SUBJECT: ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES

1. What are solar collectors? Give their classification and compare them based on construction and

area of application

A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the Sun.
These devices are primarily used for active solar heating and allow for the heating of water
for personal use.[2] These collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be very
sturdy as they are exposed to a variety of different weather conditions.[2]

The use of these solar collectors provides an alternative for traditional domestic water heating
using a water heater, potentially reducing energy costs over time. As well as in domestic
settings, a large number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used to generate
electricity in solar thermal power plants.

Types of Solar Collectors

There are many different types of solar collectors, but all of them are constructed with the same
basic premise in mind. In general, there is some material that is used to collect and focus energy
from the Sun and use it to heat water. The simplest of these devices uses a black material
surrounding pipes that water flows through. The black material absorbs the solar radiation very well,
and as the material heats up the water it surrounds. This is a very simple design, but collectors can
get very complex. Absorber plates can be used if a high temperature increase isn't necessary, but
generally devices that use reflective materials to focus sunlight result in a greater temperature
increase.

Flat Plate Collectors

These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of transparent glazing as a cover on top
of a dark-coloured absorber plate. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually covered with
insulation to minimize heat losses to other parts of the collector. Solar radiation passes through the
transparent glazing material and hits the absorber plate. [4] This plate heats up, transferring the heat
to either water or air that is held between the glazing and absorber plate. Sometimes these absorber
plates are painted with special coatings designed to absorb and retain heat better than traditional
black paint. These plates are usually made out of metal that is a good conductor - usually copper or
aluminum

Evacuated Tube Collectors

This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated tubes to heat water for use. [2] These tubes
utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to capture the suns energy while minimizing the loss of heat to
the surroundings. They have an inner metal tube which acts as the absorber plate, which is
connected to a heat pipe to carry the heat collected from the Sun to the water. This heat pipe is
essentially a pipe where the fluid contents are under a very particular pressure.[6] At this pressure,
the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling liquid in it while the "cold" end has condensing vapour. This
allows for thermal energy to move more efficiently from one end of the pipe to the other. Once the
heat from the Sun moves from the hot end of the heat pipe to the condensing end, the thermal
energy is transported into the water being heated for use.

Line Focus Collectors

These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic troughs, use highly reflective materials to collect
and concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation. [8] These collectors are composed of
parabolically shaped reflective sections connected into a long trough. [2] A pipe that carries water is
placed in the center of this trough so that sunlight collected by the reflective material is focused
onto the pipe, heating the contents. These are very high powered collectors and are thus generally
used to generate steam for Solar thermal power plants and are not used in residential applications.
These troughs can be extremely effective in generating heat from the Sun, particularly those that can
pivot, tracking the Sun in the sky to ensure maximum sunlight collection.

Point Focus Collectors

These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of some reflective material that focus
the Sun's energy onto a single point. The heat from these collectors is generally used for
driving Stirling engines.[2] Although very effective at collecting sunlight, they must actively
track the Sun across the sky to be of any value. These dishes can work alone or be combined
into an array to gather even more energy from the Sun.[10]

Point focus collectors and similar apparatuses can also be utilized to concentrate solar energy
for use with Concentrated photovoltaics. In this case, instead of producing heat, the Sun's
energy is converted directly into electricity with high efficiency photovoltaic cells designed
specifically to harness concentrated solar energy.

2. Discuss important part of the any flat plate solar collector

FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

 The flat plate collectors forms the heat of any solar energy collection system
designed for operation in the low temperature range, from ambient to 60 or the
medium temperature, form ambient to 100. A well engineered flat plate
collector is delivers heat at a relatively low cost for a long duration. The flat plat
collectors is basically a heat exchanger which transfer the radiant energy of the
incident sunlight to the sensible heat of a working fluid-liquid or air. The term
‘flat plate’ is slightly misleading in the sense that the surface may not be truly
flat-it may be combination of flat, grooved or of other shapes as the absorbing
surface, with some kind of heat removal device like tubes or channels. Flat plate
collectors is used to convert at much solar radiation as possible into heat at the
highest attainable temperature with the lowest possible investment in material
and labour.
Flat plate collector have the following advantage over other types of solar
energy collectors:

(i)          Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components o solar radiation,

(ii)       Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking the
Sun,

(iii)     Are easy to make and are low in cost,

(iv)     Have comparatively low maintenance cost and Long lie, and

(v)       Operate at comparatively high efficiency

3. Explain the basic phenomenon of solar energy conversion

Solar energy conversion describes technologies devoted to the transformation of solar

energy to other (useful) forms of energy, including electricity, fuel, and heat.[1] It covers light-
harvesting technologies including traditional semiconductor photovoltaic devices (PVs),
emerging photovoltaics,[2][3][4] solar fuel generation via electrolysis, artificial photosynthesis,
and related forms of photocatalysis directed at the generation of energy rich molecules.[5]

Fundamental electro-optical aspects in several emerging solar energy conversion

technologies for generation of both electricity (photovoltaics) and solar fuels constitute an
active area of current research

The energy that is naturally available from the solar source is quite enormous. The sun delivers 1.2 x
105 TW of radiative power onto the Earth, the amount that surpasses any other energy resource by
capacity and availability. That would convert to 3.78 x 10 12 TJ of energy per year. For comparison,
according to Crabtree and Lewis (2007), all recoverable Earth's oil reserves (~3 trillion barrels)
account for 1.7 x 1010 TJ of energy. Thus, the sun supplies this amount of energy to the Earth in only
~1.6 days!

