1

Photovoltaic Systems

2
GENERAL OVERVIEW
•PV was recognized as an important
source of space power in the 1950s,

•Terrestrial PV development began in

response to the 1970s oil crises.

•Concern for the environment, as well as

global efforts to seek indigenous sources
of energy, drives the investment in PV
research and deployment.

•Today, PV is a several-billion-dollar
industry worldwide.

•These include large, multi-megawatt

installations feeding into the utility grid,
kilowatt rooftop systems supplying
power to a home or business, and single
50- or 100-W PV modules on homes in
developing countries.
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 Introduction
Solar cell: Solar cell is a photovoltaic device that converts the light
energy into electrical energy based on the principles of photovoltaic
effect
Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics for his
research on the photoelectric effect—a phenomenon central to the
generation of electricity through solar cells.
In the early stages, the solar cell was developed only with 4 to 6 %
efficiency( because of inadequate materials and problems in focusing
the solar radiations). But, after 1989, the solar cells with higher
efficiency was developed.
In 1953 developed the first silicon cell
This cells uses in application spacecraft (standard technology)

In 1973,start applying solar cell in renewable energy resources,

with some change in standard technology. 4
PV cell
 A PV cell consists of two or more thin layers of semiconducting material,
most commonly silicon.
 When the silicon is exposed to light, electrical charges are generated; and
this can be conducted away by metal contacts as direct current.
 The electrical output from a single cell is small, so multiple cells are
connected and encapsulated (usually glass covered) to form a module (also
called a panel).
 The PV panel is the main building block of a PV system, and any number of
panels can be connected together to give the desired electrical output.

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Semiconductors
 To understand the photovoltaic effect, some basic theory about semiconductors
and their use as photovoltaic energy conversion devices needs to be understood.
 An atom consists of the nucleus and electrons that orbit the nucleus.
 According to quantum mechanics, electrons of an isolated atom can have only
specific discrete or quantized energy levels.
 In elements that have electrons in multiple orbitals, the innermost electrons
have the minimum (maximum negative) energy and therefore require a large
amount of energy to overcome the attraction of the nucleus and become free.
 The electrons at the outermost shell are the only ones that interact with other
atoms.

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Semiconductors
 the electronic energy of individual atoms is grouped in energy bands.
 In some energy bands, electrons are allowed to exist, and in other bands
electrons are forbidden.
 The electrons at the outermost shell are the only ones that interact with other
atoms. This is the highest normally filled band, and is called the valence
band.
 The electrons in the valence band are loosely attached to the nucleus of the
atom and, therefore, may attach more easily to a neighboring atom, giving
that atom a negative charge and leaving the original atom as a positive
charged ion.
 Some electrons in the valence band may possess a lot of energy, which
enables them to jump into a higher band. These electrons are responsible for
the conduction of electricity and heat, and this band is called the conduction
band.

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Semiconductors
 The difference in the energy of an electron in the valence band and the
innermost shell of the conduction band is called the band gap.
 A schematic representation of the energy band diagrams of three types of
materials is shown in Figure.

Schematic diagrams
of energy bands for
typical materials.
(a) Insulator.
(b) Conductor
(metal).
(c) Semiconductor.

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Types of Semiconductors
 Materials with valence gaps partly filled have intermediate band gaps and
are called semiconductors.
 The band gap in these materials is smaller than 3 eV. They have the same
band structure as the insulators but their energy gap is much narrower.
 The two types of semiconductors are the pure ones, called intrinsic
semiconductors, and those doped with small amounts of impurities, called
extrinsic semiconductors.
 In intrinsic semiconductors, the valence electrons can easily be excited by
thermal or optical means and jump the narrow energy gap into the
conduction band, where the electrons have no atomic bonding and therefore
are able to move freely through the crystal.

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p–n Junction
 Silicon (Si) belongs to group 4 of the periodic table of elements. In
semiconductors, if the material that is doped has more electrons in the
valence gap than the semiconductor, the doped material is called an n-type
semiconductor.
 The n-type semiconductor has excess electrons, which are available for
conduction. This is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic table
group 5 elements, such as arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb), and in so doing,
form electrons that can move around the crystal.
 In semiconductors, if the material that is doped has fewer electrons in the
valence gap than the semiconductor, the doped material is called a p-type
semiconductor.
 The p-type semiconductor has positive holes (missing electrons) in its
structure, which can accommodate excess electrons.
 This type of material is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic
table group 3 elements, such as gallium (Ga) or indium (In), and thereby
form positive particles, called holes, that can move around the crystal
through diffusion or drift.

