Human Communication Research 0360-3989

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction:

The Role of Pornographic Arousal, Upward
Pornographic Comparisons, and Preference

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

for Pornographic Masturbation
Paul J. Wright1,*, Bryant Paul1, Debby Herbenick2, and Robert S. Tokunaga3
1 Communication Science Unit, The Media School, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401, USA
2 The Center for Sexual Health Promotion, The School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
47401, USA
3 Department of Communication, University of Texas, San Antonio, TX 78249 USA

Research finding that pornography use is associated with lower sexual satisfaction is
common; evaluation of the mechanisms hypothesized as underlying the association is
not. Informed by multiple theoretical perspectives, the present study tested a conceptual
model positing that (a) regularly consuming pornography conditions the user’s arousal
template to be particularly responsive to pornographic depictions, (b) this amplified
arousal to pornography increases both (c) upward comparisons between one’s own sex
life and sex as it is represented in pornography and (d) a preference for masturbation to
pornography over partnered sex, which in turn (e) weaken perceptions of how satisfying
it is to have sex with one’s partner, and ultimately (f) decreases perceptions of how satis-
fying one’s relationship is with one’s partner. Path-analytic results were supportive of
the hypothesized linkages for both men and women. Discussion focuses on the implica-
tions of the present study’s findings for current debates in the literature and theoretical
development.

Keywords: Pornography, Satisfaction, Arousal, Social Comparison, Masturbation

doi:10.1093/hcr/hqab001

Introduction

“Who, confronted with the bounty of readily attainable sexual joys that are con-
tinually presented in pornography and nowhere else, could consider his or her sex-
ual life fulfilled?”

–Dolf Zillmann and Jennings Bryant

*Corresponding author: Paul J. Wright; e-mail: paulwrig@indiana.edu

192 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 V C The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press

on behalf of International Communication Association. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email:
journals.permissions@oup.com
P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Thus asked Zillmann and Bryant (1988, p. 452) in the last sentence of their clas-
sic experimental study, in which repeated exposure to pornography reduced both
men’s and women’s sexual satisfaction with their partner in general, and with their
partner’s physical appearance, sexual skill, and sexual adventurousness, specifically.
The results of the few studies Zillmann and Bryant conducted on the effects of por-
nography caused a level of backlash and objection so dramatic that Zillmann con-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

cluded that further inquiries were not worth the personal risks. In an interview
given shortly after retiring (Schramm, 2002), Zillmann was asked if he had a favor-
ite field of media research. He stated that he did not have a favorite but did have an
“anti-favorite”:
I must confess to an anti-favorite domain: erotica. Our research on the effects of
pornography triggered an unimaginable avalanche of hostility from those deem-
ing particular findings inopportune—that is, in conflict with their values regard-
ing sexuality. . .My closest collaborator received death threats, along with threats
of the sexual abuse of his wife and children. I was ill-prepared for assaults of this
sort and immediately called off all work on erotica effects. (p. 90)
Although pornography research has become more common and accepted,
Zillmann and Bryant’s initial finding that consuming pornography reduces sexual
satisfaction in partnered relationships is still vehemently contested decades later
(Campbell & Kohut, 2017; Leonhardt et al., 2019; Newstrom & Harris, 2016;
Watson & Smith, 2012). To be fair to Zillmann, a portion of this resistance is prob-
ably due to an a priori ideological commitment against the notion that pornography
can ever have harmful effects (Linz & Malamuth, 1993; Wright, 2019). But there are
also empirically based reasons to be skeptical.
One reason is that most frequent consumers of pornography are loyal to their
craft (e.g., Herring, 2019). When asked about how pornography has impacted
them, they are much more likely to report positive than negative effects, and this is
especially true for the most frequent and intense consumers (Hald & Malamuth,
2008; Hald, Smolenski, & Rosser, 2013; Mulya & Hald, 2014). Because these find-
ings may reflect a self-enhancement bias, a desire to lessen cognitive dissonance or
psychological reactance against the intimation that one should reduce their use of
pornography, it is not unreasonable to question their scientific validity. But a scien-
tifically unquestionable justification for uncertainty is that very few studies have di-
rectly tested the mechanisms that are often proposed as mediating the association
between higher pornography use and lower sexual satisfaction. Indeed, the first la-
ment listed by Wright, Tokunaga, Kraus, and Klann (2017) at the conclusion of
their quantitative literature synthesis was that “too few studies included mechanism
tests for any type of mediational meta-analysis” (p. 334).
In response to the call made by Wright et al. for process-oriented research, the
present study examines data from a large sample of U.S. men and women in ro-
mantic relationships—a subset of participants from a national probability survey—
to explore whether three of the most commonly proposed mechanisms

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 193

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

(conditioned arousal to pornography, upward comparisons between one’s own sex

life and sex as it is shown in pornography, and pornography-induced masturbatory
displacement of partnered sex) underlie at least a portion of the connection found
in prior studies between more frequent consumption of pornography and lower lev-
els of sexual (and subsequently relational) satisfaction (see Grubbs et al., 2019 and
Wright et al., 2017 for narrative systematic and meta-analytic reviews). Although

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

hypotheses about the adverse effects of pornography on satisfaction have been pro-
posed for decades, the present study measures internet pornography use due to its
overwhelming predominance as the preferred category for sexually explicit content
consumption in the present day (Grubbs et al., 2019).

Present study
The present study tests a conceptual model positing that (a) recurrently consuming
pornography conditions the user’s arousal template to be particularly responsive to
pornographic depictions, (b) this increased arousal to pornography increases both
(c) upward comparisons between one’s own sex life and sex as it is shown in por-
nography and (d) a preference for masturbation to pornography over partnered
sex, which in turn (e) diminish perceptions of how satisfying it is to have sex with
one’s partner, and ultimately (f) lowers perceptions of how satisfying one’s relation-
ship is with one’s partner. A variety of theoretical tenets and empirical findings led
to the postulation of these linkages.

Pornography consumption and pornographic arousal

According to Fisher and Barak’s (2001) application of the Sexual Behavior
Sequence (Fisher, 1986) to Internet pornography, consumption leads to sexual
arousal, which, if perceived as rewarding, leads to further pornography exposure
and enhanced sexual arousal in a positive feedback loop. That the majority of por-
nography consumers experience pornographic arousal as rewarding is indicated by
self-reports on how pornography is experienced and the research on the positive
self-perceived effects of pornography cited previously (Grubbs et al., 2019; Hald &
Malamuth, 2008; Hald et al., 2013; Mulya & Hald, 2014). That frequent pornogra-
phy consumption is associated with higher levels of arousal to subsequent pornog-
raphy exposure is indicated by Prause and Pfaus (2015). In this study, participants
who reported consuming pornography in varying degrees were subsequently pre-
sented with pornographic stimuli in a laboratory setting. Participants who viewed
pornography more frequently responded with higher sexual arousal to the porno-
graphic stimuli than participants who viewed pornography less frequently. In sum,
the Sexual Behavior Sequence theorizes that the association between pornography
consumption and sexual arousal is initiated by viewing pornography and enhanced
by subsequent pornography consumption, and this hypothesis is consistent with
the extant data (see also Laier et al., 2013, 2014).1

