What is Thermodynamics?

Definition:
The branch of physical science dealing with conversion of
energy from one form to another, especially involving heat.

What the word means:

– Thermo means heat
– Dynamics refers to movement

Heat is the result of molecular motion

1
 THERMODYNAMICS - CASE STUDY
Introduction

Jack's mom bought a new pressure cooker. Jack is interested in the petcock,
which is a small piece of mass, sits on top of the only opening in the middle of the
lid and prevents steam from escaping until the pressure force overcomes the
weight of the petcock. He just wonders the weight of the petcock which can
maintain a high pressure inside the cooker.

What is known:
The operation pressure is 100 kPa gage
•The opening cross-sectional area is 4 mm2
•Atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa

Questions
Solve the problem using the basic steps in
engineering problem solving: 1) read 2)
draw diagrams 3) write equations 4) solve
and 5) check solution.
For step 3, use the force balance in the
base of the petcock:
F - ( F a+ G ) = 0
2
Systems
All thermodynamic systems contain three basic elements:
• System boundary: The imaginary surface that bounds the system.
• System volume: The volume within the imaginary surface.
• The surroundings: The surroundings is everything external to the
system.

Systems can be classified as being closed, open, or isolated.

•Closed system: Mass cannot cross the boundaries, but energy can.

•Open system (control volume): Both mass and energy can cross the boundaries.

•Isolated system: Either mass nor energy can cross its boundaries.

Closed System Open System Isolated System

3
 Property, Equilibrium and State
A property is any measurable characteristic of a system. The common
properties include:
• pressure (P)
• temperature (T)
• volume (V)
• velocity (v)
• mass (m)
• enthalpy (H)
• entropy (S)

Properties can be intensive or extensive.

Intensive properties are those whose values are independent of the
mass possessed by the system, such as pressure, temperature, and
velocity. Extensive properties are those whose values are dependent of
the mass possessed by the system, such as volume, enthalpy, and
entropy (enthalpy and entropy will be introduced in following sections).

Extensive properties are denoted by uppercase letters, such as volume

(V), enthalpy (H) and entropy (S). Per unit mass of extensive properties
are called specific properties and denoted by lowercase letters. For
example, specific volume v = V/m, specific enthalpy h = H/m and specific
entropy s = S/m (enthalpy and entropy will be introduced in following 4
sections).
Note that work and heat are not properties. They are dependent of the process
from one state to another state.

When the properties of a system are assumed constant from point to point and
there is no change over time, the system is in a thermodynamic equilibrium.

The state of a system is its condition as described by giving values to its properties
at a particular instant. For example, gas is in a tank. At state 1, its mass is 2 kg,
temperature is 20oC, and volume is 1.5 m3. At state 2, its mass is 2 kg, temperature
is 25oC, and volume is 2.5 m3.
A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties changes with time.

5
 Process, Path and Cycle
The changes that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a
process. The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called
path.

In thermodynamics the concept of quasi-equilibrium processes is used. It is a sufficiently

slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that its properties in one
part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.

When a system in a given initial state experiences a series of quasi-equilibrium

processes and returns to the initial state, the system undergoes a cycle. For example,
the piston of car engine undergoes Intake stroke, Compression stroke, Combustion
stroke, Exhaust stroke and goes back to Intake again. It is a cycle.

6
 CASE STUDY SOLUTION

The weight of the petcock

Using the basic force-equilibrium equation on the base of the petcock:
F - ( G + Fa ) = 0
F is the force given by the pressure inside the cooker and G is the weight of the
petcock. Fa is the force acting on the base by the atmosphere.

Then the mass can be expressed as

PA - ( mg + PaA ) = 0
m = ( P - Pa )(A)/g
= PgA/g
Put the given values into previous equation yields
m = 0.0408 kg

7
 What the Pressure Cooker Tells Us?

• Before the pressure in the cooker reaches the operation pressure, no mass is
transferred between the cooker and the surroundings. So the cooker is a closed
system. When the pressure approaches the operation pressure, the petcock
moves upward and stream can leak out the cooker. Then the system becomes an
open system.

• The atmospheric pressure always exists for objects which are explored in the air.
Be sure the pressure given is absolute, gage or vacuum. The concept about
pressure will be introduced later

8
 Temperature and the Zeroth Law

The measurement of the degree of hotness or coolness is temperature.