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p–n Junction

Schematic diagrams of n- and p-type semiconductors. (a) n-type,

with excess electrons. (b) p-type, with excess positive holes.
when the p- and n-type semiconductors are joined together, i.e., form
a junction, as shown in Figure.

Schematic diagram of a p–n junction. 11

 Doping
Doping: Change in carrier concentration  change in electrical properties
Donor - doping Acceptor - doping

• add an extra electron • add an extra hole

• number of e- > number • number of e- < number valence e-
valence e- • p – type dopant
• n – type dopant • EA right above valence band EV
• ED right under conduction
band EC

n-type doping p-type doping 12

 Photovoltaic effect
 When a photon enters a photovoltaic material,
it can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted
through.
 When this photon is absorbed by a valence
electron of an atom, the energy of the electron is
increased by the amount of energy of the photon
 If, now, the energy of the photon is greater
than the band gap of the semiconductor, the
electron, which has excess energy, will jump into
the conduction band, where it can move freely.
 Therefore, when the photon is absorbed,
an electron is knocked loose from the atom.
 If the photon energy is smaller than that of the band gap, the electron will not have
sufficient energy to jump into the conduction band, and the excess energy is
converted into kinetic energy of the electrons, which leads to increased temperature.
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 Photovoltaic effect
 The thickness of the n-type layer in a typical crystalline silicon cell is about
0.5 mm, whereas that of the p-type layer is about 0.25 mm.
 The energy contained in a photon, EP, is given by:
The energy required to
break the covalent bond is
about 0.72 eV in
where
germanium, and that is 1.1
h = Planck’s constant,= 6.625 10-34 J s.
eV in silicon at room
λ = frequency (s -1).
temperature.
Silicon has a band gap of 1.11 eV (1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 J); therefore it can be
found that photons with wavelength of 1.12 μm or less are useful in creating
electron–hole pairs and thus electricity.
By checking this wavelength on the distribution (Next Slide), it can be seen that
the majority of solar radiation can be used effectively in PVs.

The number of photons, np, incident on a cell can be estimated from

the intensity of light,
intensity of light, Ip
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Solar Radiation Spectrum
 The sun’s radiative output is centred on visible wavelengths
 pn-junction under radiation
Absorption of light:
If Eph < Eg  no electron-hole-creation
If Eph > Eg  electron-hole-creation  drift
and diffusion  current and voltage

Band structure Solar cell under radiation

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EXAMPLE
A beam of light with intensity of 3mW and a wavelength of 743 nm is striking
a solar cell. Estimate the number of photons incident on the cell.

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Solution Example
Solution

h = Planck’s constant,= 6.625 10-34 J s.

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 PV cell characteristics
 When solar energy (photons) hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from
the atoms in the semiconductor material, creating electron–hole pairs. If
electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an
electrical circuit, the electrons are captured in the form of electric current, called
photocurrent, Iph.
 During darkness the solar cell is not active and works as a diode, i.e., a p–n
junction that does not produce any current or voltage.
 If, however, it is connected to an external, large voltage supply, it generates a
current, called the diode or dark current, ID.
 A solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-diode model,
shown in Figure (Lorenzo, 1994). This circuit can be used for an individual cell,
a module consisting of a number of cells, or an array consisting of several
modules.

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PV cell characteristics
Single solar cell model.
 As shown in Figure, the model contains a current source, Iph, one diode,
and a series resistance RS, which represents the resistance inside each cell.
The diode has also an internal shunt resistance, as shown in Figure. The net
current is the difference between the photocurrent, Iph, and the normal
diode current, ID, given by:

It should be noted that the shunt resistance is usually much bigger than a load
resistance, whereas the series resistance is much smaller than a load resistance, so
that less power is dissipated internally within the cell. Therefore, by ignoring
these two resistances, the net current is the difference between the photocurrent,
Iph, and the normal diode current, ID, given by:

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 PV cell characteristics

Figure shows the I–V characteristic curve of a solar cell for a certain irradiance (Gt) at a fixed
cell temperature, TC. T
The current from a PV cell depends on the external voltage applied and the amount of
sunlight on the cell.
When the cell is short-circuited, the current is at maximum (short-circuit current,
Isc), and the voltage across the cell is 0. When the PV cell circuit is open, with the leads not
making a circuit, the voltage is at its maximum (open-circuit voltage, Voc), and the current is 0.
In either case, at open circuit or short circuit, the power (current times voltage) is 0. Between
an open circuit and a short circuit, the power output is greater than 0. 21
 PV cell characteristics
 The typical current voltage curve shown in Figure presents the range of
combinations of current and voltage. In this representation, a sign
convention is used, which takes as positive the current generated by the cell
when the sun is shining and a positive voltage is applied on the cell’s
terminals.