194 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

A number of theoretical perspectives posit that sexual arousal can affect subse-
quent sexual behavior through physiological and cognitive processes.
Physiologically, the Sexual Behavior Sequence (Fisher & Barak, 2001),
Organizational Framework for Sexual Media’s Influence (Leonhardt et al., 2019),
and Anatomy of Arousal Theory (Carnes, 2003) either imply or directly state that
the repeatedly predictable and intense sexual arousal pornography provides condi-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

tions users’ arousal templates toward pornographic novelty and excitement and
away from routinized, relationally oriented, partnered sex. According to Leonhardt
et al. (2019, p. 2242), for example, “through consistent viewing of sexual media,
individuals may condition themselves to the sexual media script, producing specific
sexual preferences based upon the reinforcement they have experienced through
viewing the media (Pfaus et al., 2012, 2014). Especially when masturbation accom-
panies the viewing of sexual media [often the case, see Emmers-Sommer, 2018], the
rewards of the sexual response cycle likely have an affirming impact on the sexual
script being portrayed.” Findings from Peter and Valkenburg (2008) are consistent
with the notion of a conditioning effect of sexual arousal on subsequent sexual
responses. In this three-wave panel study, the association between frequency of por-
nography consumption at wave-one and sexual preoccupancy at wave-three was
mediated by heightened arousal to internet sex at wave-two.
Cognitively, the Sexual Script Acquisition, Activation, Application Model (3AM)
(Wright, 2011) posits that, through increased attentional focus, a higher level of sex-
ual arousal in response to sexual media facilitates the learning of new sexual media
scripts and the priming of already acquired, content-congruent, sexual scripts.
Malamuth’s Hierarchical Confluence Model (2003) also posits the cognitively medi-
ating role of sexual arousal. For instance, in their experimental study of the hypoth-
esis that sexual arousal mediates the effect of pornography on attitudes, Hald,
Malamuth, and Lange (2013) stated that “while the initial primary effect of pornog-
raphy exposure may be affective in the form of sexual arousal, based on the
Hierarchical Confluence Model (Malamuth, 2003) it is hypothesized that such af-
fective engagement may activate or prime an ‘associative network’ of sexist and re-
lated attitudes” (p. 642). Consistent with expectations, higher sexual arousal did
mediate linkages between pornography exposure and attitudes in this experiment.
In sum, there are both theoretical and empirical reasons to predict that sexual
arousal is an important mediator between pornography exposure and subsequent
sexual tendencies.

Upward pornographic comparisons and satisfaction

Calling upon social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954; Suls et al., 2002), a number
of scholars have hypothesized that one such tendency is for pornography consum-
ers to make upward comparisons between their partnered sexual experiences and
the sex they see in pornography. As pornographic depictions become increasingly
stimulating, and as ready examples of sexually attractive, dexterous, and eager

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 195

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

pornographic models become top-of-mind, the likelihood increases that the user’s
own sex life may seem lacking by contrast (Sun et al., 2016). It has been suggested,
for example, that persons in relationships will find the physical appeal, skill, verve,
adventurousness, availability, or responsiveness of their partners lacking the more
they view pornography (Doran & Price, 2014; Kenrick et al., 1989; Lambert et al.,
2012; Muusses et al., 2015; Peter & Valkenburg, 2009; Poulsen et al., 2013; see also

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Brosius et al., 1993; Jensen & Dines, 1998). Sexual satisfaction (and ultimately rela-
tional satisfaction) is hypothesized to decline as a result of this disappointing mis-
match between consumers’ sex lives and what they see in pornography. The
experimental findings of Zillmann and Bryant (1988) listed at the outset of the pre-
sent paper are consistent with this hypothesis.

Preference for pornographic masturbation and satisfaction

Another tendency that has frequently been theorized is a preference for porno-
graphic masturbation over sex with one’s partner (Bancroft, 2009; Brooks, 1995;
Carnes, 2003; Carvalheira et al., 2015; Schneider & Weiss, 2001; Stock, 1997). As
pornography consumers’ arousal templates and sexual cognitions become more
aligned with readily available pornographic stimulation and sexual scripts, it has
been argued that intimate, effortful, and negotiated partnered sex becomes less ap-
pealing. Accordingly, as people in relationships turn more to pornographic mastur-
bation to fulfill their sexual needs, it has been hypothesized that interest in
partnered sex declines, as does sexual (and subsequently relational) satisfaction. As
Gottman and Gottman (2016) observed based on their clinical experience,
“intimacy for couples is a source of connection and communication between two
people. But when one person becomes accustomed to masturbating to porn, they
are actually turning away from intimate interaction. . . the negative consequences of
excessive porn use, such as becoming conditioned to require porn to become sexu-
ally aroused or achieve orgasm, are readily apparent.” Although no study has di-
rectly tested whether preferring pornographic masturbation to partnered sex
predicts lower sexual satisfaction among partnered individuals, prior research has
found correlations between pornography consumption, lower sexual satisfaction,
and indices that included assessments of masturbation consistent with this hypothe-
sis (Miller et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2019).

Summary
To conclude, multiple theoretical and conceptual frameworks, as well as several
prior empirical findings, point to the mediating linkages shown in Figure 1. That no
study has tested these dynamics collectively in a single path model, however, has
substantially limited the field’s understanding of the nature of the relationship be-
tween pornography consumption and sexual and relational satisfaction (for longitu-
dinal evidence that sexual satisfaction prospectively predicts relational satisfaction,
see Fallis et al., 2016). Because gender differences in sexuality are often posited in

196 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Upward
Pornographic
Comparisons

Pornography Pornographic Sexual Relational

Consumption Arousal Satisfaction Satisfaction

Preference for

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Pornographic
Masturbation

Figure 1 Model of the proposed pathways between pornography consumption and

satisfaction.

general (Petersen & Hyde, 2010), including in the area of pornography and satisfac-
tion specifically (Wright et al., 2017), models combining men and women into a
single sample are evaluated as well as models comparing results for men and
women.

Method
Procedure and participants
Data are from the National Survey of Porn Use, Relationships, and Sexual
Socialization (NSPRSS). Research funding was provided by The Harnisch
Foundation, Artemis Rising Foundation, The Fledgling Fund, and Embrey Family
Foundation, among others (see acknowledgements). Study protocols were reviewed
and approved by the institutional review board at the first author’s university. Data
collection was carried out by Ipsos (formerly GfK Research) using
R
KnowledgePanelV, a probability-based online panel constructed using address-
based sampling and designed to be nationally representative of noninstitutionalized
R
individuals living in the United States. KnowledgePanelV samples have been used
for numerous U.S. nationally representative probability surveys on diverse topics
including sexual health and behavior (Cuffe et al., 2016; Flynn et al., 2016).
R
Ipsos uses address-based sampling to establish the KnowledgePanelV.
Specifically, the U.S. Postal Service’s Delivery Sequence File—which has informa-
tion for every mail-deliverable address in the country—is first used to identify indi-
R
viduals to be invited to join KnowledgePanelV. People cannot volunteer to be in the
panel (i.e., it is not an opt-in panel). Once individuals are identified, Ipsos enumera-
tes all household members and attempts to recruit every household member age 13
R
and older into KnowledgePanelV (household members younger than 18 are invited
only with consent from parents or legal guardians). Recruitment efforts include an
invitation letter, a reminder postcard, a subsequent letter, and (for households that
include matching landline telephone numbers), a follow-up phone call. To improve
sample representativeness, households that do not already have internet access are
offered a web-enabled device to facilitate participation.

