MATERIAL DEFORMATION AND FAILURES;

MECHANISM AND ANALYSIS

MM-415
CEP REPORT

SUBMITTED BY:
ENJILA IRFAN
MM-17003
SUBMITTED TO:
Dr .M.SAJID ALI ASGHAR
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 4
1.1. BREIF BACKGROUND ............................................................. 4
1.2. OBJECTIVE: ............................................................................... 4
1.3. REFERENCES: ........................................................................... 4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................... 5
2.1. MS BARS: ................................................................................... 5
2.2. VARIOUS GRADES OF MILD STEEL BARS .......................... 5
2.3. MANUFACTURING PROCESS ................................................. 5
1. RAW MATERIAL COLLECTION ............................................ 5
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL TESTING ................................. 5
3. HEATING ................................................................................... 6
4. HOT ROLLING .......................................................................... 6
5. INSPECTION ............................................................................. 6
6. WATER QUENCHING IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS
........................................................................................................ 6
7. HOT INSPECTION .................................................................... 6
8. PHYSICAL TESTING ................................................................ 6
9. DISPATCH ................................................................................. 6
2.4. PROPERTIES .............................................................................. 8
1. STRENGTH AND TENACITY .................................................. 8
2. ELASTICITY, ELONGATION, AND RETRACTION .............. 8
3. DIAMETER ................................................................................ 8
 4. MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY ........................................ 8
5. END USE .................................................................................... 8
2.5. APPLICATIONS ......................................................................... 9
1. SUPREME STRENGTH ............................................................. 9
2. HIGH ELONGATION ................................................................ 9
3. CORROSION RESISTANCE ..................................................... 9
4. BETTER BONDING .................................................................. 9
2.6. FAILURE MODES ...................................................................... 9
1. FLEXURAL FAILURE .......................................................... 9
2. SHEAR FAILURE MODES................................................. 11
3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK .......................................................... 14
3.1. MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................. 14
3.2.TESTING AND CHARACTERIZATION METHODS .............. 14
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ..................................................... 15
4.1. FRACTOGRAPHY ................................................................... 15
4.2.METALLOGRAPHIC PRACTICES: ......................................... 15
1. SECTIONING: ..................................................................... 15
2. GRINDING: ......................................................................... 16
3. POLISHING: ........................................................................ 16
4. ETCHING............................................................................. 16
4.3. MICROSTRUCTURE OBSERVATION OF AS RECEIVED
SAMPLE: ......................................................................................... 16
4.4. MECHANICAL TESTING ........................................................ 17
4.5. DISCUSSION: ........................................................................... 17
 ABSTRACT
The report includes a detailed analysis of the failure of mild steel construction rod. The reasons
for failure are high stresses, tensile load, bending stress or rough working condition. Sample was
first fractrographed to analyse the failure in a part then its hardness values are tested along with
its microstructure analysis.
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. BREIF BACKGROUND

The part that has been selected for the complex engineering problem is the mild steel bar used in
slab beam.

Slab beams are composites consisting of concrete and metal. Both tensile and compressive loads
are acted on the beam. The compressive load is resisted by the concrete where else bending
(tensile) load is resisted by the steel rods and bars

Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (reinforced cement concrete) slab beams etc. In
reinforced cement concrete work. These steel bars are plain in surface and are round sections of
diameter from 6 to 50 mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and can be cut quickly
and be bent easily without damage.

1.2. OBJECTIVE:

To find out the reason behind the failure of the mild steel rod by analyzing it through different
tests. The strategy is to first get the fractography done of the part and then cutting, moulding,
grinding and polishing it to get the microstructure and then finally using Rockwell to get the
harness.

1.3. REFERENCES:

https://www.reozone.com.au/reinforcing-bar/plain-round-bars/

https://www.jigneshsteel.in/steel-bar-manufacturing-process.html

https://www.venuswires.com/what-are-the-steel-bars-applications-and-uses-2/

https://knowledge4civil.wordpress.com/2017/06/20/types-of-steel-b
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. MS BARS:

Plain round bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (reinforced cement concrete) slab beams etc.
in reinforced cement concrete work. Unlike deformed bars, they are plain in surface and are
round sections of diameter from 6 to 50 mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and
can be cut quickly and be bent easily without damage. Plain round bar is commonly used to
separate mesh in concrete slabs and has a range of applications from reinforced concrete piers,
bored piles, footings, walls, beams, columns, slabs, and precast products.

