RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

DATA COLLECTION AND

INSTRUMENTS

F. M. Kapepiso
 Learning objectives

At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Differentiate between secondary data and primary data
• Apply the most common techniques used in the data
collection process
 Introduction
• Data collection is one of the most important aspects of any
research study.
• Researchers need to take great care when they collect data,
because if it is collected incorrectly, it will lead to invalid results
and findings.
• The way data is collected for quantitative research differs
significantly from the way in which data is collected in a
qualitative research.
 Preliminary to Collection of Data
1. Development of appropriate research instruments –
questionnaires or schedules with appropriate
measurement scales for measuring and recording
responses.
2. Selection of sample in case of sample survey.
3. Decide the approach to be adopted for the collection
of data – primary or secondary sources or both.
4. Method to be used for investigation – observation,
interview, field survey
5. Recruitment and training of field staff in case of field
survey.
6. Arrangement for monitoring and supervision of
research during investigations.
7. Undertaking measures required to increase response
rate, minimize cost and avoid bias.
 Planning for Data Collection
1. Focus on Objectives of Research
2. Define Subject matter and scope
3. Identify appropriate approach
4. Finalize the strategy to approach respondents
5. Decide time and period
6. Design and make ready research records
 Sources of Data

1. Secondary data
A data collected for some other purpose, available from relevant
literature and considered useful for the present research is
known as secondary data.
2. Primary Data
A data collected by the researcher for his own purpose afresh
through observation, interview, experimentation or survey.
 Rationale - Secondary Sources
Advantages
1. Economical -Time and resources saving
2. Related problems - Minimizations of related problems
3. Supportive Evidence - Useful as a support to primary data
based findings
4. Insight in case of New Area - Provide insight into the subject
matter
Limitations
1. Differences - Research Problem related differences
2. Source - Source may not be credible
3. Relevance – Information may not be relevant
4. Accuracy - Degree of accuracy desired may not be ensured
 Methods of Primary Data Collection
The most frequently used techniques of data collection within
the basic two research methods.
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Experiments
4. Field Investigation (using Questionnaires/Schedules)
 1. Observation method

• Scientific observation is a planned and focused exercise to

undercover, understand and reveal the truth with fullest
sense of responsibility.
• In observation method collection of information is done
through the use of senses – seeing, hearing, smelling,
testing, touching, feeling, etc.
 When to use Observation Method
In case of –
(a) Subjects not in a position to give information - being
uneducated, child, animal, etc.
(b) Subject not ready and willing to give information -
concealment
(c) Language is a barrier in communication
(d) Subject matter requires such an approach
(e) Subject’s behavior may be influenced during interaction.
 2. Interview method

• Interview is a technique of obtaining data verbally through

direct contact.
• “Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.
Its primary purpose may be research but this is a purpose for
the investigator.” Goode and Hatt,
• Here the researcher/interviewer enters more or less
imaginatively into the life of a comparative stranger, arouses
his interest, creates environment for strain free dialog and
obtains required information.
 Merits of Interview Method
1. Effective method – Possible to explore and probe deep into
details
2. Direct personal contact with respondent
3. Greater convenience to both the parties – Interviewer and
Respondent.
4. Greater flexibility in approach as per the situation
5. More accurate information - being first hand
6. Cross checking possible
 Types of Interviews
1. Personal Interview
(a) Structured
(b) Unstructured
(c) Focused Interview
(d) Clinical Interview
(e) In-depth Interview
(f) Telephonic Interview
(g) Repeated Interview
2. Impersonal Interview
(a) E mail interview
(b) Through a Web site
 Telephonic Interview
• Telephone interview is a technique of obtaining data verbally
through telephone contact.
Objective – To minimize time, cost and effort required in data
collection through personal visit
Types –
1. Telephonic interview (Now mobile phone also)
2. Tele conferencing
 Features - Telephonic Interview

1. Contact through telephone,

2. Time and convenience is pre-finalised
3. Verbal information obtained on telephone
4. Responses recorded by interviewer
5. Separate interview for each respondent or group
 Usefulness of Telephone Interview