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 PV cell characteristics
The fill factor
 The fill factor is a measure of the real I–V characteristic. For good cells, its value is
greater than 0.7. The fill factor decreases as the cell temperature increases.

Typical parameters of a single-crystal solar cell are current density Isc = 32 mA/cm2,
Voc = 0.58 V, Vmax = 0.47 V, FF = 0.72, and Pmax = 2273mW (ASHRAE, 2004).

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EXAMPLE
If the dark saturation current of a solar cell is 1.7 x 10 -8 A/m2, the cell
temperature is 27 C, and the short-circuit current density is 250 A/m2, calculate
the open-circuit voltage, Voc; voltage at maximum power, Vmax; current density
at maximum power, Imax; maximum power, Pmax; and maximum efficiency,
Η max. What cell area is required to get an output of 20W when the available
solar radiation is 820 W/m2?

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Solution Example
open-circuit voltage, Voc is given by

where

Therefore

We have relation for maximum voltage

Therefore
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Solution Example
We have relation for maximum Current

Power maximum is give by

Maximum efficiency is give by

Area of tne collector is give by

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 Photovoltaic panels
 PV modules are designed for outdoor use in such harsh conditions as marine,
tropic, arctic, and desert environments.
 Cells are normally grouped into modules, which are encapsulated with
various materials in order to protect the cells and the electrical connectors
from the environment.
 As shown in Figure, PV cell modules consist of NPM parallel branches and
each branch has NSM solar cells in series.
 Therefore, as shown in Figure, the applied voltage at the module’s terminals
is denoted by VM, whereas the total generated current is denoted by IM.
 superscript M refers to the PV module and superscript C refers to the solar
cell.
NOCT stands for Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature.

Standard Report- ing

Conditions (SRC),
which are also called
Standard Test
Conditions (STC).
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Photovoltaic panels

The PV module current IM under arbitrary operating conditions can be

described by:

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Photovoltaic panels

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solar cell to solar module
After interconnecting between cells solar cells require encapsulation by glass
to:
1. Mechanical protection
2. Electrical isolation
3. Chemical protection
4. Mechanical rigidity to support the prattle cells and their flexible
interconnection
we will connect many cells to make module and connect
more than two modules to make panel and the many panel
to make array show below:

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 Hierarchy of PV

Volt Ampere Watt Size

Cell 0.5V 5-6A 2-3W about 10cm
Module 20-30V 5-6A 100-200W about 1m
Array 200-300V 50A-200A 10-50kW about 30m

Module,Panel
100 - 200 W Array
10 - 50 kW

Cell
2–3W

6x9=54 (cells) 100-300 (modules)

PV Cells, Modules, & Arrays

In the case of a single-junction device, the

efficiency of the solar cell, the ratio of the power
produced, and the incident light power are
limited.

Photons with energies below the bandgap of the

material produce only heat. Excess energy above
that needed to generate electron-hole pairs also
produces heat.

A multijunction device, in which two or more

solar cells are stacked on top of each other,
can exploit different portions of the solar Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in
spectrum.
series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels.
For example, a four-junction device with
bandgaps of 1.8, 1.4, 1.0, and 0.7 electron volts
(eV) results in a theoretical efficiency of more Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits
than 52%.
sealed in an environmentally protective laminate,
The multijunction approach, however, presents and are the fundamental building block of PV
significant challenges in both materials
preparation and device design. systems.

Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV

modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the
complete power-generating unit, consisting of
any number of PV modules and panels. 32
 PV arrays
The modules in a PV system are usually connected in arrays. An array with MP
parallel branches each with MS modules in series is shown in Figure. By using a
superscript A to denote array characteristics, the applied voltage at the array’s
terminals is donated VA, whereas the total current of the array is denoted IA, given by:

If it is assumed that the modules are identical and the ambient irradiance is the
same in all modules, then the array’s current is given by:

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 EXAMPLE
A PV system is required to produce 250Wat 24 V. Using the solar cells of previous
Example (dark saturation current of a solar cell is 1.7 x 10 -8 A/m2, the cell
temperature is 27 C, and the short-circuit current density is 250 A/m2 ), design the
PV panel, working at the maximum power point, if each cell is 9 cm2 in area.

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 Solution Example
From previous Example,
Vmax = 0.526 V. The current density at maximum power point is 238.3 A/m2.
Therefore, for the current cell, Imax =238.3 x 9 x 10 -4 = 0.2145 A
This yields a power per cell = 0.526 x 0.2145 = 0.1W.
Number of cells required = 250/0.1 =2500.
Number of cells in series = system voltage/voltage per cell = 24/0.526 = 45.6=46
(in fact with 46 cells, Voltage = 24.2 V).
Number of rows of 46 cells each, connected in parallel = 2500/46 = 54.3=55
(in fact this panel yields 55x 46 x0.1=253 W).

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Types of PV technology
 Many types of PV cells are available today. The main types are crystalline
silicon, which accounts for roughly 80% of the PV market; thin-films,
which have expanded to around 20% market share; and triple-junction cells,
which are used in the emerging field of concentrating PV.
 Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the
semiconductor material Silicon (Si).
 The second most abundant element in earth`s crust, silicon has the
advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities.
 The choice between crystalline or thin-film PV modules for a given project
depends heavily on climate and space.

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Materials for Solar cell
Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials

1. Crystalline silicon
2. Cadmium telluride
3. Copper indium diselenide
4. Gallium arsenide
5. Indium phosphide
6. Zinc sulphide

Note: Semiconductors are materials, which become electrically

conductive when supplied with light or heat, but which operate as
insulators at low temperatures

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 Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Monocrystalline silicon cells

These cells are made from pure monocrystalline silicon. In these cells, the silicon
has a single continuous crystal lattice structure with almost no defects or impurities.
The main advantage of monocrystalline cells is their high efficiency, which is
typically around 14–15
A disadvantage of these cells is the complicated manufacturing process that leads
to relatively high costs, although greater production capacity of its raw material has
decreased its price markedly in recent years, making it (and multicrystalline
silicon) more price-competitive with thin-film modules.
the power output of crystalline silicon decreases more rapidly with increasing cell
temperature its temperature coefficient is around minus 0.4–0.5%/C.
Being relatively expensive, monocrystalline modules are most often used where
the most possible power is required from a confined space, such as residential and
commercial rooftops. 38
Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
Formed by melting high purity silicon like as
Integrated Circuit
 Most efficient commercially
available module (11% - 14%)
 Most expensive to produce
 Circular (square-round) cell
creates wasted space on module
 monocrystalline solar
panels appear black in color.

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 Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Polycrystalline silicon cells

Multicrystalline cells, also known as polycrystalline cells, are produced using
numerous grains of monocrystalline silicon.
In the manufacturing process, molten polycrystalline silicon is cast into ingots,
which are subsequently cut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete cells.
Multicrystalline cells are cheaper to produce than monocrystalline ones because of
the simpler manufacturing process required.
They are, however, slightly less efficient, with typical module efficiencies around
13–15
Multicrystalline modules are widely used in a wide variety of applications
including roof- and ground-mounted arrays.
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Polycrystalline Silicon Modules
 Surface of PV cell
Example of Poly Crystalline PV
Front Surface
(N-Type side)
• Aluminum Electrode
(Silver colored wire)
• To avoid shading,
electrode is very fine.
Anti reflection film
(Blue colored film)
• Back surface is P-type.
• All back surface is
aluminum electrode with
full reflection.
Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Amorphous silicon.

Unlike mono- and multicrystalline cells, the silicon atoms in amorphous

silicon (a-Si) cells are arranged in a thin homogenous layer. which leads to
thinner cells, giving rise to the name thin film photovoltaics.