4. Explain in detail about different types of concentrate plate collector.

Types of Concentrating Solar Collectors

Primarily there are four types of concentrating solar collectors, which are:

 Parabolic trough collector

 Power tower receiver
 Parabolic dish collector
 Fresnel lens collector.
Parabolic Trough Collector

A parabolic trough comprises a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates sunlight on a

receiver that is positioned along the focal line of the reflector. The receiver is a tube placed
directly over the middle of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. 

The heat absorbed by the working fluid transfers to water for producing steam. The focus of
solar radiation changes with the change in the Sun’s elevation. 

The reflector keeps following the sun during the day by tracking along a single axis. A
working fluid (e.g., molten salt is heated between 150 and 350 °C (302–662 °F) as it flows
through the receiver and is then used as a source of heat for generating electricity. 

Among all the concentrated solar collectors, trough systems are the most developed
technology. 

Acciona’s Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada, and Andasol were first commercial
parabolic trough plants of Europe. 

Also, the Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) plants in California and Plataforma Solar
de Almería’s SSPS-DCS test facilities in Spain are other examples of such plants.

Solar Power Tower

A solar power tower comprises an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors or heliostats that
concentrate sunlight on a central receiver placed at the top of the tower. The receiver contains
a heat-transfer fluid, which contains water-steam or molten salt. 

The heliostats are installed around the central tower. Each heliostat rotates into two directions
to track the sun. The solar radiation that reflects from heliostats is absorbed by the receiver
mounted on a tower of about 500 m height.

Optically a solar power tower is similar to a circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in
the receiver is heated to 500–1000°C (932–1,832°F or 773-1,273 K). Subsequently, it is used
as a heat source for generating electricity or storing energy.

An advantage of the solar tower is that the reflectors can be adjusted instead of the whole
tower. The technology of power tower is less advanced than trough systems. However, they
provide higher efficiency and better capability of storing energy. 

The Ashalim Power Station, Israel, once completed, will be the tallest solar tower in the
world. The construction of the tower began in 2014. The tower will have concentrated light
from more than 50,000 heliostats.

The Planta Solar 10 (PS10) in Sanlúcar la Mayor, Spain, is the first commercial utility-grade
solar power tower in the world. 

The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in the Mojave Desert (377 MW capacity), is the
largest CSP facility in the world and has three power towers. 
Fresnel Reflectors

Fresnel reflectors contain many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight on tubes
through which working fluid is pumped. 

Flat mirrors accommodate more reflective surfaces in the same amount of space than a
parabolic reflector. They capture more available sunlight and also much cheaper than
parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various sizes of CSPs.

Fresnel reflectors are often said to be a technology with the lowest output than other
methods. 

Some new models of Fresnel reflectors with ray tracing capacity have recently been tested
and initially proved to provide higher output than the standard version.

Parabolic Dish Collector

A parabolic dish collector or dish stirling has a stand-alone parabolic reflector that
concentrates light on a receiver placed at the focal point of the reflector. 

The reflector tracks the Sun along dual axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated up in
the temperature between 250°C and 700°C (482–1, 292 °F) and then used in a stirling engine.

Parabolic-dish systems provide a high level of solar-to-electric efficiency (between 31% and
32%), and their modular nature provides scalability. 

SES dishes at the National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) in New Mexico set a world
record for solar-to-electric efficiency at 31.25% on January 31, 2008. 

In 2015, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish firm, the developer of parabolic dish collector, tested the
system in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa and recorded 34% efficiency.

Some of the examples of this technology are Stirling Energy Systems (SES), Science
Applications International Corporation (SAIC) dishes at UNLV, and United Sun Systems
(USS) and Australian National University’s Big Dish in Canberra, Australia. 

Because of the limitations of size and the small quantity of fluid, parabolic dish collectors are
suitable for small-scale power generation (up to a few kW).

5. Write the comparison of different types of solar collectors.

Evacuated tube solar thermal systems

The evacuated tube solar thermal system is one of the most popular solar thermal systems
in operation. An evacuated solar system is the most efficient and a common means of solar
thermal energy generation with a rate of efficiency of 70 per cent. As an example, if the
collector generates 3000 kilowatt hours of energy in a year then 2100 kilowatt hours would
be utilised in the system for heating water. The rate of efficiency is achieved because of the
way in which the evacuated tube systems are constructed, meaning they have excellent
insulation and are virtually unaffected by air temperatures. The collector itself is made up of
rows of insulated glass tubes that contain copper pipes at their core. Water is heated in the
collector and is then sent through the pipes to the water tank. This type of collector is the
most efficient, but also the most expensive.