1. Limited information is required

2. Time available is limited
3. No Personal contact is required
4. Information obtained is of personal nature, known to the
respondent
 Precautions in Interview
1. Meeting to be decided through mutual convinience
2. Prior Arrangement of Meeting
3. Convenient Place and time
4. Questionnaire designed should be appropriate – Inconvenient
questions to be avoided
5. Due courtesy and mutual respect to be shown
6. If details are required to be generated, it should be communicated
in advance
7. If possible the questions proposed to be asked may be sent in
advance.
8. Responses to be properly recorded – Audio Recording, Video
Recording
9. Appropriate person to be picked up for interview
10.Atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence to be maintained
throughout
 Interviewer

• The success of interview method hinges on interviewer

• The interviewer should –
(a) Make a pleasant impression
(b) Possess tact, social sensibility and wisdom
(c) Understands the requirement of research
(d) Be prepared to stand up to tiring routine
 3. Experimentation method
• In experiment a researcher manipulates one or more
independent variable and observes and records their effect on
dependent variables, while controlling the effect of
extraneous variables.
• When conducting an experiment a researcher has two goals
a) draw valid conclusions about the effect of independent variables on
the dependent variables, and
b) make valid generalizations over a wider group or population.
 4. Field Survey method
• For the collection of primary data generally a survey is conducted. In
order that this survey yields data of required type, depth and
standard, proper planning should be done. For planning a survey,
however, a clear statement in respect of the following is required:
• Objectives: A clear statement of the objectives of the survey in
statistical terms is most important at the outset. The sponsoring
agency should think deeply and identify the objectives of survey in
concrete terms so that planning may be attempted to achieve the
results.
• Subject Matter and Scope: The subject matter and scope of
investigation must be clearly defined, so that the universe may be
identified. A universe or population defines the scope of inquiry and
while nothing outside it should be considered, at the same time
nothing, which forms its essential part, should be left out.
• However, under special circumstances the sampled population may
be different from the targeted population, like non-consideration of
floating population in a census of human beings.
 Types of Field Survey

1. Mail Survey
Postal Survey
Survey through e mail
2. Survey through Investigators
3. Telephone surveys
 Requirements of Mail Survey

1. Questionnaire sent through mail, (now e mail, SMS).

2. Responses may be obtained through mail or collected through
some other method
3. Postal (e mail) addresses of respondents to be procured in
advance
4. Cost, time and effort is considerably minimised
 Essentials to ensure good response

(1) Interest of the respondent in research should be created

through by making an appeal explaining the objective of
research and its benefits.
(2) Assurance of Confidentiality and Ethical approach
(3) A Stamped envelop should be posted in case of mail survey.
(4) Questions should be simple to understand and answer.
(5) Number of questions should be minimised.
(6) Give adequate time to respondent to read and answer.
(7) Maintain effective control through monitoring and follow up.
(8) Such a survey is possible only in case of educated
respondents.
 Precautions in Survey through e mail

1. Establish contact and understanding with respondents

2. No personal and sensitive information to be collected
3. Send an appeal explaining the objectives and utility of the
survey
4. Give complete assurance of privacy and confidentiality of
information provided and intended use of information
collected.
5. Continuously monitoring the survey through e mail and SMS
6. Send confirmation and thanks on receipt of response to all
respondents.
7. Share research findings with respondents.
 5. Field Survey through Investigators

• An investigator is a person who locates (or selects)

respondent, motivates (creates intrest), interacts (puts
questions) and records (responses) in an investigation or a
survey.
• Researcher should consider selection of appropriate
investigators judged by issue such as education,
communication ability, knowledge of people, area and
problem, committed to work assigned
• Researcher should consider training the investigators
 Limitations of Primary data
1. Sampling Error and Non-Sampling Error: In a sample study even when it is
well designed and well conducted, the sample may not provide a true
representation of the population under study, as the sample represents
only a part of the population under study. This may result in wrong
inference about the population. This difference due to sample, between
the parameter value and the statistic value is known as sampling error.
The error in sample results due to reasons other than sampling
fluctuations is known as non-sampling error.
2. Non Response in Investigation: Sometimes an investigator is faced with the
situation that the unit selected in sample does not respond or cooperate.
This creates non response error in the results. The primary cause of non
response is refusal and not at home. Sometimes the respondent when
contacted may refuse to give information. In telephone interview this is
particularly so. The refusal arises on account of lack of confidence in the
organisation conducting the survey, the investigator, objective of research
and at times due to attitude or lack of time.
 Precautions in collecting Primary data
1. The process of data collection should be launched after thorough planning
in advance.
2. All preliminary work for data collection like selection of respondents,
names and addresses of respondents, development of research
instruments, making copies of instruments as per the requirement,
selection of investigators, if required, records for data etc., should be
prepared in advance.
3. The method for collection of data should be decided after consideration of
all aspects.
4. Effective monitoring and control should be exercised over data collection.
5. The response rate should be maintained at satisfactory level or above using
all methods including incentive to investigators and respondents.
6. Complete objectivity should be maintained throughout the data collection
process.
 Research Instruments
• Research instruments are designed for the collection of research
information/data.
• Research instruments are known as questionnaire and schedule
• A questionnaire is a set of questions arranged logically, divided
into sections and groups, drawn with the object of collecting
information about various aspects of the subject of research.
• An interview schedule is technically a list of questions that will
be asked by the interviewer in person to the respondent who
shall record the answers.
• One or more than one instruments may be designed as per the
requirement of research.
• There may be similar or different instruments – Questionnaire
and schedule – for different participants/respondents.
 Questionnaire and Schedule - Similarities