If two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, the hot body will
warm up the cold one. At the same time, the cold body will cool down the hot
one. This process will end when the two bodies have the same temperatures.
At that point, the two bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium.

The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics states:

Two bodies each in thermal equilibrium with a third body will be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

9
 Heat and Work
Path Function and Point Function

Path function and Point function are introduced to identify the variables of
thermodynamics.
Path function: Their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process
as well as the end states. Work (W), heat (Q) are path functions.
Process A: WA = 10 kJ
Process b: WB = 7 kJ

Point Function: They depend on the state only, and not on how a system
reaches that state. All properties are point functions.
Process A: V2 - V1 = 3 m3
Process B: V2 - V1 = 3 m3

10
 Heat
Heat is energy transferred from one system to another solely by reason of a
temperature difference between the systems. Heat exists only as it crosses the
boundary of a system and the direction of heat transfer is from higher temperature
to lower temperature.
For thermodynamics sign convention, heat transferred to a system is positive; Heat
transferred from a system is negative.
The heat needed to raise a object's temperature from T1 to T2 is:
Q = cp m (T2 - T1)
where
cp = specific heat of the object (will be introduced
in the following section)
m = mass of the object

Unit of heat is the amount of heat required to cause a unit rise in temperature of a
unit mass of water at atmospheric pressure.
Btu: Raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 oF
Cal: Raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 oC
J is the unit for heat in the S.I. unit system. The relation between Cal and J is
1 Cal = 4.184 J

11
 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transferred between two bodies in direct contact.

Fourier's law:

If a bar of length L was put between a hot object TH and a cold object TL , the heat
transfer rate is:

where
kt = Thermal conductivity of the bar
A = The area normal to the direction of heat
transfer

12
Convection: Heat transfer between a solid surface and an adjacent gas or liquid. It is
the combination of conduction and flow motion. Heat transferred from a solid surface
to a liquid adjacent is conduction. And then heat is brought away by the flow motion.

where
h = Convection heat transfer coefficient
Ts = Temperature of the solid surface
Tf = Temperature of the fluid
The atmospheric air motion is a case of convection. In winter, heat conducted from
deep ground to the surface by conduction. The motion of air brings the heat from the
ground surface to the high air.

13
Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Stefan - Boltzmann law:

where
σ = Stefan - Boltzmann constant
ε = emissivity
Ts = Surface temperature of the object
Solar energy applications mainly use radiation energy from the Sun.

The three modes of heat transfer always exist simultaneously. For example, the heat
transfer associated with double pane windows are:
Conduction: Hotter (cooler) air outside each pane causes conduction through solid
glass.
Convection: Air between the panes carries heat from hotter pane to cooler pane.
Radiation: Sunlight radiation passes through glass to be absorbed on other side.

14
 Work
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

Like heat, Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings and
associated with a process.

In thermodynamics sign convection, work transferred out of a system is positive with

respect to that system. Work transferred in is negative.
Units of work is the same as the units of heat.

15
 Expansion and Compression Work
Considering the gas enclosed in a piston-cylinder device with a cross-sectional area
of the piston A.
Initial State: Pressure P1 & Volume V1
Finial State: Pressure P2 & Volume V2
Then a work between initial and final states is: Pressure P, Volume V. Let the piston
moving ds. The differential work done during this process is:
δW = F ds = P A ds = P dV
The total work done during the whole process (from state (P1,V1) to state (P2,V2)) is:

This expansion process can be shown on a P-V diagram. The differential area dA is
equal to P dV. So the area under the process curve on a P-V diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work done during a expansion or compression process of a closed
system.

16
 Energy
Energy is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in a variety of forms such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear. It
may be transferred from one type of energy to another.

Forms of Energy
Kinetic Energy (KE): The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion.
KE = mv2/2
where
m = mass of the system
v = velocity of the system
If an object of mass m changes velocity from v1 to v2. thus the change of its kinetic
energy is:

ΔKE = 1/2 (v2 2- v1 2)

Gravitational potential energy (elevation in a gravitational field):
PE = mgz
where
m = mass of the system
z = height relative to a reference frame
Moving an object from location A to B, its gravitational potential energy change is:
ΔPE = mg(ZB - ZA)
17
Internal energy (U):
The energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is the
sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all molecules.