 The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm – the thickness of a

human hair for comparison is 50-100 µm.
 The efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower than that of the other
two cell types.
 As a result, they are used mainly in low power equipment, such as
watches and pocket calculators, or as facade elements. 42
Amorphous Thin Film
 Most inexpensive technology
to produce
 Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
 Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
 Can be deposited on flexible
substrates
 Less susceptible to shading
problems
 Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules

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Using nanocones to enable complete
light absorption in thin Si

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 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe).
Like amorphous silicon, CdTe is relatively tolerant to heat (its temperature
coefficient is around minus 0.25–0.35%/C), yet it has a higher efficiency of 10–
11%.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltacs describes a photovoltac tchnology
that is based on the use of Cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer
designed to absorb and convert sun light into electricity.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is stable crystalline compound formed from
cadmium and tellurium. It is usually sandwiched with Cadmium Sulfide to form
p-n junction solar PV Cell.
This combination of low cost, moderate efficiency, and large manufacturing
volume has seen CdTe help create a new market for PV in recent years, that of
utility-scale solar power plants.
While CdTe modules are well suited to large ground-mounted arrays for
commercial electricity production, they are also deployed on commercial
rooftops.
The toxicity of cadmium is an environmental concern.
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Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells
glass
• Direct bandgap, Eg=1.45eV
• High module production speed
• Very inexpensive
• 20.4 % efficiency

CdS/CdTe

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Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS).
 The most recent thin-film technology to be commercialized is the CIGS
family.
 CIGS is also the main candidate for the commercial development of
modules that do not use glass, making them flexible and very lightweight.
Their electrical properties lie between crystalline silicon and CdTe, with
conversion efficiency around 10–13% and moderate temperature coefficient
of minus 0.3–0.4%/C.
 The moderate efficiency, low cost and light weight of CIGS make them
ideally suited to rooftop installations, both residential and commercial. They
are also a promising technology for building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV)
products
 It is manufactured by depositing a thin layer of copper, indium, gallium and
selenium on glass or plastic backing along with electrodes on the front and
back to collect current.

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Solar Thermophotovoltaics
 Solar Thermophotovoltaics (STPVs) are solar driven heat engines which extract
electrical power from thermal radiation. The overall goal is to absorb and
convert the broadband solar radiation spectrum into a narrowband thermal
emission spectrum tuned to the spectral response of a photovoltaic cell (PV)

48
 Gallium Arsenide
Gallium arsenide-based multijunction solar cells are the most efficient solar cells to date,
reaching the record efficiency of 42.3% with a triple-junction metamorphic cell .
They were originally developed for special applications such as satellites and space
investigation.

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 Efficiency Limits

Increasing VOC and decreasing JSC

50
Multijunction Cells
• These complex structures
are grown very slowly
under high vacuum.
Ga0.50In0.50P: Top Cell
• 37 % cells can be
purchased for $50,000/m2

• Concentrating the light is

essential.
Ga0.99In0.01As: Middle Cell

Ge substrate: Bottom Cell R.R. King; Spectrolab Inc., AVS 54th

International Symposium, Seattle 2007

51
Multijunction Cells

52
 Efficiency values
Material η (laboratory) η (production)
Monocrystalline 24.7 14.0 – 18.0

Polycrystalline 19.8 13.0 – 15.5

Amorphous 13.0 8.0

Material Crystalline order Thickness Wafer

Monocrystalline One ideal lattice 50μm - 300μm One single crystall
Polycristalline Many small crystalls 50μm - 300μm grain (0,1mm –
Xcm)
Amorphous No crystalline order; < 1μm No wafer
Groups of some regularly bound
atoms

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Losses
1. Reflection:
 the metall circuit path on the front of a solar cell reflects
the light
 the solar cell itsself reflects the light
2. Shadow
The metall circuit path obscures the front of the solar cell
3. Recombination
 On the surface  dangling bonds
 Inside the volume
4. Interaction with photons

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Losses
5. Resistance factors
 short circuit between the front and the back of the solar cell
 transport of the charge carriers through the cables and
contacts
6. Absorption and Transmission
 Other layers of the solar cell (e.g. ARC) can also absorb
 Light can totaly be transmitted trough the solar cell
7. Other factors
 Dirt on the solar cell
 No ideal conditions (STC)

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Effects of Temperature

 As the PV cell
temperature increases
above 25º C, the module
Vmp decreases by
approximately 0.5% per
degree C

56
Temperature vs. Efficiency
•When module temperature rises up, efficiency decreases.
•The module must be cooled by natural ventilation, etc.

57
Shading on Modules
 Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry
relative to the orientation of the shading.
 SHADING can half or even completely eliminate the
output of a solar array!