• Both instruments are designed keeping in view –

1. The object,
2. Scope,
3. Subject matter, and
4. Other aspects of the research problem.

• Both instruments are administered to

participants/respondents for obtaining their responses.
 Distinctions-Questionnaire and Schedule
1. Administration- Questionnaire is self administered,
while schedule is administered by interviewer
2. Setting – Questionnaire is generally structured, while schedule
provides choice of items as well as sequence to the
interviewer.
3. Contact with Respondent – In questionnaire contact is
indirect. Questionnaire can be even mailed. But a schedule
requires personal contact with respondent.
4. Flexibility – Questionnaire though structured provides some
flexibility through open ended questions. The schedule is
administered by the interviewer and as such provides
enough flexibility.
 Objectives of Questionnaire

1. To comprehensively cover all aspects of research leaving no

gaps.
2. To guide the research on set path.
3. To motivate the respondents to provide the required
information.
4. To minimise error.
 Essential Features - Questionnaire
1. Clarity: The meaning of each question should be clearly conveyed to the
respondent.
2. Brevity: The number of questions should be kept small, to minimize time, effort
and cost of survey.
3. Simplicity: The questions should be simple to address, simple to understand and
simple to respond. In fact the questions should be constructed as a well thought
out and planned effort.
4. Understandability: The questionnaire should be drafted in simple language to
ensure wider and easy understandability.
5. Logical: The questions should be arranged in logical and systematic order, so that
there is better understanding between the investigator and the respondent.
6. Precision: The unit of enumeration should be defined precisely to ensure accuracy
and completeness in the information.
7. Cross Check: Some questions should be included in the questionnaire with a view to
cross check the answers of other questions.
8. Confidentiality: There should be full assurance of confidentiality of the information
given.
9. Object: The object of inquiry should be made clear at the outset.
10. Objectivity: The questionnaire should provide straightforward direction for the
respondent so that he may not find any difficulty in answering the questions.
 Types of Questionnaire
1. Structured- Disguised Questions
Object is disguised
Designing questions is difficult
Suitable for Attitude Research to reveal hidden motives, feelings and behaviour
2. Structured – Undisguised Questions
Difficult to design items but easy to administer
Suitable for Detailed Investigation of subject matter
Designing of items requires expert knowledge.
3. Unstructured – Disguised Questions
Design of questions is kept flexible to suit interviewer
Requires expertise in interviewing and knowledge of subject matter
Designing of questions is Difficult
Success depends largely upon the skill of interviewer
Suitable for research covering subjects such as emotions, feelings, motives, etc.
4. Unstructured – Undisguised Questions
Design of questions is kept flexible
Interviewer should possess expert knowledge of the subject matter
Suitable for exploratory studies in a new area of research
 Types of Questions

1. Specific Information Questions

2. Yes or No Types
3. Providing Choice among Alternatives
4. Ranking
5. Rating
6. Open ended (for Opinion)
 Principals of designing questions