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 197

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

The aim of this project was to recruit a probability sample of 18–60-year-old

R
adults from the KnowledgePanelV. To prepare a sample, Ipsos first weights the pool
R
of active KnowledgePanelV members to the geodemographic benchmarks from the
most recent March supplement of the U.S. Current Population Survey (e.g., gender,
age, race/ethnicity, education, Census region, household income, home ownership
status, and metropolitan area). Then, Ipsos uses a probability proportional to size

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

procedure to select a sample for a specific study. At the time of data collection for
R
our survey, KnowledgePanelV had about 55,000 active members. Individuals in the
sampling frame received an email invitation for the study, with reminders sent to
R
nonresponders for up to 6 days of the data collection period. KnowledgePanelV
members earn points for online survey participation. These points can accumulate
and then be exchanged for merchandise or payment. Once the study sample has
been selected and data collection is complete, Ipsos uses an iterative proportional
fitting (raking) procedure to develop statistical weights for each study sample that
account for any over/under-coverage or nonresponse that may have occurred dur-
ing data collection.
Participants in the present study were 811 men (coded 0) and 818 women (coded
1) who were in a romantic relationship (i.e., dating or married). Participants
spanned the 50 states and ranged in age from 18 to 60 (M ¼ 40.86, SD ¼ 11.54).
Among them, 93.10% identified as heterosexual (coded 0) and 6.90% identified as
lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual, or something else (LGBþ) (coded 1); 65.30% were
white (coded 0) and 34.70% were persons of color (coded 1); 65.10% had not gradu-
ated from college (coded 0) and 34.90% had graduated from college (coded 1). The
characteristics of the NSPRSS subsample in the present analysis were similar to the
NSPRSS overall. In the entire NSPRSS sample (N ¼ 2,531), 49.30% were men and
50.70% were women, with an age range from 18 to 60 (M ¼ 39.63, SD ¼ 12.10);
92.60% identified as heterosexual and 7.40% identified as sexually diverse; 60.30%
were white and 39.70% were persons of color; 68.70% had not graduated from col-
lege and 31.30% had graduated from college.

Focal measures
The focal measures are presented below. Associations between the focal measures
and participants’ demographic characteristics are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Results for men and women are reported in addition to the sample overall.2

Pornography consumption
Participants were asked about their frequency of pornography consumption in the
past year across a range of channels and mediums (free porn websites, paid porn
websites, social media, smartphone, tablet, or computer). Response options were:
0 ¼ never, 1 ¼ once or twice per year, 2 ¼ once or twice per month, 3 ¼ once or
twice per week, and 4 ¼ every day. These options follow from those used in prior
pornography and satisfaction studies (Poulsen et al., 2013; Stulhofer et al., 2010;
Willoughby et al., 2016). Also following previous studies of pornography and

198 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Table 1. Zero-Order Correlations

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Porn consumption –
2. Porn arousal .537** –
3. Upward comparison .198** .186** –

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

4. Masturbation .232** .228** .355** –
5. Sexual satisfaction .092** .080** .276** .166** –
6. Relational satisfaction .021 .006 .149** .151** .421** –
7. Age .193** .113** .028 .013 .061* .129** –
8. College graduate .091** .045 .068** .010 .097** .062* .053* –
9. Person of color .092** .058* .019 .001 .006 .074** .019 .036 –
10. LGBþ .268** .107** .080** .144** .079** .050* .080** .013.019 –

*p < .05.
**p < .01.

satisfaction (Wright et al., 2017), participants were told that by “pornography” the
survey referred to “sexually explicit pictures, videos, or livestreams showing clearly
exposed genitals, or, in which people are clearly shown having sex, such as oral sex,
vaginal sex, or anal sex.” As is common in the pornography effects literature (Peter
& Valkenburg, 2009; van Oosten et al., 2017), responses were averaged to form an
index (Cronbach’s a ¼ .78; M ¼ 0.61, SD ¼ 0.74). Men reported more frequent con-
sumption (Cronbach’s a ¼ .75; M ¼ 0.90, SD ¼ 0.81) than women (Cronbach’s a ¼
.76; M ¼ 0.33, SD ¼ 0.54) (t ¼ 16.42, p < .01).

Pornographic arousal
Following prior studies of arousal to pornography (Laier, 2013; Stark et al., 2019),
participants were asked on a scale from 1 (does not describe me at all) to 4
(describes me exactly) how much the term “aroused” describes how they generally
feel when they see pornography (M ¼ 2.75, SD ¼ 1.08). Men (M ¼ 3.11, SD ¼ 0.95)
reported more arousal to pornography than women (M ¼ 2.39, SD ¼ 1.08)
(t ¼ 14.35, p < .01).

Upward pornographic comparisons

Following prior research on sexual satisfaction and upward sexual comparisons
(Day et al., 2017), participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with
the statement “I am disappointed that my sex life isn’t as good as what I see in
porn” (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 5 ¼ strongly agree) (M ¼ 1.83, SD ¼ 1.15). Men
(M ¼ 1.97, SD ¼ 1.23) were more inclined toward upward pornographic compari-
sons than women (M ¼ 1.69, SD ¼ 1.05) (t ¼ 4.91, p < .01).

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 199

200
Table 2. Zero-Order Correlations (by Gender)

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Porn consumption – .507** .238** .255** .196** .058 159** .187** .074** .335**
2. Porn arousal .462** – .234** .248** .163** .030 .041 .099** .015 .077*
3. Upward porn comparison .044 .080* – .355** .321** .153** .043 .094** .001 .053
Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

4. Porn masturbation .262** .242** .364** – .204** .163** .118** .049 .029 .137**
5. Sexual satisfaction .024 .028 .235** .129** – .380** .068 .128** .051 .117**
6. Relational satisfaction .001 .003 .154** .139** .461** – .193** .087* .097** .053
7. Age .357** .230** .127** .088* .057 .069* – .039 .047 .027
8. College graduate .048 .007 .034 .069* .066 .037 .068 – .028 .038
9. Person of color .144** .104** .043 .030 .063 .050 .009 .043 – .014
10. LGBþ .236** .145** .114** .150** .041 .046 .187** .065 .051 –

Note: Correlations for men above the diagonal; correlations for women below the diagonal.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
P. J. Wright et al.

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021
P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Preference for pornographic masturbation

Participants were asked their level of agreement (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 5 ¼ strongly
agree) with the statement that masturbating to pornography is more enjoyable than
having sex with their partner (M ¼ 1.90, SD ¼ 1.14). Men’s (M ¼ 1.90, SD ¼ 1.13)
and women’s (M ¼ 1.91, SD ¼ 1.15) scores were similar (t ¼ 0.25, p ¼ .80). This
question more directly taps the purported role of a preference for pornographic

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

masturbation over partnered sex than prior studies of pornography, masturbation,
and sexual satisfaction (Miller et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2018; Wright et al., 2019).

Sexual satisfaction
Using an item adapted from established measures of sexual function (Rosen et al.,
1997; Rosen et al., 2000) and following prior studies of pornography use and sexual
satisfaction (Morgan, 2011, Peter & Valkenburg, 2009), participants were asked
how satisfied they had been over the past 4 weeks with their sexual relationship
with their partner (1 ¼ very dissatisfied, 5 ¼ very satisfied) (M ¼ 3.75, SD ¼ 1.25).
Men’s (M ¼ 3.76, SD ¼ 1.24) and women’s (M ¼ 3.73, SD ¼ 1.26) scores were simi-
lar (t ¼ 0.59, p ¼ .56).

Relational satisfaction
Following prior studies of pornography use and relational satisfaction (Hendrick,
1988; Morgan, 2011; Price-Robertson et al., 2017), participants were asked to de-
scribe the degree of happiness, all things considered, in their relationship (1 ¼ very
unhappy, 7 ¼ perfect) (M ¼ 4.74, SD ¼ 1.51). Men’s (M ¼ 4.79, SD ¼ 1.51) and
women’s (M ¼ 4.70, SD ¼1.50) scores were similar (t ¼ 1.09, p ¼ .28).