There are two main types of tubes that are used inside the collector which are glass-glass and
glass-metal. The glass-glass version uses two layers of glass fused together at both ends. The
double glass tubes have a very reliable vacuum but reduce the amount of light that reaches
the absorber inside. The double glass system may also experience more absorber corrosion
due to moisture or condensation forming in the non-evacuated area of the tube. The second
kind of tube is a glass-metal combination. The glass-metal combination allows more light to
reach the absorber and reduces the chances of moisture corroding the absorber.

The cylindrical shape of evacuated tubes means that they are able to collect sunlight
throughout the day and at all times in the year. Evacuated tube collectors are also easier to
install as they are light, compact and can be carried onto the roof individually. What’s more,
the tubes can be replaced individually if one becomes faulty, avoiding the need to replace the
whole collector. The system is an efficient and durable system with the vacuum inside the
collector tubes having been proven to last for over twe

Flat plate solar thermal systems

are another common type of solar collector which have been in use since the 1950s. The main
components of a flat plate panel are a dark coloured flat plate absorber with an insulated
cover, a heat transferring liquid containing antifreeze to transfer heat from the absorber to the
water tank, and an insulated backing. The flat plate feature of the solar panel increases the
surface area for heat absorption. The heat transfer liquid is circulated through copper or
silicon tubes contained within the flat surface plate.

Some panels are manufactured with a flooded absorber that involves having two sheets of
metal and allowing the liquid to flow between them. Using a flooded absorber increases
surface area and gives a marginal boost in efficiency. The absorber plates themselves are
usually made from copper or aluminium and are painted with a selective heat coating which
is much better at absorbing and retaining heat than ordinary paints.

In an area that produces an average level of solar energy, the amount of energy a flat plate
solar collector generates equates to around one square foot panel generating one gallon of one
day’s hot water.

The flat plate panel design utilises many different absorber configurations with the main
design being the harp configuration. The harp design is usually used in low pressure
thermosyphon systems or pumped systems. Other configurations include the serpentine
which uses a continuous S shaped absorber and is used in compact hot water only systems
which do not utilise space heating. There are also the flooded absorber systems and boundary
absorbers which use multiple layers of absorber sheet where the heat is then collected in the
boundary layer of the sheets.
Polymer flat plate collectors are an alternative to metal plate collectors. Metal plates are more
prone to freezing whereas the polymer plates themselves are freeze tolerant so can dispense
with antifreeze and simply use water as a heat transferring liquid. Any antifreeze that is added
to the heat transfer liquid will reduce its heat carrying capacity at a marginal rate. A benefit of
polymer plates is that they can be plumbed straight into an existing water tank removing the
need for a heat exchanger which increases efficiency. Some polymer panels are painted with
matte black paint rather than a selective heat coating. This is done to prevent overheating
although high temperature silicone is now normally used to prevent overheating

Thermodynamic panels
Thermodynamic solar panels are a new development in solar thermal technology. They are
closely related to air source heat pumps in their design but are deployed on the roof or walls
like regular solar thermal panels and do not have to be south facing. The concept behind
thermodynamic solar technology is that it acts like a reverse freezer and they differ from
conventional solar thermal in that they do not use solar radiation to heat up heat transferring
liquids.

The panels have a refrigerant passing through them which will absorb heat. The heat that
passes through the panel will then in turn become a gas. The gas is then compressed which
raises its temperature and it will then be passed on to a heat exchanging coil that is located
within a hot water cylinder. The heated water in the cylinder is heated to 55 degrees and can
then be used around the property. The system has a built in immersion which occasionally
raises the temperature to 60 degrees to eliminate the risk of legionella.

A thermodynamic system can produce up to 100% of domestic heating needs. A system that
uses thermodynamic panels will in theory be able to generate energy all year round due to it
not being reliant on having optimal climate conditions to reach its maximum output potential.
A thermodynamic panel can work in temperatures as low as -5 degrees Celsius although there
are not as yet any official performance figures for systems operating in the UK. The main
manufactures of thermodynamic systems are in Spain and Portugal and these systems were
not designed for the UK initially. More companies are now developing more UK specific
models and bringing them to market. As an example of performance, a four person family
would need to utilise one panel and a 250 litre cylinder.