58
Effects of Insolation

 As insolation
decreases amperage
decreases while
voltage remains
roughly constant

59
Applications
Solar pumps are used for water supply.
Domestic power supply for appliances include
refrigeration, washing machine, television and lighting
Ocean navigation aids: Number of lighthouses and most
buoys are powered by solar cells
Telecommunication systems: radio transceivers on mountain
tops, or telephone boxes in the country can often be solar powered
Electric power generation in space: To providing electrical
power to satellites in an orbit around the Earth

60
 Silicon PV Manufacturing

Silicon Feedstock Ingot Growth Slicing Wafers

Photovoltaic System Module Encapsulation Cell Fabrication

61
The standard technology stages for making cells
1. Reduction of sand to metallurgical-grade silicon.

2. Purification of MG-Si to semiconductor grade silicon.

3. Conversion of semiconductor grad silicon to single crystal

silicon wafers.

4. Processing of single-crystal silicon wafer into solar cells.

5. Solar cell to solar module

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63
Sand to metallurgical-grad silicon
Silicon is the second most a abundant element in the
earths crust.

The source material for the extraction of silicon is

silicon dioxide the major constituent of sand.

We will extract the Si by reduced crystalline form of

silicon dioxide in large arc furnace.

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65
Produce MG-Si in this furnace by carbon (in the form of mixture of
wood chips, coke, and coal) according this reaction
SiO2(s)+C(s)-----------Si(l)+CO2 (g)

Solidification
MG-Si (metallurgical grade silicon)

Then silicon is periodically poured from the furnace and blown with
O/chlorine mixture to further purify it.
Next poured into shallow troughs, where it solidifies and is
subsequently broken into chunks
66
67
MG-silicon to semiconductor-grade silicon
For use in solar cells as well as other semiconductor devices,
silicon must be much purer than MG-Si.
The standard process to purifying its known siemens process

Siemens process
The MG-Si is converted to a volatile compound that is
condensed and refined by fractional distillation
Ultra pure silicon is then extracted from this refined product.
A bed of fine MG-Si particle is fluidized with HCl in the
presence of a Cu catalyst.

68
MG-silicon to semiconductor-grade silicon
MG-Si(s) +3HCl(l) --SiHCl3(g) +H2(g)

Condenser and

distillations
fractional
multiple
SeG-SiHCl3 (l)

The gases emitted are passed through a condenser and the resulting liquid
subjected to multiple fractional distillation to produce SeG-SiHCl3
(trichlorosilane), the source material for the silicon industry.
Then extract SeG-Si, the SeG-SiCHl3 is reduced by hydrogen when
mixture of the gases are heated. Silicon is deposited in fine-grained
polycrystalline from onto an electrically heated silicon rod. 69
MG-silicon to semiconductor-grade silicon
SeG-SiHCl3(g) +H2SeG-Si(s) + 3HCl

Polycrystalline Semiconductor-Grade Silicon

Characteristics
Requirement a lot of energy.
Low yield ~37%
The high cost of this stage.
Reach to purity 99.9999%

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semiconductor –grade poly crystalline to single-crystal wafers

Silicon must very pure and be in a single-crystal form with essentially zero
defect in the crystal structure.
The major method used to produce such material commercially is the
Czochralski process

The SeG polycrystalline silicon is melted in crucible with trace levels of

one of the dopants required in the completed device added ,

71
For solar cells ,boron , a p-type
dopant ,is normally used, using
a seed crystal and with very
close temperature control, it is
possible to pull from the melt a
large cylindrical single crystal
of silicon, of diameter in excess
of 12.5 cm and 1-2m in length
Are routinely grown in this
manner.

72
 Then the large single crystal is sliced up
into wafers which are as thin as possible
(Silicon solar cells need only be 300μm or so
thick to absorb most of the appropriate
wavelength in sunlight)

73
single-crystal wafers to solar cells
After etching the silicon wafers and cleaning them, additional impurities are
introduced into the cell in controlled manner by a high-temperature
impurities diffusion process.

