Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

INTRODUCTION______________________________________________________________
When we hear the word, “learning” the first thing that comes to our mind is studying
subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and languages in school. In a broader sense
though, learning extends more beyond the confines of the classroom or the school. People
learn every day in various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major
part of the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is
important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you play a major role in the
students’ learning. Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will enable you to
better develop teaching methodologies and other interventions meant to improve, enhance,
and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at
large. Learning connotes observed changes in a person as a result of environmental events
and interventions. The process of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as students
go up the educational ladder, developmental changes in their personality are effected. This
has to do with improved and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills and
knowledge and other personality behaviors.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES_______________________________________________

At the end of the module the students are expected to:
1. Construct your own definition of learning
2. Identify the different types of learning
3. Differentiate the different theories of learning
4. Apply the learning theories in a classroom setting

DISCUSSION_________________________________________________________________
Definitions of learning
1. Learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner.
2. Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences
and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes, behavior and world views (Education, n.d.).
3. Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with
behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking,
attitudes, and emotions.
4. Santrock (2012) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior,
knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever.
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental
illness, fatigue, hunger of the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its
basis in the brain.
5. Woolfolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including practice)
causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior or
potential for behavior”.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 1

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
2

6. Ormrod (2015) defines learning as a long-term change in mental representations or

associations as a result of experience.
Types of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from the engagement or participation in
classroom activities. These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school. These
are types of learning that students need to develop.
1. Motor Learning - It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily in
life activities. For example: walking, running, driving, climbing, and the like. These
activities involve motor coordination.
2. Verbal learning - It involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, and sounds
are tools used in such activities.
3. Concept learning - A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two processes:
abstraction and generalization.
4. Discrimination learning - It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish
the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car and ambulance.
5. Learning of Principles – Learning principle that is related to science, mathematics,
grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship between two or more
concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and
the like.
6. Problem Solving – This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning requires the
use of cognitive abilities – such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, and
generalization.
7. Attitude learning – Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts
behavior. Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people, objects, things,
or ideas.
Learning Theory
A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire,
retain, and recall knowledge. It explains how people learn and why they learn. These
theories try to explain the phenomenon of learning- its nature, and the conditions under
which learning best occurs. These theories especially guide teachers to have a better
understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn (Educational Learning and
Learning Theories,n.d.)
Learner-Centered
It is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their heredity, experiences,
perspectives, backgrounds, talent, interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning -
the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices
that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning and
achievement for all learners.
These are the main ideas of these principles (14 learner-centered psychological
principles):
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 2

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
3

b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under control of the
learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff, and
guidance counselors.
Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies (Santrock, 2011)
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes learners to
authentic life problems that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves
small-group efforts to identify problems and issues they wish to tackle and explore,
then identify materials and resources to solve the problem. The teacher guides and
monitors the learners’ problem solving efforts.
2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is
followed by other questions, which motivate the students to explore the questions
and look for answers. The questions cause the students to think, and provoke their
curiosity. These questions are creative. A “dull” question, like “What is the effect of
the People Power Revolution in our political and economic life?” can be translated
into a more thought-provoking one like, “Is the People Power Revolution still going
on?”
3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach. Teachers create
the situation where students explore and figure out things for themselves. The
guided discovery learning evolved from discovery learning, where students still
construct their own understanding but with the guidance of the teacher.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. Behaviorism
It assumes that the learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged early in 1900s through the research
efforts of Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning Theory) and Edward Thorndike
(Reinforcement theory and Law of Effect) who made more objective studies about
learning as opposed to the studies of learning which relied heavily on introspection.
Other proponents under behaviorism are John B. Watson (founder of American
Behaviorism, extended Pavlov’s classical conditioning), Burrhus Frederic Skinner
(Operant Conditioning) and John Locke (Tabula Rasa).
Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism (Ormrod, 2015)
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety
of animal species. This is on the assumption that humans and other animals learn
in similar ways. Thus behaviorists-researchers apply to humans what they have
derived from the studies of animals.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 3

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
4

b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on
the stimuli and responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are observable
and measurable which contribute to objectivity of studying learning.
c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations.
This thinking stemmed from the argument that these internal behaviors cannot
be directly observed. Recently, however, there has emerged a thinking
propounded by neo-behaviorists that learning is better understood if cognitive
processes, be included as a factor, that explains learning.
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates (Tabula Rasa).
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).
Areas of Application of Theories Under Behaviorism
a. Drill/Rote Work g. Giving of rewards
b. Repetitive practice h. Applying punishment
c. Giving bonus points i. Giving feedback
d. Giving participation points j. Positive reinforcement
e. Verbal reinforcement k. Token reinforcers
f. Establishing rules l. Negative reinforcement
2. Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as
the dominant paradigm for learning. Cognitivism requires active participation in
order to learn and actions are seen as a result of thinking. Knowledge can be seen as
schema or symbolic mental constructions, thus learning is defined as change in a
learner’s schemata. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or not just a change in behavior.
Examples and Applications of the Cognitive Learning Theory
a. Classifying/chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new concept with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient & meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