1. Reliability – A question expected to bring same answer under

all conditions.
2. Validity – A question measures what it says it does.
3. Discrimination – Sensitive to measuring real and meaningful
differences in sample.
4. Response quality – Expected to bring correct response from
respondents.
5. Relevant – It should form a useful part of the questionnaire.
6. Exhaustive – All respondents may be covered by the question.
7. Mutually exclusive – Each unique and covering a new area.
8. Clearly worded – Such that the respondent faces no difficulty
in answering.
 Precautions in Designing Items
In designing items for questionnaire or schedule -
1. Use simple, clear and direct language.
2. Items included should be capable of providing information on
positive as well as negative view points.
3. No multiple interpretation should be possible of terms used.
Words with multiple and vague meaning and interpretation to
be avoided.
5. No leading questions should be asked. The faith, beliefs,
religion of people should not be challenged and questioned.
6. Items written should be capable of covering a wide range of
view points.
7. Concepts should be defined, if considered necessary.
8. Items requiring information that is of confidential and
personal nature should be avoided.
 Types of Questions not to be Kept

1. Questions with unwarranted assumptions

2. Unnecessarily objectionable questions
3. Ambiguous questions
4. Biased questions
5. Questions with double negatives
6. Double barreled questions
 Pre-testing of Questionnaire

• In case of a survey covering a large number of respondents

the questionnaire may be tested on a small sample through a
pilot survey. It may be updated and revised in the light of the
insight gained from the survey.
• Pretesting is necessary to increase the effectiveness of
questionnaire.
• Pre testing is necessary not only for the questionnaire used
for field survey but also for interview, whether conducted
through personal appearance or through mail, or on
telephone or other means. By observing the attitude and
behavioural changes and the problems in its administration
the questionnaire can be greatly improved.
 Methods of Administering Questionnaire
1. Through Mail
Suitable for covering wider area and group in less time and effort. Cost is
also less.
Requires – detailed planning in advance, development of structured
questionnaire, arrangements for mailing and pick up of questionnaire,
supervision, etc.
However, chances of delay in response, non-response, incomplete
information, etc., more.
2. Self Administered
Suitable for research of continuing and long term nature
Administration is easy, ensures anonymity of respondent and
confidentiality, cost is less.
Requires - distribution of questionnaire with product or at service,
Gaps in information provided, non-response, wrong information can not be
prevented
 Some Examples of instruments

1. An exploration of ...Intention to Study

2. What is wrong with our city?
 An Exploration of the Factors Influencing Students’ Intention to
Study at an institution of Higher Education’

A – Respondents’ Profile
1. Gender Male Female
2. Age Group
<15 Yrs 15 – 18 Yrs 18 - 21 Yrs 21 - 24 yrs > 24 Yrs
3. Domicile
Namibia Zimbabwe Zambia Angola Botswana Others
4. Religion
Christians Muslims Others
5. Highest
Qualification Secondary < Degree Degree Post Degree
6. Family Size
(Including up to 2 3 to 4 5 to 6 > 6 persons
Respondent)
7. Family Income
(Gross Annual
N$000) < 20 20 -40 40 - 60 40 - 80 > 8000
 An Exploration of the Factors Influencing Students’ Intention to
Study at an institution of Higher Education’…