To make solar cell, n-type impurities must be introduced to give a p-n

junction ,phosphorus is the impurity generally used

Process to doped n-type

A carrier gas is bubbled through phosphorus oxychloride (POCl3),mixed with

a small a mount of oxygen, and passed down a heated furnace tube in which
the wafers are stacked ,this grows an oxide layer on the surface of the wafers
containing phosphorus, at the temp involved (800—1100)°Cthe phosphorus
diffuses from the oxide into the silicon
After about 20min the p impurities override the B impurities in the region
near the surface of the wafers to give a thin, heavily doped n-type region
74
75
In subsequent processing the oxide layer is removed as are the junction
at the side and back of the cell to give the structure in figure

76
Vacuum evaporation
The standard technology to metal contact are then attached to both the
n-type and the p-type region ,the metal to be deposited is heated in a
vacuum to a high enough temp to cause it to melt and vaporize, it will
then condense on any cooler parts of the vacuum system in direct line
of sight, including the solar cells, the back contact is normally
deposited over the entire back surface, while the top contact is required
in the form of a grid.

77
Techniques for defining top grid
1. Use a metal shadow mask
2. The metal can be deposited over the entire front surface of the cell and
subsequently etched a way from unwanted region using a photographic
technique known
photolithography

78
 The contact made up three separate layer
1. Thin layer of titanium is used as the bottom layer.
2. Layer of silver in the top.
3. The sandwiches layer is palladium.

After deposition the contacts are

sintered at 500-600 °C to give
good adherence and low contact
resistance,
Finally a thin antireflection (AR)
coating is deposited on the top of
the cell by the same vacuum
evaporation process.

79
Texturing surface
To minimize reflection from the flat surface solar cell wafers are textured,
this means a creating a roughened surface, so that incident light will have a
larger probability of being absorbed into the solar cell. This is performed by
etching in a week alkaline solution such as Hf.

80
 PV technology basics
How PV Cells Are Made
crystalline silicon
The conventional technology that supports
more than 85% of today's PV market is
based on wafers of crystalline Si.
Production capacities are expected to more
than double in the next three to five years,
and the products are proven and accepted
in the markets.
Single-crystal ingots are pulled from the
melt, or polycrystalline ingots are cast in a
crucible that is consumed in the process.
Technical advances include the growth of
ingots as big as 300 kg, the growth of
multiple ingots with melt replenishment,
and the reduction of consumable materials
and energy costs. Significant R&D effort
has been focused on reducing defects,
improving doping, and automating the
growth process. Still, for single-crystal Si,
the best commercial module efficiencies
are only about 15%.
Image: A solar cell, made from a poly-crystalline silicon wafer
The process of fabricating conventional single- and polycrystalline silicon PV
cells begins very pure semiconductor-grade polysilicon - a material processed
from quartz and used extensively throughout the electronics industry.
The polysilicon is then heated to melting temperature, and trace amounts of
boron are added to the melt to create a P-type semiconductor material.
Next, an ingot, or block of silicon is formed, commonly using one of two
methods:
1) by growing a pure crystalline silicon ingot from a seed crystal
drawn from the molten polysilicon
or 2) by casting the molten polysilicon in a block, creating a
polycrystalline silicon material.
Individual wafers are then sliced from the ingots using wire saws and then
subjected to a surface etching process. After the wafers are cleaned, they are
placed in a phosphorus diffusion furnace, creating a thin N-type semiconductor
layer around the entire outer surface of the cell.
Next, an anti-reflective coating is applied to the top surface of the cell, and
electrical contacts are imprinted on the top (negative) surface of the cell.
An aluminized conductive material is
deposited on the back (positive) surface of
each cell, restoring the P-type properties of
the back surface by displacing the diffused
phosphorus layer.
Each cell is then electrically tested, sorted
based on current output, and electrically
connected to other cells to form cell
circuits for assembly in PV modules.
81
 PV technology basics
Thin-film photovoltaic modules are
Thin-Film Photovoltaics manufactured by depositing ultra-thin layers
of semiconductor material on a glass or thin
Si ribbon and sheet technologies, stainless-steel substrate in a vacuum
which avoid the cost and material
losses associated with slicing ingots, chamber.
are the first of the new PV technologies A laser scribing process is used to separate
to be commercialized. About 6% of and weld the electrical connections between
today's PV modules are made using individual cells in a module.
these methods. Most notable are the
edge-defined, film-fed growth process,
Thin-film photovoltaic materials offer great
the string ribbon process, and the Si- promise for reducing the materials
film process (growth of a high-speed, requirements and manufacturing costs for
continuous Si sheet of a variety of PV modules and systems.
substrates). Cell and module
efficiencies are similar to those for
polycrystalline Si wafers from
ingots—about 12% at best—with
somewhat lower efficiencies for the
small-grained sheet materials.

