5

Effects of Air Pollution on Crops in

Developing Countries

1. Nigel B. Bell and Fiona M. Marshall

Introduction

Agricultural practice in both the developed and developing world has always aimed to
eliminate or minimize the numerous constraints on producing maximum yield of crops.
These constraints may be abiotic, including nutrient deficiency, metal toxicity, salinity,
drought, low and high temperatures, wind, and waterlogging. There are also numerous
biotic constraints: invertebrate and vertebrate pests; fungal, viral, and bacterial pathogens;
and trampling. Although vast sums of money are spent on overcoming these, there is
another constraint that receives much less attention, but with evidence that it is potentially
a widespread threat to crop production: air pollution. As early as the 17th century, the
noted English diarist John Evelyn (1661) described graphically the effects of the smoke
ridden air of London on ornamental plants and fruit trees growing in the city. Research into
this phenomenon that commenced in the late 19th century was initially concerned with
trees near smelters in both Europe and North America. In the final three decades of the last
century, this research mushroomed, with extensive programs in many parts of the
developed world. Much of this research was aimed at understanding the effects on crop
yield and growth of the ubiquitous primary pollutants, sulphur dioxide (S02), and nitrogen
oxides (N0x), as well as the secondary pollutant ozone (03), indicating that all three
pollutants were at different times and in different places having serious deleterious effects
on crop productivity, with the two primary pollutants being associated mainly with
industrial point sources and the urban fringe, whereas 0 3 was widespread at phytotoxic
levels in rural areas. Subsequently interest also developed into the potential for air
pollution to have indirect adverse effects on crops by exacerbating the impacts of familiar

J. Nigel B. Bell and Fiona M. Marshall • Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, United
Kingdom.

95

R. S. Ambasht et al. (eds.), Modern Trends in Applied Terrestrial Ecology

© Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2002
96 Bell AND Marshall

biotic stresses, such as pests and pathogens, and abiotic stresses, such as drought and
frost.
In recent years, there has been a decline in interest in effects of air pollution on crops
in the developed world, doubtless largely due to overproduction. The developing world is
certainly not characterized by overproduction, with most countries striving desperately to
increase yields of their staple crops to feed rapidly expanding populations. Air pollution
has traditionally been viewed as a problem of "Western" countries, where the bulk of the
industry and motor vehicles responsible for the major pollutants resides. However,
emissions of some of these pollutants are being reduced as a result of introduction of
stringent controls in recognition of their adverse effects on health, vegetation, aquatic
ecosystems and materials, as well as a decline of polluting heavy industries. The latter are
in fact transferring to the developing world, where rapid industrialization is taking place in
many countries but with poor emission controls. At the same time motor traffic is growing
at an enormous rate in the developing world, often using old and poorly maintained
vehicles that playa major role in contributing to a deterioration in air quality. For example,
the number of motor vehicles in China has increased by II % annually over the last 30
years, and in India by 7% per annum over the past 10 years (Faiz and Sturm, 2000). Thus

°
S02 and NO x are increasing rapidly in many developing countries. We know far less about
the third ubiquitous pollutant, 3 , because very little monitoring has been carried out in
most countries, and most of this is restricted to the cities where concentrations are
normally lower than in adjacent agricultural areas. However, it is quite clear that 0 3 levels
are elevated to potentially phytotoxic concentrations in developing countries (Chameides
and Kasibhatia, 1994; Chameides et aI., 1999). This is scarcely surprising in view of the
conditions for the production of this secondary pollutant being amply fulfilled in such
places. Ozone is a component pf photochemical smog, which was first detected in and
around Los Angeles in the 1940s. After intensive research into this new smog phenomenon
that not only had unpleasant effects on human health but also damaged vegetation, 0 3 was
identified as the main culprit in the latter case. Ozone is generated by photochemical
reactions on NO x and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This requires high levels of
emissions of these two categories of pollutants, and a climate with high temperatures,
bright sunlight, and relatively still air, all pertinent to Los Angeles from the 1940s onwards
(although recognition of the problem has resulted in drastic attempts to control emissions),
and also to the present-day developing world.
Thus, we have every reason to believe that any problems identified due to air
pollution in the developed world will be replicated in developing countries, where any
effects on crop yield or quantity have potentially far more serious consequences for human
welfare.
What studies have been carried out on the effects of these ubiquitous air pollutants on
crop yield and quality in the developing world? The answer is almost zero. The exception
is India, where most of the research has been devoted to point source field studies or
controlled fumigations with concentrations above ambient levels. In recent years, interest
has grown in air pollution in developing countries, doubtless stimulated by the interna-
tional funding agencies and a growing environmental awareness in the local populations.
However, effectively, all of this has been concerned with direct effects on human health.
For example, a recent World Bank Study in four Bangladesh cities has estimated that
15,000 extra deaths per year occur due to air pollution, resulting in a loss of 0.7-2.0% of
gross domestic product. If health is compromised by reduced food availability or quality