B Cost of Education
(Annual N$ 000) <10 10-20 20-40 40-80 >80
C. Degree
Content & Structure Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
D. Physical Facilities
& Infrastructure Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
E. Value of Education
Perception Very High High Average Low Very Low
F Institution Information
Status Very High High Average Low Very Low
G. Motivation Source
Family Friends Peers Teachers Others
H. Intention to Study
Commitment Very High High Average Low Very Low
_______________________________________________________________
 What is wrong about our city?
1. Considering the current state of economy do you consider the prices of
real estate in the city?
(a) Overpriced (b) Reasonable (c) Underpriced
2. What are the bottlenecks in providing housing a basic necessity of life like
bread and clothing?
(a) High cost of land
(b) High cost of building material
(c) Availability of residential land
(d) Availability of finance
(e) High rate of interest and stiff terms of contract
(f) Legal and administrative hurdles in transfer of property
3. Are you satisfied with the quality of education available in the city? Give
rating on five point scale.
(a) Very good (b) Good (c) It is OK (d) Not good (e) Very bad
 What is wrong about our city?
4. What factors are responsible for poor quality of education?
(a) Lack of Good Schools □
(b) Lack of Good Teachers □
(c) Lack of Parental interest and control □
(d) Lack of motivation among students □
(e) High rates of fee charged □
(f) Low rates of fee charged □
(g) Non availability of good literature □
(h) Withdrawal of state funding □
(i) Profit motive of school management □
(j) Lack of effective supervision and control □
5. Are you satisfied with the healthcare services available in the city? Give your rating on five
point scale.
(a) Very Satisfied □ (b) Satisfied □ (c) Some what satisfied □
(d) Somewhat dissatisfied □ (e) Very dissatisfied □
 What is wrong about our city?
6. What factors are impacting the quality of healthcare in the city?
(a) Lack of good professionals among medical personnel □
(b) Poor quality of Hospital Infrastructure □
(c) High load of patients on doctor □
(d) Lack of availability of funds for medical and healthcare □
(e) Lack of sensitivity among medical personnel □
(e) lack of appreciation of the role of medical personnel among patients,
relatives of patients and public at large □
(f) Poor quality of medical education □
(g) Corruption in the system □
7. Are you satisfied with the power supply system in the city? Give your rating on five point
scale
(a) Very Satisfied □ (b) Satisfied □ (c) Somewhat satisfied □
(d) Somewhat dissatisfied □ (e) Very dissatisfied □
 What is wrong about our city?
8. What are the reasons for poor quality of power supply in the city?
(a) Poor quality of power infrastructure □
(b) Shortage of power □
(c) Poor quality of personnel □
(d) Poor maintenance of power infrastructure □
(e) Uneconomic tariff rates □
(f) Power theft □
(g) Corruption in the system □
9. Are you satisfied with the transport system in the city? Give rating on five point scale.
(a) Very Satisfied □ (b) Satisfied □ (c) Some what satisfied □
(d) Somewhat dissatisfied □ (e) Very dissatisfied □
10. What do you think is the significant reason for poor transport system in the city?
(a) Narrow roads □ (b) Poor quality of roads □
(c) Inadequate public transport vehicles □ (d) Poor quality of vehicles □
(e) Lack of Training of Drivers □ (f) Poor supervision and control of traffic □
(g) Lack of education of traffic rules □
(h) Lack of discipline in public including vehicle users□(l) Corruption in the system □
 What is wrong about our city?
11. What is the status of law and order in the city? Give rating on five point scale.
(a) Very good □ (b) Good □ (c) Satisfactory □ d) Unsatisfactory□ (e) Very bad □
12. What are the contributing factors in poor law and order situation in the city?
(a) Ineffective administrative structure □
(b) Ineffective legal framework □
(c) Lack of discipline in public □
(d) Lack of education among people □
(e) Crimanalisation of politics □
(f) Money power □
(g) Corruption in the system □
13. Have political parties and politicians contributed to the development of city over the last
decade? Give rating on five point scale.
(a) Very much □ (b) Much □ (c) Somewhat □ (d) Not much □ (e) Not at all □
 What is wrong about our city?
14. How has the political system contributed to the development of city?
(a) Made plans for development □
(b) Channelised funds □
(c) Increased public awareness □
(d) Effective monitoring and supervision of implementation □
(e) Raised the level of transparency and accountability in administration □
(f) Eliminated corruption □
15. Have the quality of life and standard of living improved in the city over the last decade?
(a) Very much □ (b) Much □ (c) Some what □ (d) Not much □ (e) Not at all □
16. Do people fee safe while moving along the road and in streets during night in the city? Give
assessment on five point scale.
(a) Very much □ (b) Much □ (c) Some what □ (d) Not much □ (e) Not at all □
17. Does the city still remain the city of your dreams? Give your opinion on five point scale.
(a) Very much □ (b) Much □ (c) Some what □ (d) Not much □ (e) Not at all □
 What is wrong about our city?
18. Identify and list in order of priority the measures for setting right the problems suggested
below
(a) Educate and sensitize people □
(b) Professionalisation of administration □
(c) Increase transparency and accountability in the system □
(d) Decentralisation of democratic structure □
(e) Market economy and competition □
(f) Planned development □
(g) Effective implementation □
(h) Empowerment of weaker sections of society □
(i) Increase availability of goods and services □
(j) Involvement of people in implementation of development projects □
(k) Greater role to Non government organizations □
(l) Deregulation □
(m) Down size the role of state □
(n) Make better laws and ensure effective enforcement □
19. Your Name _____________________ Age __________________
Profession ___________________Residence__________________
Thanks