What’s more, thermodynamic panels are also not currently approved by the Micro generation
Certification Scheme, which means that they are not eligible for government green heat
payments such as the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI). This is sure to change however, and it
is probable that thermodynamic panels will be eligible for the RHI in the future. The
government says that it is currently gathering information on standards and performance

Solar thermal air collectors

Solar air heaters are mostly used for space heating and can be both glazed and unglazed. They are
among the most efficient and economical solar thermal technologies available and are mostly used
in the commercial sector. The top sheet of a glazed system has a transparent top layer and an
insulated surrounding frame and back panel to prevent heat loss to the surrounding air. An unglazed
system uses an absorber plate which air passes over while heat is taken from the absorber.
Solar thermal bowl collectors
A solar thermal bowl is similar in fashion to a parabolic dish but has a fixed mirror instead of a
tracking mirror which a parabolic dish would use. A tracking mirror is designed to track the sun’s
movement which is very costly on a large scale. A spherical or bowl mirror gets around the problem
of tracking the sun in order to focus the light in one spot. A fixed mirror is at a disadvantage with
regard to energy output as it cannot track the sun in order to focus the sunlight, however a fixed
bowl will save the energy output that is associated with having to move a giant mirror to track the
sun.

Domestic Solar Hot Water Systems

 

Low temperature solar thermal technologies, especially those that do not generate electricity,
rely on the scientific principles behind the Greenhouse Effect to generate heat.
Electromagnetic radiation from the sun, including visible and infrared wavelengths,
penetrates into the collector that is absorbed by the surfaces inside the collector. Once the
radiation is absorbed by the surfaces within the collector, the temperature rises. This increase
in temperature can be used to heat water.

Domestic Solar Water Heating Systems

Solar Water Heating (SWH) is an effective method of utilising available energy sources to
perform useful work. The energy from the sun can provide hot water for many domestic and
industrial applications, displacing the need to burn fossil fuels. In Australia, around 25% of
domestic energy consumption is devoted to the heating of water to low temperatures, of less
than 100oC.
Two main components of SWH systems are collectors and storage tanks. There are many
different types of configurations and collectors. The most commonly used type of collector is
the flat plate

7. Explain wind electric power generating system also lists its merits and demerits.

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary
energy. For utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery
(transmission, distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage (using, for example, the pumped-
storage method).

Electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced" (that is, transforming
other forms of energy to electricity). Production is carried out in power stations (also called
"power plants"). Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical
generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission but also
by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources
include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.

We divide the power system into three parts; power generation, transmission, and
distribution. In this article, we will discuss power generation. Actually, in power generation,
one form of energy gets converted into electrical energy. We produce electrical energy from
various natural sources.

We classify these sources into two types renewable sources and non-renewable sources. In a
present power system, most of the electrical energy gets generated from non-renewable
sources like coal, oil, and natural gases.

But these sources are limitedly available. So, we have to use these sources carefully and
always find an alternate source or move on to renewable sources.

The renewable sources include solar, wind, water, tidal, and biomass. These sources are the
environment-friendly, free and infinite resources available. Let us get more information about
renewable sources.

Energy Generation of
Advantages Disadvantages
resource electricity
 Renewable energy
 Water is freely
available in large  Building of dams
quantities upsets the balance of
 Clean and does not the ecosystem
Potential energy of pollute the  Not suitable in areas
the water stored In a environment where natural
Hydro dam changes to  Water stored in disasters such as
kinetic energy to dams can be used earthquakes may
drive turbines to irrigate farms occur
and for human  Not suitable in flat
consumption and dry regions
 Dams can be used
to control floods

 Non-renewable
 At present still energy
available in large
The burning of oil or  Discharges harmful
quantities
natural gas produces gases that pollute the
Oil and  Can be transported
high pressure steam environment
natural gas to the location
that is used to drive  High cost
where it is to be
turbines  Cost depends on
used
political factors

Coal Coal is burned and  Plenty of resources  Non-renewable

the heat energy is available for up to energy
used to produce high 200 years
  Can be transported
 Discharges harmful
to the location
gases that pollute the
pressure steam where it is to be
environment
used

 Have high energy  High cost of

density – a small designing and
amount can release building nuclear
a large quantity of power station
energy  Waste in the form of
 Minimum used fuel rods which
discharge of are very hot and
carbon dioxide highly radioactive
into the  Hot water discharged
Energy from nuclear
atmosphere causes thermal
fission is used to
 Vast reserves of pollution to the
produce high
nuclear fuel such environment
Nuclear pressure steam to
drive turbines at
as uranium spread  Risk of accidents
evenly throughout which may lead to the
nuclear power
the world leakage of large
stations
 Reactor in nuclear amounts of
power stations can radioactive
be used to produce substances to the
useful environment
radioisotopes to be  Nuclear fuel could be
used in industry, enriched and used to
medicine and produce weapons of
agriculture mass destruction

 Renewable energy
 Liquid biofuels
 Requires large
from biomass are
Heat energy from storage space far from
lead-free and
the burning of human population if
Biomass sulphur-free
biomass is used to the biomass is animal
generate electricity  Reduces problem dung or sewage
of disposal of
organic waste

Solar Solar cells or panels  Renewable energy  Requires very large

convert the energy  Freely available space to collect
from sunlight to  Clean and does not sufficient energy
electrical energy pollute the  Lower efficiency in
environment the generation of
electricity
 Intensity of sunlight
is dependent on
seasonal changes,
climate and latitude
 of the region