Results

Analytic approach
The proposed model illustrated in Figure 1 was tested using structural equation
modeling and multigroup analysis. Control variables, which included age, educa-
tion, ethnicity, and sexual orientation, were modeled as predictors of each endoge-
nous variable in the model. These are commonly suggested covariates in
pornography effects research in general and in pornography and satisfaction re-
search specifically (Morgan, 2011; Perry, 2020a; Traeen & Daneback, 2013;
Willoughby et al., 2016).
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was first employed to test the fit of the
measurement model to the data of the overall sample. The structural model was
then estimated after reaching measurement model fit. Finally, a multigroup analysis
was conducted to explore whether the proposed model was equivalent between
men and women. A stepwise procedure for the multigroup analysis was employed.
First, the hypothesized model was evaluated using the male data and female data in-
dependently. Next, a between-group equivalence model was fit by constraining all
paths for males to be equal to those of the females’ model. The modification indices

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 201

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

of this between-group equivalence model were consulted to determine if any con-

strained paths should be freed for significant model fit improvement.

Findings
CFA was undertaken as an initial step to test the psychometric properties of the
measurement. In the CFA, the five pornography consumption items were treated as

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

indicators of a single latent factor, and five other latent factors individually mea-
sured the remaining single-item constructs. The measurement model had moderate
fit to the data, v2(20) ¼ 322.54, p < .001, CFI ¼ .93, RMSEA ¼ .10, 90% CI [.09,
.11], SRMR ¼ .03, but an inspection of the output (e.g., modification indices, stan-
dardized residuals, factor loadings) suggested two modifications to improve mea-
surement model fit. First, two items of the pornography consumption measure (i.e.,
frequency of pornography consumption through paid pornography websites and
social media) were removed from subsequent analyses. Of the five pornography
consumption items, these items had the lowest consumption scores (paid website
consumption M ¼ 0.05, SD ¼ 0.31; social media consumption M ¼ 0.33, SD ¼
0.84).3 Second, upward pornographic comparisons and preference for pornographic
masturbation were treated as indicators of a preference for pornography over part-
ner factor given their high covariation. The revised measurement model fit the data
well, v2(13) ¼ 33.50, p ¼ .001, CFI > .99, RMSEA ¼ .03, 90% CI [.02, .04], SRMR
¼ .02. The absence of cross-loadings and model fit demonstrate internal consis-
tency and discriminant validity of the key constructs (Kline, 2013).
The structural model, with control variables added,4 demonstrated good fit to
the overall sample data, v2(31) ¼ 240.02, p < .001, CFI ¼ .95, RMSEA ¼ .06, 90%
CI [.06, .07], SRMR ¼ .04. The standardized path coefficients and variance esti-
mates of the model are provided in Figure 2. Pornography consumption was posi-
tively associated with pornographic arousal (b ¼ 0.55, SE ¼ 0.02, p < .001), which
in turn predicted a preference for pornography over partners (b ¼ 0.21, SE ¼ 0.03,
p < .001). This preference was negatively related to sexual satisfaction (b ¼ 0.61,
SE ¼ 0.07, p < .001), and sexual satisfaction was a positive predictor of relational
satisfaction (b ¼ 0.51, SE ¼ 0.03, p < .001). An indirect effects test showed that se-
rial mediation, from pornography consumption to relational satisfaction through
pornographic arousal, preference for pornography over partners, and sexual satis-
faction, was significant (b ¼ 0.04, 95% CI [0.05, 0.03], p < .001). Following
the suggestion of Wright (2021a), a model was also tested to explore whether the fo-
cal relationships would change if the control variables were excluded. The model
with no control variables demonstrated good fit, v2(19) ¼ 98.56, p < .001, CFI ¼
.98, RMSEA ¼ .05, 90% CI [.04, .06], SRMR ¼ .05. Pornography consumption was
positively associated with pornographic arousal (b ¼ 0.53, p < .001). Pornographic
arousal was positively associated with a preference for pornography over partners
(b ¼ 0.22, p < .001), which was negatively associated with sexual satisfaction (b ¼
0.60, p < .001). Sexual satisfaction was positively associated with relational

202 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Upward Preference for

Pornographic Pornographic
Comparisons Masturbation

*** ***
.64 .56

.36 .13 .15 .20

*** Preference for *** ***
Pornography .60*** Pornographic .31 -.36 Sexual .42 Relational

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Pornography
Consumption Arousal Satisfaction Satisfaction
over Partner

AGE: -.001 AGE: .03 AGE: -.07** AGE: -.10***

EDU: -.01 EDU: .05 EDU: -.08*** EDU: .10***
ETHN: .01 ETHN: .001 ETHN: .01 ETHN: -.07***
LGB+: -.04 LGB+: .14*** LGB+: -.02 LGB+: -.02

Figure 2 Path results for the overall sample. Estimates above the paths and for the control
variables are standardized coefficients. Estimates above each endogenous variable represent
the variance explained by the predictors. **p < .01; ***p < .001.

satisfaction (b ¼ 0.51, p < .001). The serial mediation from pornography consump-
tion to relational satisfaction was significant (b ¼ 0.04, 95% CI [0.05, 0.03], p
< .001).
The second goal of the analysis was to test whether the model fit data taken from
men and women equivalently using multigroup analysis. In its most basic form,
multigroup analysis is a statistical tool used to compare similarities and differences
in a hypothesized model across a grouping construct (Byrne, 2006). In this study,
the grouping construct of interest was gender. The multigroup path analysis was
conducted using a stepwise procedure. The first step was to evaluate whether the
model independently fit the data of each subgroup. The model fit the data from
men, v2(31) ¼ 169.05, p < .001, CFI ¼ .92, RMSEA ¼ .07, 90% CI [.06, .09], SRMR
¼ .05, and women, v2(28) ¼ 144.85, p < .001, CFI ¼ .95, RMSEA ¼ .07, 90% CI
[.06, .08], SRMR ¼ .04, equally well.
Next, structural invariance of the model was tested between men and women us-
ing a between-group equivalence model. The between-group equivalence model
constrains all paths of the model fit to the male data to be equal to the parameters
of the model for females. The fit of this fully constrained model was satisfactory,
v2(82) ¼ 418.47, p < .001, CFI ¼ .91, RMSEA ¼ .07, 90% CI [.06, .08], SRMR ¼
.06, but modification indices were consulted to see whether releasing any equality
constraints would significantly improve model fit.
The Lagrange Multiplier statistics for releasing equality constraints pointed to
several constraints that could be lifted to improve the fit of the model. Releasing an
equality constraint means that the parameter is independently estimated for men
and for women. Constraints were released in a stepwise pattern; that is, the model
was rerun after each time a constraint was freed, and the pattern continued until

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 203

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

the modification indices provided no further recommendations for significant

model improvement. Four equality constraints were released through this process,
but only one was for a focal association: pornography consumption and porno-
graphic arousal (v2D [1] ¼ 47.19, p < .001). As indicated in Figure 3, the association
between pornography consumption and pornographic arousal was positive and sig-
nificant for both men and women, but the coefficient was larger for women. The re-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

lease of three equality constraints for the nonfocal associations was for sexual
satisfaction and ethnicity (v2D [1] ¼ 20.72, p < .001), relational satisfaction and age
(v2D [1] ¼ 9.25, p ¼ .002), and a preference for pornography over partner and age
(v2D [1] ¼ 4.35, p ¼ .04). As also shown in Figure 3, the nature of these relation-
ships was such that the associations between age and a preference for pornography
over partners were in opposite directions for men and women, with age being a sig-
nificant predictor only for men; being a person of color was positively related to
sexual satisfaction for women but unrelated for men; and age was negatively related
to relational satisfaction for men but unrelated for women. The final model showed
good fit, v2(78) ¼ 368.12, p < .001, CFI ¼ .93, RMSEA ¼ .07, 90% CI [.06, .07],
SRMR ¼ .05. Finally, the serial mediation from pornography consumption to rela-
tional satisfaction was significant for men (b ¼ 0.04, 95% CI [0.05, 0.03], p <
.001) and women (b ¼ 0.06, 95% CI [0.08, 0.04], p < .001).5