2.2. VARIOUS GRADES OF MILD STEEL BARS

Reinforcement bars in accordance with standard IS No. 432 part-I can be classified into
following types.

1) Mild Steel Bars: Mild steel bars can be supplied in two grades

a)Mild steel bars grade-I designated as Fe 410-S or Grade 60

b) Mild steel bars grade-II designated as Fe-410-o or Grade 40

2) Medium Tensile Steel Bars designated as Fe- 540-w-ht or Grade 75

2.3. MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Round steel bar manufacturing encompasses quite a few aspects. From the collection of raw
materials to processing and inspection, numerous processes are involved in it. Let’s understand
these individual methods in a comprehensive manner.

1. RAW MATERIAL COLLECTION

Raw and unprocessed steel is collected through proper collection process. After this collection,
the metal undergoes testing.

2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL TESTING

Targeted and proper testing become highly imperative in the steel manufacturing and production
process. Once the collection process is over, testing emerges as the next significant process. Steel
production units will perform both physical and chemical testing, thus checking the durability of
the raw materials.
3. HEATING
The next important process is heating. Steel bars undergo pressure heating followed by the
rolling processes. Under this process, manufacturers can improve the ductility of the steel bars.

4. HOT ROLLING
Round bars have to be rolled into the appropriate shape. After continuous heating, it is the hot
rolling procedure that helps the raw steel acquire the desired shape. The process is highly
important for steel production.

5. INSPECTION
After the successful completion of the hot rolling process, manufacturers need to perform
targeted inspection. It is after this inspection that manufacturers get assured of bar quality.

6. WATER QUENCHING IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS

Performed right after inspection, the water-quenching procedure happens to be of huge
significance. By using patented thermex systems, experts perform water quenching under
controlled conditions.

7. HOT INSPECTION
The inspection process takes place again for checking the condition of the final product. Hot
inspection helps you know about the performance and resistance standards of the round bars.

8. PHYSICAL TESTING
Since round bars find widespread use and application in various construction processes, it
becomes imperative to check its strength and durability. Reliable and world-class manufacturers
perform a final physical testing process, thus reassuring the grade and performance of these bars.

9. DISPATCH
After the penultimate process, it’s time for the final phase. Round bars get packed and
dispatched. Once they reach the market, construction engineers, and manufacturing plant owners
can buy them.

Steel Making

Hot Rolling
Manufacturing Process Of Round Bar
2.4. PROPERTIES

1. STRENGTH AND TENACITY

The foremost of the properties of a steel round bar is its strength. This is the basic reason why
steel is preferred over others, and the more the load bearing capacity of the bars, the more are
they preferred for the engineering jobs. The load needed may vary depending on the end use. For
instance, the round bars required for construction have to be tougher than the ones needed for
automobile industries.

2. ELASTICITY, ELONGATION, AND RETRACTION

The round bar must be elastic in nature, although within limits. Earlier, elasticity was not a prime
concern but its absence it created weak points along its length over time that used to give in
when the load was extreme. Today, the need is durability, especially in construction where the
aim has been to make them earthquake proof. For such a requirement, the rods have to be elastic
within limits. Not only that, they must also be able to come back to original shape and dimension
after the external force is removed. A person must thus know the range of extension required for
a particular end use and choose the round bars accordingly.

3. DIAMETER
This is perhaps the most noticeable parameter of choice. It directly affects the load bearing
capacity of the round bar. But while choosing, the diameter has to be matched against the need of
the situation. While thicker diameters may be preferred for construction and heavy engineering
works, the thinner ones are preferred for automobiles and other light industry purposes.
Generally, it varies from 6mm to 60mm.

4. MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY

A steel product is generally desired to be malleable and ductile. This enhances its user
friendliness. More favorable these properties are, easier it is to cut and shape the round bars as
required. However, too much of these properties can again affect in diminishing the strength,
which is to be avoided in most cases. Thus, an individual buying a round steel bar must have a
fair idea about the requirements of properties for the end usage.