Kinetic energy of the
Wind
wind drives turbines
 Renewable energy
 Many windmills are
 Clean and does not
needed which cover a
pollute the large area
environment
 Generates high level
 Suitable at isolated
of noise
places such as
 Spoils the natural
mountainous
beauty of the region
regions and islands

8. Explain the basic function different components of WECS.

The major components of a typical wind energy conversion systeminclude a wind turbine, generator, interconnection
apparatus and controlsystems, as shown in Figure 3. Wind turbines can be classified into thevertical axis type and the
horizontal axis type. Most modern wind tur-bines use a horizontal axis configuration with two or three
blades,operating either down-wind or up-wind. The major components in thenacelle of a typical wind turbine are
illustrated in Figure 4. A wind tur-bine can be designed for a constant speed or variable speed operation.Variable
speed wind turbines can produce 8% to 15% more energy out-put as compared to their constant speed counterparts,
however, theynecessitate power electronic converters to provide a fixed frequency andfixed voltage power to their
loads. Most turbine manufacturers haveopted for reduction gears between the low speed turbine rotor and thehigh
speed three-phase generators. Direct drive configuration, where agenerator is coupled to the rotor of a wind turbine
directly, offers highreliability, low maintenance, and possibly low cost for certain turbines.Several manufacturers have
opted for the direct drive configuration inthe recent turbine designs.At the present time and in the near future,
generators for wind turbineswill be synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous genera-tors, and
induction generators, including the squirrel cage type andwound rotor type. For small to medium power wind turbines,
perma-nent magnet generators and squirrel cage induction generators are oftenused because of their reliability and
cost advantages. Induction genera-tors, permanent magnet synchronous generators and wound fieldsynchronous
generators are currently used in various high power windturbines. Interconnection apparatuses are devices to achieve
power control, softstart and interconnection functions. Very often, power electronic con-verters are used as such
devices. Most modern turbine inverters areforced commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed voltage and
fixedfrequency output with a high power quality. Both voltage source volt-age controlled inverters and voltage source
current controlled invertershave been applied in wind turbines. For certain high power wind tur-bines, effective power
control can be achieved with double PWM (pulsewidth modulation) converters which provide a bi-directional power
flowbetween the turbine generator and the utility grid

9. Explain in detail about the construction and the working principle of different wind turbines

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and
more common.[24] They can also include blades, or be bladeless. [25] Vertical designs produce less
power and are less common

Horizontal axis
Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the blades upwind of the tower
produce the overwhelming majority of wind power in the world today. These turbines have the main
rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small
turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled
with a yaw system. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker
rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator. [27] Some turbines use a different type
of generator suited to slower rotational speed input. These don't need a gearbox and are called
direct-drive, meaning they couple the rotor directly to the generator with no gearbox in between.
While permanent magnet direct-drive generators can be more costly due to the rare earth materials
required, these gearless turbines are sometimes preferred over gearbox generators because they
"eliminate the gear-speed increaser, which is susceptible to significant accumulated fatigue torque
loading, related reliability issues, and maintenance costs." [28] There is also the pseudo direct drive
mechanism, which has some advantages over the permanent magnet direct drive mechanism

Most horizontal axis turbines have their rotors upwind of the supporting tower. Downwind
machines have been built, because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them
in line with the wind. In high winds, the blades can also be allowed to bend, which reduces
their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Despite these advantages, upwind designs are
preferred, because the change in loading from the wind as each blade passes behind the
supporting tower can cause damage to the turbine.

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-
bladed. These have low torque ripple, which contributes to good reliability. The blades are
usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 80
meters (66 to 262 ft). The size and height of turbines increase year by year. Offshore wind
turbines are built up to 8 MW today and have a blade length up to 80 meters (260 ft). Designs
with 10 to 12 MW are in preparation.[31] Usual multi megawatt turbines have tubular steel
towers with a height of 70 m to 120 m and in extremes up to 160 m

Vertical axis

A vertical axis Twisted Savonius type turbine.

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One
advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to
be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is
also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less
steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive
from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for
maintenance. However, these designs produce much less energy averaged over time, which is
a major drawback

Vertical turbine designs have much lower efficiency than standard horizontal designs.[33] The
key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher
torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the
360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the
highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on
the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the
challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.[34]

When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof
and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine
tower is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind
energy and minimum wind turbulence. While wind speeds within the built environment are
generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,[35][36] noise may be a concern and an existing
structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

Subtypes of the vertical axis design include:

Darrieus wind turbine

"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges
Darrieus.[37] They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on
the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external
power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is
very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades, which results in greater
solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer
Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure
connected to the top bearing.[38]

Giromill

A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine
variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[39] The advantages
of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher
coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade
speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.
[40]

Savonius wind turbine

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers,
Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-
efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.

Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque.
This is often used as a rooftop wind turbine and has even been adapted for ships.[41]

Parallel

The parallel turbine is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses the ground effect.
Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10 kW
was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s

12. Show various types of wave energy conversion device and explain how to generate
electrical power from waves.

Wave Energy Conversion

The principle of the oscillating water column is illustrated in Fig. 1, in this example for use in
conjunction with a fixed structure (e.g., breakwater). The functioning of the oscillating water
columns (OWCs) is somewhat similar to that of a wind turbine, being based on the principle of wave
induced air pressurization. The device is set upon a closed air chamber, which is placed above the
water. The passage of waves changes the water level within the closed housing and the rising and
falling water level increases and decreases the air pressure within the housing introducing a
bidirectional air flow. By placing a turbine on top of this chamber air will pass in and out of it with
the changing air pressure levels.

There are two options to separate the bi-directional flow: a Wells turbine to create suction or
alternatively, pressure generating valves[6]. The Wells turbine is constructed such that it rotates
always in the same direction regardless of airflow direction, see Fig. 2. The efficiency is lower (50-
60%) than with conventional turbines, but higher than achievable with conventional turbines in
alternating mode

OWC devices can be moored offshore but they can also be placed near the shore where
waves break. This results in significant cost savings. The disadvantage is the shallow water
depth along the shore, which dampens the largest waves. See also Wave energy converters in
coastal structures.

Special buoys have been developed for the application of OWC converters in deep water,
according to the principle of Fig. 3. The length of the shaft determines the resonance
frequency, allowing optimum energy efficiency to be achieved. An example of an offshore
OWC is the Spar Buoy, Fig. 4. The original concept was invented by Yoshio Masuda (1925-
2009), who developed navigation buoys powered by wave energy, equipped with an air
turbine. It is circular in plane and therefore invariant to wave direction (Fig. 4). The size
varies according to the target sea conditions at the deployment site but maximum dimensions
were estimated at 30 m diameter, 50 m height and 35 m draft, which could deliver up to 450
kW

Overtopping Devices

Another type of wave energy converter is the overtopping device, which operates somewhat
similar to a hydroelectric dam. The "Wave Dragon" created by Wave Dragon ApS[8] is the
best known example of an offshore overtopping device (Fig. 5). Its floating arms focus waves
onto a slope from which the wave overtops into a reservoir. The resulting difference in water
elevation between the reservoir and the mean sea level then drives low-head hydro turbines.
It was estimated that an optimal size design of 260 m width and 150 m length can produce up
to 4 MW. In wave climates above 33 kW/m, this technology was expected to be
economically competitive with offshore wind power in the near future. After a combined cost
saving and power efficiency increase, the power price could eventually be in line with costs
of fossil fuel generation[9]. However, a feasibility study for a Wave Dragon deployment at the
northern Spanish coast published in 2020 reported costs which were still a factor 10 higher[10].

Near the shore, overtopping converters can be installed in front of or as part of caisson
breakwaters. An example is the SeaWave Slot-Cone Generator (SSG)[11], which collects
seawater by wave overtopping over several reservoirs placed above each other, resulting in
high hydraulic efficiency, see Wave energy converters in coastal structures.
Wave absorbing devices

A great number of different devices have been developed to harness wave energy directly by
using wave-induced water motion. The most popular types are displayed schematically

Point absorbers

Point absorber are buoy-type wave energy converters (WECs) that harvest incoming wave-
energy from all directions. They are placed offshore at the ocean surface or just below. A
vertically submerged floater absorbs wave energy which is converted by a piston or linear
generator into electricity. One such a point absorber WEC is the FO3 concept developed by
Norwegian entrepreneur Fred Olsen. It consists of several (12 or 21) heaving floaters attached
to a 36 by 36 meter rig (Fig. 7 top). By means of a hydraulic system, the vertical motion is
converted into a rotational movement that drives the hydraulic motor. This motor in turn
powers the generator that can produce up to 2,52 MW[13].

The multiple point absorber type WEC "Wave Star", developed by Wave Star ApS[14], has a
number of floaters on movable arms (Fig. 7 bottom). The energy of the motion of the arms is
again captured in a common hydraulic line and converted into electric current. Most
noticeably, being able to raise the entire installation along its pillars, this system has a high
endurance for rough storm conditions. So far, this method has not been deployed at full scale.
A 1:2 scaled installation has been built at Hanstholm which turns out 600 kW. However,
production is thought to be scale-able up to 6 MW[15]. A major benefit of these types of
exploitation is the minimal contact with water, placing any delicate machinery and electrics
out of reach of any corrosion or physical forcing of the waves. The Wave Star development
was abandoned in 2016.