Discussion

Based on what has grown to be a sizable literature, it is difficult to dispute the con-
clusion that if there is an association between pornography use and satisfaction for
the average person in a coupled relationship, it is negative rather than positive
(Grubbs et al., 2019; Perry, 2020a; Wright et al., 2017). However, the extant litera-
ture’s hyper-focus on the question of whether there is an overall association has led
to an under-emphasis on the equally important question of mechanism. This lack
of mechanistic testing has been one reason for incredulity about whether pornogra-
phy has any effect on the user’s sexual and relational satisfaction. To address this
need, the present study employed national probability-data from a large sample of
men and women in the United States, focusing on a subset of participants who
were in romantic relationships, to examine whether three of the most frequently hy-
pothesized mechanisms (conditioned arousal to pornography, upward comparisons
between one’s own sex life and sex as it is shown in pornography, and
pornography-induced masturbatory displacement of partnered sex) were predictive
of lower sexual (and consequently relational) satisfaction.
Specifically, the present study tested a conceptual model postulating that (a) reg-
ularly consuming pornography conditions the user’s arousal template to be particu-
larly responsive to pornographic depictions, (b) this amplified arousal to
pornography increases both (c) upward comparisons between one’s own sex life
and sex as it is represented in pornography and (d) a preference for masturbation
to pornography over partnered sex, which in turn (e) weaken perceptions of how

204 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Upward Preference for

Pornographic Pornographic
Comparisons Masturbation
1.0 1.0

0.44***/0.68***
*** ***
0.28*** Preference for -0.64 0.49
Pornography Pornographic Sexual Relational
Pornography

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Consumption Arousal Satisfaction Satisfaction
over Partner

AGE: 0.001 AGE: 0.01**/-0.002 AGE: -0.01** AGE: -0.02***/-0.01

EDU: 0.003 EDU: 0.11* EDU: -0.18** EDU: 0.29***
ETHN: 0.010 ETHN: -0.01 ETHN: -0.16/0.21* ETHN: -0.24***
LGB+: -0.16 LGB+: 0.38*** LGB+: -0.11 LGB+: -0.11

Figure 3 Unstandardized path results for men and women. Estimates are unstandardized
path coefficients. Dual coefficients indicate a gender difference, with left-side coefficients for
men, right-side coefficients for women. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

satisfying it is to have sex with one’s partner, and ultimately (f) decreases percep-
tions of relational satisfaction. Pertinent research findings and multiple theoretical
perspectives (Sexual Behavior Sequence; Organizational Framework for Sexual
Media’s Influence; Anatomy of Arousal Theory; Hierarchical Confluence Model;
3AM) were brought to bear in formulating this model. The findings were supportive
of the hypothesized linkages for both men and women.6 The results also suggested
that it may be more parsimonious to think of upward pornographic comparisons
and a preference for pornographic masturbation as a common “preference for por-
nography over partner” factor. In other words, in contrast to the original conceptu-
alization of upward comparisons between one’s own sex life and sex as it is
represented in pornography and a preference for masturbation to pornography
over partnered sex as separate mechanisms, analyses suggested that these variables
were indicators of a single construct.
Remaining discussion focuses on the implications of the present study’s findings
for current debates in the literature and theoretical development. First, consistent
with previous studies that have correlated pornography indices with separate meas-
ures of sexual and relational satisfaction (Wright et al., 2017), the present results
provide additional reason to question users’ product testimonials as objective evi-
dence of pornography’s positive effects (Kohut et al., 2017).
Second, the results in this investigation suggest that pornography use-
satisfaction studies that begin and end at the bivariate level may wrongly conclude
the absence of a meaningful relationship. The inclusion of theoretically derived, de-
tailed intervening processes can uncover important pathways of influence. In this
study, the total effect of pornography consumption on relational satisfaction was
nonsignificant, a finding not inconsistent with prior research (Wright et al., 2017).

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 205

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

If intervening processes were not considered, it might be erroneously concluded

that pornography consumption has no effect on relational satisfaction. But the gen-
eral consensus among theorists and statisticians (e.g., Hayes, 2017; Shrout & Bolger,
2002) is that the more nuanced intervening effects can be meaningful even when
the bivariate correlation is nonsignificant (see Hayes, 2009). This is because the total
effect is the sum of the direct effect and any measured or unmeasured specific indi-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

rect effects, the signs of which may cancel each other out. It could be argued, for ex-
ample, that for some consumers, improved sexual skills learned from viewing
pornography (Watson & Smith, 2012) can lead to positive intervening effects that
cancel out the negative indirect effect led by the inclusion of upward pornographic
comparisons and preference for pornographic masturbation observed in this study.
Third, the present results should alleviate concern about whether survey ques-
tions used in some prior studies made it so that only negative associations were pos-
sible (Campbell & Kohut, 2017). As one example, higher levels of pornography
consumption and stronger arousal to pornography could have been associated with
higher levels of sexual and relational satisfaction. As another example, if pornogra-
phy provided a successful cathartic outlet for unmet desires in the relationship, in-
creased use could have been associated with reduced upward comparisons and a
heightened desire for partnered sex.
Fourth, in the culmination of their review of the literature on pornography and
satisfaction, Newstrom and Harris (2016) noted that a lack of theoretically in-
formed work “makes it difficult to know how to interpret the results of the findings
of a given study and to build upon existing research” (p. 420). The theoretically
originated nature of the present study’s hypotheses attends to the critique that the
research on pornography use and satisfaction is atheoretical.
Fifth, the explicit questionnaire wording linking pornography to the mediating
mechanisms (pornographic arousal, not simply arousal; upward pornographic com-
parisons, not simply upward comparisons; and preference for pornographic mas-
turbation, not simply masturbation) addresses the critique that pornography (as
measured without such context in prior studies) is incidental to the true factors that
cause both its use and lower satisfaction (Perry, 2020b).
Despite these strengths, the present study’s findings must be caveated in two ways.
First, the cross-sectional nature of the data leaves open alternative proposals for the se-
quencing of associations (i.e., a reversal of the paths presented—relational dissatisfac-
tion leading to sexual dissatisfaction, sexual dissatisfaction leading to upward
comparisons with pornography, and so forth). Although the present authors agree that
these dynamics may be reciprocal, their view of science as a cumulative endeavor,
where current findings are interpreted in light of previous findings, precludes them
from stating that it is possible that pornography consumption is only an effect of lower
dissatisfaction and never a cause. First, meta-analysis of the pornography and satisfac-
tion literature finds that results from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental
studies are indistinguishable (Wright et al., 2017). Second, meta-analysis of pornogra-
phy effects studies analyzing other areas of human sexuality, but referencing several of

206 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

the same theoretical frameworks as the present study, also indicate similar findings
across cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental results (Allen et al., 1995; Hald
et al., 2010; Tokunaga et al., 2018, 2020; Wright et al., 2016). Third, a recent review of
25 cross-lagged pornography use/effect studies across a wide array of belief, attitude,
and behavioral outcomes reported that the majority of studies (14) found evidence of
pornography effects only (i.e., no evidence of selective-exposure or reciprocality), that