5. END USE
While choosing a round bar, the most important thing is the end usage. It determines the
requirements of the desired properties along with optimizing the cost. A buyer can avoid paying
higher by choosing extremely good properties and can bring down the cost by opting for the
lower limits for properties that are above the safety level by knowing about the exact technical
requirements of the end usage.
2.5. APPLICATIONS:
1. SUPREME STRENGTH
Our mild steel round bars are sure to make you spell-bound by their strength and durability. We
offer round bars in mild steel, which is widely used across diverse industrial application

2. HIGH ELONGATION
Elongation is the ability of a bar to deform before fracturiny.Rod with higher elongation have
lesser chances of damaging a building at times of natural calamity like earthquake. Thus, they
can give better protection to a building or other structure.

3. CORROSION RESISTANCE
The very process of manufacturing round bar makes them corrosion resistance. At the time
construction ,these steel bars remain exposed to water and moist for a long time. Their anti-
corrosive properties increase their longevity and provide greater safety to a building

4. BETTER BONDING
Round bar have strong bonding with cement or concrete . The ribs design on a bar's surface runs
across it's length giving it super bonding strength . This,in turn, provides greater strength to a
concrete structure and enhances their longevity

2.6. FAILURE MODES OF BEAM POSSIBLE:

Failure modes in reinforced concrete beams are classified into two major types: flexural failure
and shear failure. The former occurs when the imposed load exceeds the flexural capacity of the
materials of the beam, while the latter occurs due to deficiency in shear resistance between
different materials of the beam.

These failure modes are further divided into different kinds of failure; the former is categorized
into tension failure, compression failure, and balanced failure whereas shear failure is
categorized into tension shear failure and compression shear failure. The nature and mechanism
of these failure modes are different.

1. FLEXURAL FAILURE
This failure mode occurs when the loads on the beam exceed its flexural capacity. The shear
strength of the beam should be greater than its flexural strength otherwise the shear failure would
occur before flexural failure.
 I. FLEXURAL TENSION FAILURE
Flexural tension failure initiates by yielding of steel reinforcement followed by crushing of
concrete at compression side of the beam. It occurs when the beam is under-reinforced; the
reinforcement ratio in the beam is low than balanced reinforced ratio as per ACI 318-14.

The signs of this type of failure are the development of cracks at the tension side of the beam
which further extend to the compression side. These cracks are mostly vertical and located at the
middle third of the beam. Great deflection is another sign of flexural tension failure.

In summary, the flexural tension failure happens gradually i.e. ductile failure and it is desired
failure type in beam design process.

Fig. 1: Flexural Failure in Beam

II. FLEXURAL COMPRESSION FAILURE

The flexural compression failure begins by crushing of concrete at compression side followed by
yielding of steel at tension side of the beam. It occurs when the beam is over-reinforced which
means the beam reinforcement ratio is greater than balanced reinforcement ratio as per ACI 318-
14.

This type of failure is sudden and does not provide warning i.e. brittle failure. That is why it is
not desired from reinforced concrete design point of view.

This type of failure can be prevented by avoiding over-reinforced concrete beam design or
increasing compression strength of concrete by introducing steel reinforcement at the
compression side or increasing the geometry of the beam.
Fig. 2: Flexural Compression Failure

III. BALANCED FAILURE

It is a type of failure in which concrete crushes and steel yields simultaneously. It occurs when
the amount of steel in the beam is equal to balanced reinforcement ratio as per ACI 318-14.

2. SHEAR FAILURE MODES

Shear failure occurs when the beam has shear resistance lower than flexural strength and the
shear force exceeds the shear capacity of different materials of the beam. A shear load is a force
that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction
of the force.

This type of failure is sudden and provides no warning i.e. brittle failure. The effective span to
depth ratio of the beams and its size are important parameters in determining the type of shear
failure.

Shear failure is an undesired type of failure and commonly stirrups are placed in the beam to
prevent the shear failure. The shear failure mechanism is characterized by shear sliding along a
crack in beam without shear reinforcement and yielding of stirrups in a beam with shear
reinforcement. It is classified into the following forms:

I. DIAGONAL TENSION FAILURE

Diagonal tension failure begins with the development of vertical crack (flexural cracks) at the
bottom of the beam due to flexural tensile stress. Then, as the load on the beam increases, this
crack growth both in width and length and bends in a diagonal direction as it moves to the upper
part of the beam toward the loading point. After that, the last stage of shear tension failure occurs
which is a sudden failure of concrete in shear.
This mode of failure is common in beams with low or no web reinforcement. Diagonal tension
failure occurs typically in beams with a shear-span to depth ratio (a/d) greater than 2, but could
occur also for lower values of a/d.

