. Up-dated information.
3. Suitability for meeting the specific requirement
4. Scope
5. Treatment of subject matter and style.
6. Arrangement of material
7. Illustrative tables and diagrams
8. Target group of users, etc
• The collected material should be organized first chapter-wise and then
within each chapter item-wise, so that the same may be recalled and
used while drawing conclusions and writing the research report.
 Problem Statement
• Research is always about finding a solution to a problem or finding
an answer to a question.
• The researcher must therefore formulate a problem statement in a
clear and concise way.
• The problem statement must indicate what the main issues are that
need to be addressed through an investigation.
• Thus, the researcher must explain what the problem is, why it is a
problem, and why it needs to be solved.
• The problem must be strongly related to the purpose of the study.
• You may state the problem in the form of a question that will help
you to address the research problem or in the form of objective.
 Objectives of Research
• Personal Objectives of Researcher
• Institutional Objectives
• Research Objectives
Main Objectives
Subsidiary Objectives
• Compatibility among Objectives
 Personal objectives
There are many reasons for which people take to research.
1. One most commonly expressed wish at the beginning is to make
significant contribution in a branch of knowledge. This is an
idealistic view.
2. Generally students develop interest in a particular discipline at
undergraduate level, pursue post graduation in that area and
then select a problem from that area for research.
3. Some students do project or write paper on a contemporary
problem at post graduation or write a dissertation on a problem
and may like to pursue their interest further by undertaking
systematic research. So the objective is to further this interest.
4. Sometimes the project or research is necessary part of the
degree or diploma. So the objective is to meet this requirement.
 Institutional objectives
• Universities have an important responsibility of promoting and nurturing
research. They have the necessary infrastructure for this purpose such as
supervisors, libraries, laboratories, etc. Universities award fellowships and
financial grants for selected research to full time research scholars. Research
institutions also enroll research scholars, award fellowships, financial
assistance and other research facilities. Some social and cultural institutions
and business enterprises also sponsor research.
• Universities have a system of examining and clearing research proposals,
registering research scholars, appointing supervisors, monitoring progress and
evaluation of research output. Often there is wide range of difference from
one university to another in these practices, some having well established
regulations and practices and guarding them, while some others are flexible,
even lax in regulations as well as in practice. Some universities have reputation
for excellence and scholars go there from distant places.
• Sometimes research projects are sponsored by government authorities,
business enterprises and other institutions. Researchers working on such
projects are selected by the sponsor, the research project is developed through
mutual consultation and finances are provided. Researcher is answerable to
the sponsor and works to meet the research objectives of the sponsor.
 Research objectives
(a) Main objectives: The main objectives of research are as under:
1. Bridging gap in knowledge in an area.
2. Discovery of truth. This also includes verification of what is known to be true
and confirming wherever a doubt exists.
3. Providing explanation for a widely observed social phenomenon.
4. Develop understanding of cause and effect relationship under various
situations.
5. Make prediction about future trends and developments
6. To evaluate, refine and improve the methods and techniques used in research.
(b) Subsidiary objectives: Some of the subsidiary objectives of research may be as under:
1.Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity: Research through better understanding of
environment satisfies the urge to know and understand.
2. Control over phenomena: Knowledge that research generates about society and its
institutions can be used for exercising control over social phenomena and social systems
and to ensure their growth on sound lines.
3. Help in planning: Planning is based on knowledge of problem, objectives and
resources available. Research by generating essential information provides a basis for the
formulation of plans.
4. Contribution to human welfare: Social research by identifying social evils, their
magnitude, causes and consequences provides a basis for appropriate measures and
reforms leading to social welfare.
 Statement of Objectives
* Points to be considered in developing a Statement of objectives -
1. The objectives should be clearly stated in a bulleted list and should be phrased in the
form: “To determine…” “To investigate…” “To evaluate…” “To compare…”.
2. The objectives should be related with the problem under investigation.
3. The objectives should fall within the scope of the study.
4. The objectives should be comprehensive enough to cover all aspects of the research
problem. Limit the number of objectives you set to four or five
5. The objectives should neither be too broad to lose their meaning nor too narrow
where by research may lose its utility. Each objective should focus on a single issue.
6. The objectives should be feasible. As such, research objectives usually contains the
following verbs:
• To analyse…
• To compare…
• To describe…
• To determine…
• To test…
• To identify…
• To investigate…
• To examine…
 Example Statement of Research Objectives
‘An Exploration of the Factors Influencing Students’ Intention to
Study at an institution of Higher Education’
• Research objectives identified:
1. To determine and understand the factors influencing the students’
intention to further their study at an institution of higher
education.
2. To identify the significant differences between the students’ gender
and academic background concerning factors they perceive as
important when selecting an institution of higher education
 Research questions
• Research questions are defined statements about specific
components of the research problem.
• The research problem and its theoretical framework form the
basis of research questions.
• For developing research questions various components of the
research problem are clearly stated. Sometimes a component is
further divided into two or more sub components.
• A research question then states what information is required with
respect to a research component or sub-component to meet the
requirement of research problem.
 Development of Research Questions
• Points to consider –
1. Fall with in the scope of research objectives.
2. The answers of questions should be comprehensive enough to
meet all the objectives of research.
3, A research question is stated in question form starting with
‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how’, ‘when’, who, etc.
4. As per the requirement of a research problem there may be 1, 2
or more research questions.
 Example - Research Questions