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

10 studies found evidence of reciprocality, and that the results of the remaining study
were inconclusive (Wright, 2021b). This review also located 14 additional longitudinal
panel studies finding that earlier pornography consumption predicted the later sexual
outcome under investigation after controlling for earlier levels of the outcome, a result
“rendering an explanation of reverse causality for [the] findings implausible” (Collins
et al., 2004, p. 287). This review concluded that “the notion that significant correlations
between pornography use and beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in cross-sectional studies
could be due entirely to selective-exposure is in contradiction to the accumulated
evidence.” Finally, although pornography is a highly unique and differentiated media
genre deserving of its own particular theories and inquiries, it is still a form of mediated
communication, and the present authors feel that it would be imprudent to overlook
recent field-wide meta-analytic results evidencing the initiating effects of media mes-
sages (Rains et al., 2018).
The second caveat is that the conceptualizing undergirding the present work
applies to cases where personal pornography use (i.e., solo use apart from a partner)
leads to a lessoning of the individual user’s sexual (and relational) satisfaction.
Theory building is vital in this domain, as most pornography use is individual,
rather than coupled (Grubbs et al., 2019), and the most likely effect of individual
use is a decrease (not an increase) in partnered sexual satisfaction (Perry, 2020a;
Wright et al., 2017). However, it is acknowledged that individual use may actually
enhance partnered sexual satisfaction in certain atypical cases, and that coupled use
among partners with similar outlooks on pornography may also boost sexual satis-
faction (Daneback et al., 2009; Maddox et al., 2011), at least in the short term
(Leonhardt et al., 2019). As the science of pornography should encapsulate all possi-
bilities, not just the dominate patterns, it is important that models are developed to
explain these dynamics as well.
In conclusion, the present study contributed to the literature on pornography and
satisfaction by testing a theoretically originated, empirically informed, novel path
model. It is the authors’ hope that the results and conceptualizations presented will
move the literature beyond the question of whether there is an impact of pornography
use on sexual satisfaction7 to the questions of mechanistic explication and contingency.

Notes

1. Escalations in the novelty and intensity of the sex acts depicted may be required
for some consumers to maintain the exposure-enhanced arousal feedback loop
(Zillmann & Bryant 1986).

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 207

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

2. The zero-order pornography consumption correlations parallel Wright,

Tokunaga, Kraus, and Klann’s (2017) meta-analysis when sexual and relational sat-
isfaction are averaged to form an index. Wright et al. analyzed correlations between
pornography consumption and sexual and relational satisfaction collectively. As in
Wright et al., the correlation for the sample overall is negative and significant (pre-
sent study r ¼ .06, p < .05; Wright et al. r ¼ .10, p < .01). Further, the point-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

estimates for men (present study r ¼ .15, p < .01) and women (present study r ¼
.01, p > .05) fall within the confidence intervals found by Wright et al. (Wright
et al. 95% CI men [.16, .10]; Wright et al. 95% CI women [.05, .02]).
3. Descriptive statistics for the three-item pornography consumption measure
were as follows: sample overall (Cronbach’s a ¼ .84; M ¼ 0.90, SD ¼ 1.05), men
(Cronbach’s a ¼ .80; M ¼ 1.30, SD ¼ 1.13), and women (Cronbach’s a ¼ .85;
M ¼ 0.50, SD ¼ 0.80). Although using the three-item pornography consumption
measure was indicated as the most appropriate course of action by the CFA, results
with the original five-item measure were similar. As with the five-item measure,
men’s consumption scores were larger than women’s (t ¼ 16.55, p < .01).
Correlational results for the three-item measure were also in synchrony with results
for the five-item measure: sample overall (porn arousal r ¼ .55, p < .01; upward
porn comparison r ¼ .21, p < .01; porn masturbation r ¼ .24, p < .01; sexual satis-
faction r ¼ .10, p < .01; relational satisfaction r ¼ .03, p > .05), men (porn
arousal r ¼ .52, p < .01; upward porn comparison r ¼ .25, p < .01; porn masturba-
tion r ¼ .25, p < .01; sexual satisfaction r ¼ .21, p < .01; relational satisfaction r
¼ .06, p > .05), women (porn arousal r ¼ .49, p < .01; upward porn comparison
r ¼ .06, p > .05; porn masturbation r ¼ .28, p < .01; sexual satisfaction r ¼ .01, p >
.05; relational satisfaction r ¼ .01, p > .05). In addition, as with the five-item mea-
sure, the three-item measure correlated with an averaged index of sexual and rela-
tional satisfaction in line with the results of the Wright et al. (2017) meta-analysis:
sample overall (r ¼ .07, p < .01), men (r ¼ .15, p < .01), and women (r ¼
.003, p > .05). Finally, path and mediation results using the five-item measure
were synonymous in terms of statistical significance and directionality with results
using the three-item measure (results available upon request).
4. In response to a reviewer comment, sexual activity was added as an additional
control variable to explore whether the focal paths of the hypothesized model would
change. Inclusion of sexual activity did not substantively affect the fit of the model,
v2(34) ¼ 239.73, p < .001, CFI ¼ .95, RMSEA ¼ .06, 90% CI [.05, .07], and SRMR
¼ .03. Pornography consumption was a significant positive predictor of porno-
graphic arousal (b ¼ 0.55, p < .001), which in turn positively predicted a preference
for pornography over partners (b ¼ 0.23, p < .001). A preference for pornography
over partners was negatively associated with sexual satisfaction (b ¼ 0.60, p <
.001), which was positively associated with relational satisfaction (b ¼ 0.51, p <
.001). The serial mediation from pornography consumption to relational satisfac-
tion remained significant (b ¼ 0.04, 95% CI [0.05, 0.03], p < .001).

208 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

5. In response to a reviewer comment, a post hoc multigroup analysis was con-

ducted using marital status as the grouping variable. The models for those dating,
v2(31) ¼ 80.58, p < .001, CFI ¼ .96, RMSEA ¼ .06, 90% CI [.04, .07], SRMR ¼ .04,
and married, v2(31) ¼ 186.78, p < .001, CFI ¼ .94, RMSEA ¼ .07, 90% CI [.06,
.08], SRMR ¼ .04, independently fit the data satisfactorily. The between-group
equivalence model demonstrated adequate fit to the data, v2(79) ¼ 282.48, p <

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

.001, CFI ¼ .95, RMSEA ¼ .06, 90% CI [.05, .06], SRMR ¼ .04, but the modification
indices recommended the release of path constraints for one focal association (por-
nographic arousal and a preference for pornography over partners) as well as sev-
eral non-focal associations (relational satisfaction and sexual orientation; relational
satisfaction and education; relational satisfaction and ethnicity; sexual satisfaction
and age; preference for pornography over partners). Pornography consumption
predicted pornographic arousal (b ¼ 0.55, p < .001). Pornographic arousal was pos-
itively associated with a preference for pornography over partners in both groups,
but the association was stronger for married persons (b ¼ 0.49, p < .001) than un-
married persons (b ¼ 0.16, p < .001). A preference for pornography over partners
was negatively associated with sexual satisfaction (b ¼ 0.59, p < .001), which in
turn was positively associated with relational satisfaction (b ¼ 0.46, p < .001). The
serial mediation from pornography consumption to relational satisfaction was sig-
nificant for both married (b ¼ 0.07, 95% CI [0.09, 0.05], p < .001) and un-
married (b ¼ 0.02, 95% CI [0.04, 0.01], p ¼ .001) persons.
6. Discussion of the gender differences in the associations between the covariates
and the focal measures is beyond the scope of the present paper, due to space con-
straints and their posteriori discovery.
7. Although infrequently utilized by social psychologically oriented communication
scientists, an instrumental variables approach to analyzing the effect of pornography
on satisfaction similar to Daines and Shumway’s (2012) instrumental variables ap-
proach to analyzing the effect of pornography on divorce would also be helpful.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank to the following for their generous support of our research: Julie
Parker Benello, Abigail E. Disney, Natasha and David Dolby, Embrey Family
Foundation, The Fledgling Fund, Ruth Ann Harnisch and The Harnisch
Foundation, Chandra Jessee, Suzanne Lerner, Cristina Ljungberg, Ann Lovell, Nion
McEvoy, Regina K. Scully, Artemis Rising Foundation, Lindsey Taylor Wood, and
Jacki Zehner. We are also grateful to Jill Bauer, Ronna Gradus, and Rashida Jones
for their participation in survey development, including their review and feedback
on survey drafts.