3. Social Constructivism (Lev Vygostky)

It posits that learning is an active constructive process. Learning is seen as an
active contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring
it. It assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner’s regardless of how
one was taught. The applications of social constructivism show that class activities
which require the participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables
learning to occur.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 4

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
5

Applications of Social Constructivism

a. Case Studies e. Collaborative Learning/ Group Work
b. Research Projects f. Discovery Learning
c. Problem Solving g. Simulations
d. Brainstorming
Table 1 shows the salient points of the three learning theories considered as basis for
further study of learning
Salient Points Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
Knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed within
behavioral responses actively constructed by social contexts through
to environmental learners based on cognitive interactions with a
stimuli. structures. knowledge
community.
View of Passive absorption of Active assimilation and Integration of students
learning a predefined body of accommodation of new into a knowledge
knowledge by the information to existing community.
learner. Promoted by cognitive structures. Collaborative
repetition and Discovery by learners. assimilation and
positive accommodation of
reinforcement. new information.
View of Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and extrinsic.
Motivation positive and negative own goals and motivate Learning goals and
reinforcement. themselves to learn. motives are
determined both by
learners and extrinsic
rewards provided by
the knowledge
community.
Implications Correct behavioral Teacher facilitates learning Collaborative learning
for Teaching responses are by providing an is facilitated and
transmitted by environment that promotes guided by the teacher.
teachers and discovery and Group work.
absorbed by assimilation/accommodatio
students. n

Other Theories of Learning

1. Social Learning Theory (Albert bandura)
This theory suggests that people learn within a social context and that learning is
facilitated through concepts like modelling, observational learning, and imitation.
Bandura put forward “reciprocal determinism” that holds the view that a person’s
behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. He
argues that children learn from observing others as well as from model behavior, which
are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. The
importance of positive modeling on learning is well-established.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 5

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
6

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education

a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. It
can provide a faster, more efficient means of teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care not to
model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other model to break down
traditional stereotypes.
2. Experiential Learning
This theory aims to understand the manner in which experiences, whether first-
or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories suggesting that
experiential learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural inclination to
learn; and they learn if they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put
forward the following insights: a) Learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach
another person directly; b) Learners become more rigid under threat; c) Significant
learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum;
d) Learning is most likely to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic
continuous process or change where new learning results in and affects learning
environments.
Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the
learners, which could serve as inputs for related lessons. In doing so, students
would feel that they are involved in the learning process, because it is their
own experiences which they are studying.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the
students, so that they are better able to create an atmosphere for students
that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’
learning so that they do not have to always be the source of learning
materials.
3. Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that learning
is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same
principles. Gardner argues that intelligence actually consists of many distinct
intelligences: logico-mathematical ability, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability.
This theory is speculative but appreciated by teachers in broadening their
framework of developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI theory “requires” the
teachers to come up with a variety of instructional materials and strategies, to make
sure that the needs of students with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.
4. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 6

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
7

Developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger. Situated learning recognizes

that there is no learning that is not situated. It emphasizes the relational and
negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of
learning activity for the individuals involved. The theory further asserts that it is
within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place
within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem solving, building trust,
understanding and relations- have the potential to foster community social capital
that enhances the community members’ well-being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea
that learning is most effective when it takes place in communities. Communities of
practice is not confined only to schools but to cover other settings like workplaces
and organizations. It seeks to understand both the structure of communities and
how learning occurs in them (“Education,” n. d.).
According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of practice
is based on the following assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize their
learning around social communities to which they belong. Therefore,
schools are powerful learning environments for students whose social
communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values,
beliefs, language and ways of doing things. These are called communities
of practice. Real knowledge is integrated in the doing, social relations,
and expertise of these communities.
c. The process of learning and membership in a community of practice are
inseparable. Because learning is intertwined with community
membership, it is what lets us belong to adjust our status in the group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is impossible to know without
doing. By doing, we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the
potential for learning.

5. 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged from the concerns
about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new
demands of the 21st century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven.
These are skills necessary for students to master for them to experience school and
life success in an increasingly digital and connected age. Current discussions about
21st century skills lead classrooms and other environments to encourage the
development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical and
systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry-
based collaborative work that addresses world issues support the learning of the 21 st
Century Skills.

SUGGESTED READINGS_____________________________________________________

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 7

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
8

Any Facilitating learner-centered books. Online Resources

RESOURCES AND ADDITIONAL RESOURCES___________________________________

Dalisay, B. G., & Leus, M. J. (2018). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching. Adriana

Publishing Co., Inc.

Lucas, M. R. D., & Corpuz, B. B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive

Process. Lorimar Publishing.
Aquino, A. M. (2009). Facilitating Human Learning. Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning 8