• Experience has shown that for most substances with no phase change involved,
internal energy strongly depends on temperature. Its dependence on pressure and
volume is relatively small.
• It is not possible to calculate the absolute value of the internal energy of a body.
Only internal energy change of a system can be determined.
• Internal energy is a property.
ΔU = mcΔT
FLOW ENERGY
When fluid is pumped along a pipe, energy is used to do the pumping. This energy
is carried along in the fluid
F.E. = pV

Total Energy (E): The sum of all forms of energy exist in a system. The total energy
of a system that consists of kinetic, potential, and internal energies is expressed as:

E = U + KE + PE + F.E. = U + mv2/2 + mgz +pV

18
Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is a thermodynamics property of a substance and is defined as the sum of
its internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume.
H = U + PV
Specific Heat (c)
Experiment shows that the temperature rise of liquid water due to heat transfer to
the water is given by
Q = m c (T2 - T1)
Where

Q = heat transfer to the water

m = mass of water
T2 - T1 = temperature rise of the water
c = specific heat, an experiment factor

In general, the value of specific heat c depends on the substance in the system, the
change of state involved, and the particular state of the system at the time of
transferring heat. Specific heat of solids and liquids is only a function of temperature
but specific heat of gaseous substances is a function of temperature and process.

19
Specific Heat at Constant Volume (cv)
Specific heat at constant volume is the change of specific internal energy with
respect to temperature when the volume is held constant (Isochoric process).

For constant volume process:

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (cP)

Specific heat at constant pressure is the change of specific enthalpy with respect to
temperature when the pressure is held constant (Isobaric process).

For constant pressure process

20
 CASE STUDY
Bob went home with a red print on his face yesterday. He was involved in a fight in
school. Someone slapped his face which caused the temperature of the affected area
of his face to rise. How fast the slapping hand is?

Known:
• The mass of the slapping hand mhand = 1.5 kg
• The mass of the affected tissue maffected tissue = 0.2 kg
• The specific heat of the tissue c = 3.8 kJ/(kg-oC)
• Temperature of face rise 1.5oC

Questions
Determine the velocity of the hand just before impact .

Approach
Take the hand and the affected portion of the face as a system
The energy equation:

Ein - Eout = ΔEsystem

= (ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE)affected tissue + (ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE)hand

21
 SOLUTION
The velocity of a 1.5 kg hand needs to cause the face
temperature to rise 1.5 oC when slapped. The kinetic
energy of the hand decreases during the process, due to a
decrease in velocity from the initial value to zero. At the
same time, the internal energy of the affected area
increase, due to an increase in the temperature.
Assumptions:
The hand is brought to a complete stop after the impact and the face does not move.
No heat is transferred from the affected area to the surroundings. No work is done to
or by the system.
The potential energy change is zero.
The energy balance equation:
Ein - Eout = Δ Esystem
= (ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE)affected tissue +
(ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE)hand

With all these assumptions, the equations can be simplified as:

22
0 = (mcΔT)affected tissue + [m(0 - v2)/2]hand

This is a very fast hand

23
 Conservation of Mass

The mass flow rate ( m°) is defined as the amount of mass flowing through a cross-
section per unit time.

The conservation of mass principle states the following:

In an equation format, the conservation of mass principle is:
(Total mass entering the system)
-
(Total mass leaving the system)
=
(Net change in mass within the system)
or,
min - mout = Δmsystem
24
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics, known as the conservation of energy principle,
states:
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms.

During a process, the first law can be expressed as:

the net change in the total energy during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and leaving the system during that process. In an
equation format, the energy balance for a system is:

(Total energy entering the system)

-
(Total energy leaving the system)
=
(Net change in the total energy of the system)
or,
Ein- Eout = ΔEsystem

Change in internal energy, DU= Q, heat added – W, work done by the system
Heat added is +; heat lost is -; work on system is -; work by the system is +

25
 The Ideal Gas

The Ideal Gas Law:

PV = mRT
Pv = RT

T1 T2

p1V1 p2V2

26
 Thermodynamics
• 4 basic processes:
• Isothermal.
• Adiabatic.
• Isometric.
• Isobaric

27
 The Ideal Gas
• Isochoric Processes
T1 T2

p1 p2
W  0.0

28
 The Ideal Gas
• Isobaric Processes
T1 T
 2
V1 V2

29
 The Ideal Gas
• Isothermal Processes
p1V1  p2V2

30
 The Ideal Gas
• Isothermal Processes

31
Adiabatic Processes
The Ideal Gas

 
P1V1  P2V2

  cP cV

32