Terminators

Terminators consist of flaps that rotate with the wave orbital motion around an axis parallel
to the wave front. Examples are the Oyster (Fig. 8a) and the WaveRoller(Fig. 8b), both
bottom-hinged terminators and the Salter Duck (Fig. 8c), with a rotation axis near the surface.
Although these designs capture wave energy with a high efficiency (see Appendix B), no
large-scale operational deployments have been realized. They are installed in intermediate
depths, not far from the shore, where the wave front direction is most of the time close to
shore-parallel. Oyster and WaveRoller have been tested in nature; for Salter Duck no full-
scale prototype was built. Oyster’s electrical output is generated by an hydro-electric turbine
onshore, driven by high pressure water via subsea pipelines. WaveRoller is equipped with an
on board hydraulic system that drives an electricity generator, which is connected to the
electric grid via a subsea cable. Hinged wave surge converters generally use hydraulic
systems for power take-off. Hydraulic systems are well suited to harvest energy from high-
force, slow-oscillatory motions which have to be converted to rotary motion and drive a
generator. In order to rectify the fluctuating wave power, which would result in variable
electrical power output unsuited to the electrical grid, some sort of energy storage system (or
other means of compensation, such as an array of devices) is usually incorporated in the PTO
system, such as accumulators, which can function as short term energy storage, helping the
system handle the fluctuations[
Wave attenuators
The "DEXA", developed and patented by DEXA Wave Energy ApS [16], is an illustrative example of a
wave attenuator. The device consists of two hinged catamarans that pivot relative to the other (Fig.
9). The resulting oscillatory flux at the hinge, is harnessed by means of a water-based low pressure
power transmission that restrains angular oscillations. Flux generation is optimized by placing the
floaters of each catamaran half a wavelength apart. A scaled prototype (dimensions 44x16.2m [17])
placed in the Danish part of the North Sea should generate 160 kW [18]. Full-scale models are thought
to be able to generate up to 250 kW [16]. However, the DEXA development was terminated in 2012.

13. Discuss the operation of a Matrix converter

Matrix Converters are a breed of direct AC-AC converters, which use forced commutated
devices (IGBTs, MOSFETs), hence eliminating the frequency constraints that have existed
with their thyristor based counterparts. The advantage of Matrix Converters is that they
provide AC voltage (and frequency) control without the need for any DC Link in between.
Added benefits are:

1. Inherently Bi-directional so regeneration is possible

2. Input as well as output current quality is good
3. Input power factor is completely controllable
4. Design is compact and light (since no energy elements are present)

The matrix converter is an array of controlled semiconductor switches that connects directly the
three-phase source to the three-phase load. This converter has several attractive features that have
been investigated in the last two decades. In the last few years, an increase in research work has
been observed, bringing this topology closer to the industrial application. This paper presents the
state-of-the-art view in the development of this converter, starting with a brief historical review. An
important part of the paper is dedicated to a discussion of the most important modulation and
control strategies developed recently. Special attention is given to present modern methods
developed to solve the commutation problem. Some new arrays of power bidirectional switches
integrated in a single module are also presented. Finally, this paper includes some practical issues
related to the practical application of this technology, like overvoltage protection, use of filters and
ride-through capability

16. Explain about various aspects of grid interactive inverters

A grid-tie inverter converts direct current (DC) into an alternating current (AC) suitable for
injecting into an electrical power grid, normally 120 V RMS at 60 Hz or 240 V RMS at
50 Hz. Grid-tie inverters are used between local electrical power generators: solar panel,
wind turbine, hydro-electric, and the grid.[1]

To inject electrical power efficiently and safely into the grid, grid-tie inverters must
accurately match the voltage and phase of the grid sine wave AC waveform.

Some electricity companies pay for electrical power that is injected into the grid.
Grid-tie inverters convert DC electrical power into AC power suitable for injecting into the
electric utility company grid. The grid tie inverter (GTI) must match the phase of the grid and
maintain the output voltage slightly higher than the grid voltage at any instant. A high-quality
modern grid-tie inverter has a fixed unity power factor, which means its output voltage and
current are perfectly lined up, and its phase angle is within 1 degree of the AC power grid.
The inverter has an on-board computer that senses the current AC grid waveform, and
outputs a voltage to correspond with the grid. However, supplying reactive power to the grid
might be necessary to keep the voltage in the local grid inside allowed limitations. Otherwise,
in a grid segment with considerable power from renewable sources, voltage levels might rise
too much at times of high production, i.e. around noon with solar panels.

Grid-tie inverters are also designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if the utility grid goes
down. This is an NEC requirement[2] that ensures that in the event of a blackout, the grid tie
inverter shuts down to prevent the energy it transfers from harming any line workers who are
sent to fix the power grid.

Properly configured, a grid tie inverter enables a home owner to use an alternative power
generation system like solar or wind power without extensive rewiring and without batteries.
If the alternative power being produced is insufficient, the deficit is sourced from the
electricity grid.

17. Discuss with case study how to get maximum power generation in wind energy conversion

system.

For the purpose of better utilization and to have control over varying wind speeds we use variable
speed wind turbines. The performance mainly depends on the system operating point. In this paper
we implement extremum seeking (ES) which is a non-model based approach for maximum power
extraction in the region between cut-in speed and rated speed. The convergence of the system
depends mainly on the system dynamics so we go for non-linear control based on field oriented
approach and also feedback linearization. For achieving maximum power at all wind speeds the
outer loop of ES is used to tune the turbine speed in the sub rated region. By adjusting the voltage
magnitude and electrical frequency through matrix converter we can achieve a fast transient
response. The transient response can be improved by providing inner loop control based on field
oriented control. Through this we can avoid magnetic saturation in the induction generator

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is essential for the Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)
mainly for the small scale wind turbine. In order to captured the maximum possible power from
wind turbine, it is very important to operate the WECS at MPPT and tracking the maximum power
point in the power output signal. This paper presents a critical analysis of the algorithm generation
to reach maximum power point based on power efficiency and simplicity.