Conflict of Interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 209

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

References
Allen, M., D’Alessio, D., & Brezgel, K. (1995). A meta-analysis summarizing the effects of
pornography II: Aggression after exposure. Human Communication Research, 22,
258–283. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00368.x
Bancroft, J. (2009). Human sexuality and its problems (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands:
Elsevier.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Brooks, G. R. (1995). The centerfold syndrome. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brosius, H. B., Weaver, J. B., & Staab, J. F. (1993). Exploring the social and sexual reality of
contemporary pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 161–170. doi:10.1080/
00224499309551697
Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and
programming (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Campbell, L., & Kohut, T. (2017). The use and effects of pornography in romantic relation-
ships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 6–10. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004
Carnes, P. (2003). The anatomy of arousal: Three Internet portals. Sexual and Relationship
Therapy, 18, 309–328. doi:10.1080/14681990310153937
Carvalheira, A., Træen, B., & Stulhofer, A. (2015). Masturbation and pornography use
among coupled heterosexual men with decreased sexual desire: How many roles of mas-
turbation? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 41, 626–635. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2014.
958790
Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., Kunkel, D., Hunter, S. B., & Miu, A.
(2004). Watching sex on television predicts adolescent initiation of sexual behavior.
Pediatrics, 114, e280–e289. doi:10.1542/peds.2003-1065-L
Cuffe, K. M., Newton-Levinson, A., Gift, T. L., McFarlane, M., & Leichliter, J. S. (2016).
Sexually transmitted infection testing among adolescents and young adults in the United
States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58, 512–519. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.01.002
Daines, R. M., & Shumway, T. (2012). Pornography and divorce. 7th Annual Conference on
Empirical Legal Studies. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com
Daneback, K., Træen, B., & Månsson, S. A. (2009). Use of pornography in a random sample
of Norwegian heterosexual couples. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 746–753. doi:10.
1007/s10508-008-9314-4
Day, L. C., Muise, A., & Impett, E. A. (2017). Is comparison the thief of joy? Sexual narcissism
and social comparisons in the domain of sexuality. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 43, 233–244. doi:10.1177/0146167216678862
Doran, K., & Price, J. (2014). Pornography and marriage. Journal of Family and
EconomicIssues, 35, 489–498. doi:10.1007/s10834-014-9391
Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2018). Reasons for pornography consumption: Associations with
gender, psychological and physical sexual satisfaction, and attitudinal impacts. Sexuality
& Culture, 22, 48–62. doi:10.1007/s12119-017-9452-8
Fallis, E. E., Rehman, U. S., Woody, E. Z., & Purdon, C. (2016). The longitudinal association
of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction in long-term relationships. Journal of
Family Psychology, 30, 822–831. doi:10.1037/fam0000205
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
doi:10.1177/001872675400700202

210 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Fisher, W. A. (1986). A psychological approach to human sexuality: The sexual behavior se-
quence. In D. Byrne ?0026; & K. Kelley (Eds), Alternative approaches to the study of sex-
ual behavior (pp. 313–172). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fisher, W. A., & Barak, A. (2001). Internet pornography: A social psychological perspective
on Internet sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 312–323. doi:10.1080/
00224490109552102

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Flynn, K. E., Lin, L., Bruner, D. W., Cyranowski, J. M., Hahn, E. A., Jeffery, D. D.,. . .
Weinfurt, K. P. (2016). Sexual satisfaction and the importance of sexual health to quality
of life throughout the life course of US adults. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13,
1642–1650. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.08.011
Gottman, J., & Gottman, J. (2016). An open letter on pornography. Seattle, WA: The Gottman
Institute.
Grubbs, J. B., Wright, P. J., Braden, A. L., Wilt, J. A., & Kraus, S. W. (2019). Internet pornogra-
phy use and sexual motivation: A systematic review and integration. Annals of the
International Communication Association, 43, 117–155. doi:10.1080/23808985.2019.1584045
Hald, G. M., & Malamuth, N. M. (2008). Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption.
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 614–625. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9212-1
Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. N., & Lange, T. (2013). Pornography and sexist attitudes among
heterosexuals. Journal of Communication, 63, 638–660. doi:10.1111/jcom.12037
Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. M., & Yuen, C. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting vi-
olence against women. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328
Hald, G. M., Smolenski, D., & Rosser, B.R. (2013). Perceived effects of sexually explicit media
among men who have sex with men and psychometric properties of the pornography
consumption effects Scale. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10, 757–767. doi:10.1111/j.
1743-6109.2012.02988.x
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new mil-
lennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420. doi:10.1080/03637750903310360
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis:
A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford publications.
Hendrick, S. S. (1988). A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage
and Family, 50, 93–98. doi:10.2307/352430
Herring, B. (2019). The practice, identity, and ideology of male solosexuality: Description
and sexual health overview. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 26, 7–23. doi:10.1080/
10720162.2019.1615586
Jensen, R., & Dines, G. (1998). The content of mass-marketed pornography. In G. Dines, R.
Jensen, & A. Russo (Eds), Pornography. The production and consumption of inequality
(pp. 65–100). New York, NY: Routledge.
Kenrick, D. T., Gutierres, S. E., & Goldberg, L. L. (1989). Influence of popular erotica on judg-
ments of strangers and mates. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 159–167.
doi:10.1016/0022-1031(89)90010-3
Kline, R. B. (2013). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In Y. Petscher, C.
Schatschneider, & D. L. Compton (Eds), Applied quantitative analysis education and the
social sciences (pp. 171–207). New York, NY: Routledge.
Kohut, T., Fisher, W. A., & Campbell, L. (2017). Perceived effects of pornography on the cou-
ple relationship: Initial findings of open-ended, participant-informed, “bottom-up” re-
search. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 585–602. doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0783-6

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 211

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., Pekal, J., Schulte, F. P., & Brand, M. (2013). Cybersex addiction:
Experienced sexual arousal when watching pornography and not real-life sexual contacts
makes the difference. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 2, 100–107. doi:10.1556/jba.2.
2013.002
Laier, C., Pekal, J., & Brand, M. (2014). Cybersex addiction in heterosexual female users of
Internet pornography can be explained by gratification hypothesis. Cyberpsychology,

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Behavior, and Social Networking, 17, 505–511. doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0396
Lambert, N. M., Negash, S., Stillman, T. F., Olmstead, S. B., & Fincham, F. D. (2012). A love
that doesn’t last: Pornography consumption and weakened commitment to one’s roman-
tic partner. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31, 410–438. doi:10.1521/jscp.2012.
31.4.410
Leonhardt, N. D., Spencer, T. J., Butler, M. H., & Theobald, A. C. (2019). An organizational
framework for sexual media’s influence on short-term versus long-term sexual quality.
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 2233–2249. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1209-4
Linz, D., & Malamuth, N. M. (1993). Pornography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Maddox, A. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Markman, H. J. (2011). Viewing sexually-explicit materials
alone or together: Associations with relationship quality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40,
441–448. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9585-4
Malamuth, N. M. (2003). Criminal and noncriminal sexual aggressors: Integrating psychopa-
thy in a hierarchical-mediational confluence model. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 989, 33–58. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07292.x
Miller, D. J., McBain, K. A., Li, W. W., & Raggatt, P. T. (2019). Pornography, preference for
porn-like sex, masturbation, and men’s sexual and relationship satisfaction. Personal
Relationships, 26, 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267
Morgan, E. M. (2011). Associations between young adults’ use of sexually explicit materials
and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 48,
520–530. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2010.543960
Mulya, T. W., & Hald, G. M. (2014). Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption in a
sample of Indonesian university students. Media Psychology, 17, 78–101. doi:10.1080/
15213269.2013.850038
Muusses, L. D., Kerkhof, P., & Finkenauer, C. (2015). Internet pornography and relationship
quality: A longitudinal study of within and between partner effects of adjustment, sexual
satisfaction and sexually explicit internet material among newly-weds. Computers in
Human Behavior, 45, 77–84. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.077
Newstrom, N. P., & Harris, S. M. (2016). Pornography and couples: What does the research
tell us? Contemporary Family Therapy, 38, 412–423. doi:10.1007/s10591-016-9396-4
Perry, S. L. (2020a). Pornography and relationship quality: Establishing the dominant
pattern by examining pornography use and 31 measures of relationship quality in 30
national surveys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 1199–1213. doi:10.1007/s10508-019-
01616-7
Perry, S. L. (2020b). Is the link between pornography use and relational happiness really
more about masturbation? Results from two national surveys. Journal of Sex Research, 57,
64–76. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1556772
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2008). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet ma-
terial and sexual preoccupancy: A three-wave panel study. Media Psychology, 11,
207–234. doi:10.1080/15213260801994238