Ongoing incremental improvements will

probably reduce manufacturing costs
and increase module performance,
keeping these technologies as the
mainstay of PV markets for years to
come.

82
There are many approaches to making PV cells and
experts do not agree on which one is the best

20x-100x 500x Cu(In,Ga)Se2 ~ 1-2 um c-Si ~ 180 um

83
 Input on
array
(100)
Input on
Input in
non
photovoltai
photovoltai
c material
c material
(75)
(25)
Reflection and Absorption losses
absorption of Electric Non electric
losses of cover frames,structures Conversion conversion
glass etc (11) (64)
(12) (13)
Losses due to cell
Losses in wiring Delivered
temperature above Losses due to cell &dc to ac as ac power
28oC and module
mismatch (1.0) (8.9)
(1.5)
(1.0)

84
PV technology basics
How a PV System Works
PV systems are like any other electrical power generating systems, just the equipment used is different than that used for
conventional electromechanical generating systems.

Depending on the functional and operational requirements of the system,

the specific components required, and may include major components
DC-AC power inverter,
battery bank,
system and battery controller,
auxiliary energy sources
and sometimes the specified electrical load (appliances).

In addition, an assortment of balance of system (BOS) hardware,

Including wiring, overcurrent, surge protection and disconnect
devices, and other power processing equipment.
85
PV technology basics
Why Are Batteries Used in PV Systems?
Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy produced by the PV array
during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during the night and periods of
cloudy weather).

Other reasons batteries are used in PV systems are to operate the PV array near its maximum
power point, to power electrical loads at stable voltages, and to supply surge currents to electrical
loads and inverters.

In most cases, a battery charge controller is used in these systems to protect the battery from
overcharge and over discharge.

In many stand-alone PV
systems, batteries are
used for energy storage.
Figure shows a diagram
of a typical stand-alone
PV system powering DC
and AC loads

Diagram of stand-alone PV system

with battery storage powering DC and AC loads.
86
 PV technology basics
The two principle classifications are
grid-connected or utility- interactive systems
stand-alone systems.
The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC output
of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load

Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only
operates during sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common applications such as
ventilation fans, water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating
systems.

Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the PV array is a
critical part of designing well-performing direct-coupled system.

For certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC
converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used between the array and load to
help better utilize the available array maximum power output.

Direct-coupled PV system. 87
 PV technology basics
Grid-Connected (Utility-
Interactive) PV Systems.

Photovoltaic systems can be

designed to provide DC
and/or AC power service,
can operate interconnected
with or independent of the
utility grid, and can be
connected with other energy
sources and energy storage
systems.

Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system

88
PV technology basics

Photovoltaic hybrid system.

89
Site Selection – Tilt Angle
Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays

Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15
lat. Summer – 15 lat.

90
General Considerations
 Weather characteristics
 Wind intensity
• Loads and time of use
 Estimated snowfall • Distance from power
 Site characteristics conditioning equipment
 Corrosive salt water • Accessibility for
 Animal interference
maintenance
 Human factors • Zoning codes
 Vandalism
 Theft protection
 Aesthetics

91
Basic Mounting Options
 Fixed
 Roof, ground, pole
 Integrated
 Tracking
 Pole (active & passive)

92
Pole Mount Considerations
 Ask manufacturer for wind loading specification for your array
 Pole size
 Amount of concrete
 Etc.
 Array can be in close proximity to the house, but doesn’t require roof
penetrations

93
 Roof Mount Considerations
 simple and cheap to install
 offer no flexibility in the
orientation of your solar panel
 can only support small
photovoltaic units.
 Penetrate the roof as little as
possible
 Weather proof all holes to prevent
leaks
 May require the aid of a
professional roofer
 Re-roof before putting modules up
 Leave 4-6” airspace between roof
and modules
 On sloped roofs, fasten mounts to
rafters not decking
94
Tracking Considerations
 Can increase system performance by:
 15% in winter months
 30% in summer months

 Adds additional costs to the array

95
 Active:
Passive Vs. Active  Linear actuator motors
Passive:
controlled by sensors follow
– Have no motors, controls, or the sun throughout the day
gears
– Use the changing weight of a
gaseous refrigerant within a
sealed frame member to track
the sun

96
97
98