• For ‘An Exploration of the Factors Influencing

Students’ Intention to Study at an institution of
Higher Education’
• Research questions raised to guide the research work
were:
1. What are the influencing factors and the contributions
they make to a students’ intention to study at an
institution of higher education.
2. How the students of different gender and from
different academic background differ in the selection
criteria they consider important when choosing an
institution of higher education.
 Research hypotheses
• A hypothesis (H) is a proposition, a tentative generalization about
the subject of inquiry, the validity of which is to be tested for its
logical consequences by undertaking research.
• A hypothesis is based on existing knowledge on the subject. It
may be a generally accepted view, an idea or a mere guess.
• The hypothesis is taken to find out the fact, or to give correct
explanation for the result on the basis of investigation.
• The investigation/observation may support or reject the
hypothesis.
 Types of hypothesis
The hypothesis may be stated either as a positive statement or as a
negative statement.
1. Null Hypothesis: When a hypothesis is stated as a negative statement it
is called a null hypothesis (H0). The object of giving hypothesis as a null
hypothesis is to avoid personal bias of the investigator during collection
of data as well as at the time of drawing conclusions.
• Tentative assumption that ‘chance alone determines the outcome of an
experiment or investigation’ is taken as null hypothesis (H0). Two
criteria often taken for selecting the null hypothesis are:
• Let H0 be the status quo situation, or
• Let H0 be a situation that, if rejected when true, is going to be costly,
extreme or damaging.
2. Alternative Hypothesis: A statement of hypothesis that is stated as a
positive statement is known as alternative hypothesis (H1). It makes a
statement that ‘certain items besides chance are at work and influence
the outcome of the experiment’.
 Research design
• Research design is a plan, a structure and a strategy of
investigation conceived to obtain answers to various issues
in research and to control variance.
• The Plan is overall scheme or programme of research, the
structure is outline of operation of variables and the strategy
implies how the problem will be tackled and the research
objectives will be achieved.
• A research design lays the foundation for conducting
research.
• It involves planning a research, selecting methods and
procedures expected to yield meaningful and interpretable
results.
 Need of Research Design
• A research design is needed to conduct research most efficiently
and to achieve maximum results at minimum cost.
• This facilitates collection of relevant data, use of most appropriate
techniques for their analysis and efficient conclusion of a research
inquiry.
• Thus, optimum use of resources, men, materials and time
available can be made and most reliable results can be produced.
• Helpful in testing the research hypotheses and control variance.
Maximization of the results of study, control of extraneous factors
and minimization of variance.
• A research design however, is not a highly specific plan to be
followed without direction. Rather it is a series of guideposts to
keep right direction.
 Issues in research design
1. Should the research environment be disturbed during
experimentation or should the environment be studied as it exists
without causing disturbance to it? Experimental Group and
Control Group
2. How many observations should be made?
3. Should a single sample be selected from the entire population or
a series of samples should be selected?
4. Should a probability sampling or a non-probability sampling
technique be adopted for the selection of sample?
 Types of Research Design

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Design Research Design

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Multiple
Cross Sectional Cross Sectional
Design Design

Completely Randomised Latin square Factorial

Randomised Complete Block Design Design
Design Design
 Appropriate research design
• Among the three research designs described above, each one is
suitable for a different type of research. A researcher should decide
what research design would be appropriate for the study he is to
undertake.
• Selection of a research design among the three alternative research
designs needs great care. It may be difficult to state what constitutes
an appropriate research design. However, the following aspects may
be taken into consideration at the time of deciding about the research
design.
1.Minimization of error: The error in experimentation as well as
due to personal bias both should be minimized to maximize the
accuracy and reliability of results.
2. Yield maximum information: The design must be capable of
yielding maximum information at minimum cost, effort and
time.
3. Flexibility: The research design should be flexible to permit
consideration of a large number of different aspects of the
phenomenon, etc.
 Guidelines for selecting research design
• Considering the aspects suggested above the following general
guidelines may be used:
1. Nature of problem: Much depends upon the nature of problem
to be researched. A design suitable for one research problem
may or may not be useful for the other.
2. Objectives of research: The design should be comprehensive
enough to meet all the research objectives. The objectives of
research should therefore, be considered while deciding the
research design
3. Universe and sample: The nature of universe, sampling frame,
desired standard of accuracy, etc., should be considered.
• Thus, while considering alternative research designs their
suitability, strength and limitations both should be examined.
Comments may be invited from experts and a design appropriate
in the given situation should be selected.
 Methodology of Research
• The methodology of research broadly comprehends research design,
scope of research, sample design in case of sample study, research
instruments design and methodology of data collection and data
analysis.
• In relation to the research problem a researcher should develop
appropriate methodology to cover all aspects.
• Viewing the specific requirements of different aspects of the
methodology the researcher should justify -
a) how a wholesome and representative sample will be selected to cover the
universe comprehensively?
b) what instruments will be developed to generate the required information?
c) what measurements will be used and how for data collection?
d) What techniques will be used for data collection and data analysis and how they have been
considered appropriate.
• All alternatives should be explored and it should be clearly stated how the methodology is
most appropriate in the given situation.
• In case of alternatives they should be stated clearly.
Thanks