212 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214

P. J. Wright et al. Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction

Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet ma-
terial and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study. Human Communication Research, 35,
171–194. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01343.x
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences
in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 21–38. doi:10.1037/a0017504
Pfaus, J. G., Kippin, T. E., Coria-Avila, G. A., Gelez, H., Afonso, V. M., Ismail, N., & Parada,

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

M. (2012). Who, what, where, when (and maybe even why)? How the experience of sexual
reward connects sexual desire, preference, and performance. Archives of sexual behavior.
41, 31–62. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9935-5
Pfaus, J. G., Scepkowski, L. A., Marson L., & Georgiadis J. R. (2014). Biology of the sexual re-
sponse. In D. L. Tolman, L. M. Diamond, J. A. Bauermeister, W. H. George, J. G. Pfaus, &
L. M. Ward (Eds.), APA handbook of sexuality and psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 145–203).
Person-based approaches. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Poulsen, F. O., Busby, D. M., & Galovan, A.M. (2013). Pornography use: Who uses it and
how it is associated with couple outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 72–83. doi:10.
1080/00224499.2011.648027
Prause, N., & Pfaus, J. (2015). Viewing sexual stimuli associated with greater sexual respon-
siveness, not erectile dysfunction. Sexual Medicine, 3, 90–98. doi:10.1002/sm2.58
Price-Robertson, R., Baxter, J., & Mathews, S. (2017). Longitudinal associations between
fathers’ mental health and the quality of their coparenting relationships. Clinical
Psychologist, 21, 215–226. doi:10.1111/cp.12072
Rains, S. A., Levine, T. R., & Weber, R. (2018). Sixty years of quantitative communication re-
search summarized: Lessons from 149 meta-analyses. Annals of the International
Communication Association, 42, 105–124. doi:10.1080/23808985.2018.1446350
Rosen, R. C., Riley, A., Wagner, G., Osterloh, I. H., Kirkpatrick, J., & Mishra, A. (1997). The
international index of erectile function (IIEF): A multidimensional scale for assessment of
erectile dysfunction. Urology, 49, 822–830. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(97)00238-0
Rosen C., Brown J., Heiman S., Leiblum C., Meston R., Shabsigh D., Ferguson R., &
D’Agostino R. (2000). The female sexual function index (FSFI): A multidimensional
self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function. Journal of Sex &
Marital Therapy, 26, 191–208. doi:10.1080/009262300278597
Schneider, J., & Weiss, R. (2001). Cybersex exposed. Center City, MN: Hazelden.
Schramm, H. (2002). Interview with Dean Emeritus Dolf Zillmann. Z. für Medienpsychologie,
14, 90–92.
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies:
New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. doi:10.1037/
1082-989X.7.4.422
Stark, R., Klein, S., Kruse, O., Weygandt, M., Leufgens, L. K., Schweckendiek, J., & Strahler, J.
(2019). No sex difference found: Cues of sexual stimuli activate the reward system in both
sexes. Neuroscience, 416, 63–73. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.07.049
Stock, W.E. (1997). Sex as commodity: Men and the sex industry. In R. F. Levant ?0026; & G.
R. Brooks (Eds), Men and sex (pp. 100–132). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Stulhofer, A., Busko, V., & Landripet, I. (2010). Pornography, sexual socialization, and satis-
faction among young men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 168–178. doi:10.1007/s10508-
008-9387-0

Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214 213

Pornography and Sexual Dissatisfaction P. J. Wright et al.

Suls, J., Martin, R., & Wheeler, L. (2002). Social comparison: Why, with whom, and with
what effect? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 159–163. doi:10.1111/1467-
8721.00191
Sun, C., Bridges, A., Johnson, J. A., & Ezzell, M. B. (2016). Pornography and the male sexual
script: An analysis of consumption and sexual relations. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45,
983–994. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0391-2

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article/47/2/192/6214470 by University of Cambridge user on 13 April 2021

Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. J., & Roskos, J. E. (2018). Pornography and impersonal sex.
Human Communication Research, 45, 78–118. doi:10.1093/hcr/hqy014
Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. W., & Vangeel, L. (2020). Is pornography a risk-factor for con-
domless sex? Human Communication Research, 46, 273–299. doi:10.1093/hcr/hqaa005
Traeen, B., & Daneback, K. (2013). The use of pornography and sexual behaviour among
Norwegian men and women of differing sexual orientation. Sexologies, 22, e41–e48. doi:
10.1016/j.sexol.2012.03.002.
van Oosten, J. M., Peter, J., & Vandenbosch, L. (2017). Adolescents’ sexual media use and
willingness to engage in casual sex: Differential relations and underlying processes.
Human Communication Research, 43, 127–147. doi:10.1111/hcre.12098
Watson, M. A., & Smith, R. D. (2012). Positive porn: Educational, medical, and clinical uses.
American Journal of Sexuality Education, 7, 122–145. doi:10.1080/15546128.2012
Willoughby, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Busby, D. M., & Brown, C. C. (2016). Differences in pornogra-
phy use among couples: Associations with satisfaction, stability, and relationship pro-
cesses. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 145–158. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0562-9
Wright, P. J. (2011). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior. Annals of the International
Communication Association, 35, 343–386. doi:10.1080/23808985.2011.11679121
Wright, P. J. (2019). Dysregulated pornography use and the possibility of a unipathway ap-
proach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 455–460. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1277
Wright, P. J. (2021a). Overcontrol in pornography research: Let it go, let it go. Archives of
Sexual Behavior, 50, 387–392. doi:10.1007/s10508-020-01902-9
Wright, P. J. (2021b). Pornographic socialization as “selective-exposure”: Let it go, let it go II.
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 393–399. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-01922-z
Wright, P. J., Bridges, A. J., Sun, C., Ezzell, M. B., & Johnson, J. A. (2018). Personal pornogra-
phy viewing and sexual satisfaction: A quadratic analysis. Journal of Sex & Marital
Therapy, 44, 308–315. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2017.1377131
Wright, P. J., Sun, C., Steffen, N. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2019). Associative pathways between
pornography consumption and reduced sexual satisfaction. Sexual and Relationship
Therapy, 34, 422–439. doi:10.1080/14681994.2017.1323076
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Kraus, A. (2016). A meta-analysis of pornography consump-
tion and actual acts of sexual aggression in general population studies. Journal of
Communication, 66, 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Kraus, A., & Klann, E. (2017). Pornography consumption and
satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 43, 315–343. doi:10.
1111/hcre.12108
Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1986). Shifting preferences in pornography consumption.
Communication Research, 13, 560¼578. doi:10.1177/009365086013004003
Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1988). Pornography’s impact on sexual satisfaction. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 18, 438–453. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00027.x

214 Human Communication Research 47 (2021) 192–214