The electric energy crisis has emerged as a significant global problem in the last decade. Therefore,
many governments put an ambitious goal to supply a significant portion of their electrical grid from
renewable energy such as wind energy. The generation, distribution and transmission of electricity in
Palestine have recently emerged as major issues, In Palestine there is a deficit in electricity due to
siege and prevailing war-torn conditions. Moreover, due to limited area the typical types of
electricity generation are not feasible to satisfy the demand. Hence small scale wind turbine
approach is introduced. The current MPPT algorithms are not suitable for Palestine due to different
wind speed condition. The main aim of this research is to achieve maximum power point tracking for
small scale wind turbine. Improved algorithm has been proposed to increase the efficiency of the
wind energy conversion system (WECS). The new algorithm enhanced the three mode algorithm to
solve the tradeoff between efficiency and convergence speed. This study analysed data using seven
numerical methods to check the wind energy feasibility for Palestine. There are two approaches
employed: analysis of two sets of actual time series data and theoretical Weibull probability
function. In this analysis, the parameters Weibull shape factor ‘k’ and the Weibull scale factor ‘c’
were adopted. The performance of these numerical methods was tested by five statistical tools to
check efficiency performance. Graphical Method (GM) and energy pattern factor (EPF) show the
greatest efficiency, whereas the second modified maximum likelihood method (SMMLM) show the
low efficiency based on statistical tools. Based on numerical analysis shape factor is approximately 2.
Therefore, the probability distribution function (PDF) for Palestine is Weibull. Whereas Scale factor
value from 4-5 m/s. The total wind power for 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 are 977, 744, 808 and 1084
W (per unit area), respectively. Thus, this study confirms the potential of electrical energy
generation in Palestine using small-scale turbines based on wind power density (WPD) calculations.
The proposed algorithm shows fast tracking capability and enhanced stability under change wind
speed conditions using Matlab/Simulink. The theoretical results confirm that the proposed improved
algorithm is remarkably faster by 30% of the total time required comparing to the three mode
algorithm due to simplicity

19. Summarize the importance of MPPT in the operation of a photovoltaic system

MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power
that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get
maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected directly to
the battery.

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)[1][2] or sometimes just power point tracking
(PPT),[3][4] is a technique used commonly with wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) solar
systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions.

Although it primarily applies to solar power, the principle applies generally to sources with
variable power: for example, optical power transmission and thermophotovoltaics.

PV solar systems exist in many different configurations with regard to their relationship to
inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other electrical loads.[5] Regardless of the
ultimate destination of the solar power, the central problem addressed by MPPT is that the
efficiency of power transfer from the solar cell depends on the amount of sunlight falling on
the solar panels, the temperature of the solar panel and the electrical characteristics of the
load. As these conditions vary, the load characteristic that gives the highest power transfer
efficiency changes. The efficiency of the system is optimized when the load characteristic
changes to keep the power transfer at highest efficiency. This load characteristic is called the
maximum power point (MPP). MPPT is the process of finding this point and keeping the load
characteristic there. Electrical circuits can be designed to present arbitrary loads to the
photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage, current, or frequency to suit other devices or
systems, and MPPT solves the problem of choosing the best load to be presented to the cells
in order to get the most usable power out.

Solar cells have a complex relationship between temperature and total resistance that
produces a non-linear output efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve.[6][7] It
is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the proper
resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.[8] MPPT
devices are typically integrated into an electric power converter system that provides voltage
or current conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various loads, including power
grids, batteries, or motors.

20 Discuss the qualitative study of different renewable energy resources.

1) Solar energy

Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The
amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than the planet’s
total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable
energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and
the season of the year as well as geographical location. In the UK, solar energy is an
increasingly popular way to supplement your energy usage. Find out if it’s right for you by
reading our guide to solar power.

2) Wind energy

Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight in
the UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To
harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed
electricity into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‘off-grid’ generation systems are
available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine. Find out more about
wind energy on our wind power page.

3) Hydro energy

As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water
that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable
than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to
be stored for use when demand reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro
can be more viable as a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other
sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for
domestic, ‘off-grid’ generation. Find out more by visiting our hydro power page.

4) Tidal energy

This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine
generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t constant, it is
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.
Find out more by visiting our marine energy page.

5) Geothermal energy

By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be used to
heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below
our feet, geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such
as Iceland, where geothermal heat is much more freely available.

6) Biomass Energy
This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity. Although
fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and nowadays this
is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural, industrial and domestic
waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a much lower economic and
environmental cost.