This mode of failure is common in beams with low or no web reinforcement. Diagonal tension
failure occurs typically in beams with a shear-span to depth ratio (a/d) greater than 2, but could
occur also for lower values of a/d.

Fig. 3:
Diagonal Tension Crack Development

II. SHEAR COMPRESSION FAILURE

Shear compression failure begins by initiation and development of cracks in the beam cross-
section. Then, these cracks propagate and penetrate the compression zone of the beam, and the
final stage of the failure occurs when the compressive strength of the concrete is exceeded.

The crushing of concrete takes place at the tip of the diagonal crack in the area around the point
of load application. Fig. 4 illustrates the development of cracks at the location of shear
compression failure in a beamShear compression failure is mainly related to high amount of
shear reinforcement. Finally, shear compression failure can occur in beams with span to depth
ratio of less than four.
III. .SPLITTING SHEAR (TRUE SHEAR) FAILURE

When the shear span to depth ratio of a beam is less than one, splitting shear failure can
be expected. Commonly, this type of beam is called deep beam in which loads are
directly transferred to supports, and shear strength is much higher than in ordinary
flexural beams.

Sometimes, failure in compression of the region adjacent the supports may occur instead
of splitting shear failure.
Fig. 5: True Shear Failure or Splitting Shear Failure

IV. ANCHORAGE FAILURE

Anchorage failure is the splitting of concrete along the longitudinal reinforcement (before
compression failure can occur) due to small diagonal cracks. It occurs when the main
reinforcement is not adequately anchored beyond

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1. MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The part selected for the failure analysis is mild steel bar used in beams. Due to the excessive
load the beam failed.The figure shows the as received condition of the rod. Visually it can be
seen the failure occurred due to excessive compressive and tensile loading.

3.2.TESTING AND CHARACTERIZATION METHODS

Testing done on this part includes fractography,than the part is sectioned, grind, polished to get
the microstructure and than finally the hardness is checked on Rockwell hardness tester .
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. FRACTOGRAPHY

It is a method in failure analysis for studying the fracture surface of materials. Studying the
characteristics of the fractured surface can help to determine the cause of failure in an engineered
product.

4.2.METALLOGRAPHIC PRACTICES:

Metallography is the study of physical structure and components of metals, by using

microscopy.

Metallographic preparation of the specimen was done to observe the microstructure of as

received sample. The steps involved are discussed below:

1. SECTIONING:
The first step done in metallographic sample preparation was sectioning. The sectioning was
done using “Abrasive Cut- Off Machine” present in the lab. The machine utilizes rubber or resin
bounded abrasive wheels, impregnated with silicon carbide for cutting.Three specimen were
sectioned out from the specimen.
 2. GRINDING:
The purpose of grinding step is to remove damage from cutting, planarize the specimen and to
remove the material approaching the area of interest. The specimen were grinded on different
grit of silicon carbide paper such as180, 220, 320, 400, 600 respectively on grinding machine

3. POLISHING:
In order to remove the remaining scratches and blemishes from grinding and produce a mirror
like surface ,after grinding polishing was done using alumina suspension of 1and 0.5 microns.

4. ETCHING
It is a technique used to highlight the features of metals at microscopic level

4.3. MICROSTRUCTURE OBSERVATION OF AS RECEIVED

SAMPLE:

After etching microstructure was observed using metallurgical microscope which provides high
power magnification and high resolution images. A camera is attached with the microscope to
view and capture the microstructure of the specimen.

The micro structure shoes dimple which means the mode of fracture is ductile which usually
occurs when the material is simply loaded to beyond its ultimate tensile strength.
4.4. MECHANICAL TESTING

The hardness was found out on ROCKWELL hardness tester on B scale. The hardness is 84HRB
of the Mild steel bar

4.5. DISCUSSION:

The failure occurred due to stress exceed shear and flexural strength of the beam.ductile failure
occurred maybe due to an error in design, or because , in practice , the actual loading is higher
than anticipated. Or the reason of failure might be that material’s yield strength may be lower
than expected .