Department of Mathematics

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

MA 106 : Linear Algebra Handout

Spring 2017 AR, SK

0.1 One-sided Inverse

Definition 0.1.1 (Left inverse). For an m × n matrix A, B is called a left inverse of A, if B
is n × m and BA = In is the n × n identity matrix.

It should be remarked that if rank(A) < n, then a left inverse can not exist. If
rank(A) = n < m then infinitely many left inverses exist.
Analogous definition and remarks can be made for a right inverse.

0.1.1 Left inverse of square matrices

The situation is most interesting for square matrices. First we note the following. Let A and
B be n × n matrices.

• If B is a two-sided inverse of A, then it is unique. It is denoted A−1 .

• If A and B are invertible, then so is AB and (AB)1 = B −1 A−1 .

• Each elementary row matrix is invertible.

Theorem 0.1.1. If a square matrix A has another square matrix B as a left inverse, then B
is also a right inverse and it is unique.

Proof:
It is given that BA = I. Let B̂ = EN · · · E2 E1 B be a row echelon form of B, then its last
row can not be 0. Otherwise, the same will be true of B̂A = EN · · · E2 E1 I which is invertible.

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Hence can assume that B̂ = I.

B̂ = I =⇒ B̂A = A

=⇒ EN · · · E2 E1 |{z}
BA = A
=I
=⇒ EN · · · E2 E1 = A.

But then A = EN · · · E2 E1 is a product of invertibles and therefore itself invertible and hence
has a unique inverse which is E1−1 E2−1 · · · EN
−1
. Also,

A = EN · · · E2 E1 =⇒ BEN · · · E2 E1 = I
−1
=⇒ B = E1−1 E2−1 · · · EN .

Therefore, B is the inverse of A.

0.2 Dimension, row rank=column rank, pivots

0.2.1 Dimension

Theorem 0.2.1. Let B = {v1 , ..., vk } and B 0 = {w1 , ..., w` } be two bases of a vector space
V , then k = `. Hence the dim V is well defined.

Proof (Sketch): Assume to the contrary that k > `.

Observe that none of the vectors in B and B 0 can be 0. We replace one by one the vectors of
B by those of B 0 .
w1 = a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk with at least one of the aj 6= 0. W.l.o.g. a1 6= 0.
Claim: B1 = {w1 , v2 , ..., vk } is a basis of V .
Proof of the claim:

• v1 = 1/a1 (w1 − a2 v2 − · · · − ak vk =⇒ v1 ∈ L(B1 ) =⇒ L(B1 ) = V .

b1 w1 + b2 v2 + · · · + bk vk = 0

=⇒ b1 (a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk ) + b2 v2 + · · · + bk vk = 0

=⇒ b1 a1 = 0 =⇒ b1 = 0 ∵ a1 6= 0.

=⇒ b2 = · · · = bk = 0 =⇒ L.I. of B1 .

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Next assuming that Br = {w1 , ..., wr , vr+1 , ..., vk } is a basis we show that Br+1 = {w1 , ..., wr+1 , vr+2 , ..., vk }
is a basis. Using the basis Br ,

wr+1 = b1 w1 + · · · + br wr + cr+1 vr+1 + · · · + ck vk .

In the above at least one of the cj 6= 0 else B 0 will become L.D. So w.l.o.g. let cr+1 6= 0. Then
Br+1 is also a basis. Can be proved just like above:

• Write vr+1 as a linear combination of vectors in Br to show that L(Br+1 ) = V .

• Use cr+1 6= 0 to show L.I. of Br+1 .

Continuing we find a basis B` = {w1 , ..., w` , v`+1 , ..., vk } = B 0 ∪{v`+1 , ..., vk }. But v`+1
is already in L(B 0 ) a contradiction to L.I. of B` . Hence v`+1 can not exist and k > ` is invalid.

0.2.2 Row rank=Column rank

Short proof from Kreyszig, Adv Engg Math (8th ed.) p.333: If A has r = rank(A) linearly
independent rows {Aj1 , ..., Ajr }, then writing all the m rows as their linear combinations gives
an m × r matrix C s.t.  
A
 j1 
 .. 
C  .  = A = [A1 ...An ].
 
Ajr
 
a
 j1 k 
. 
Now writing J = {j1 , ..., jr } and AkJ =  ..  (partial k th column of A) we find

 
aj r k
 
Aj1
 . 
 
C  ..  = C[A1J ...AnJ ] = [CA1J ... CAnJ ] = [A1 ...An ].
  |{z} |{z}
∈C(C) ∈C(C)
Ajr

This implies that each Ak ∈ C(C) =⇒ C(A) ⊂ C(C) =⇒ rankc (A) ≤ rankc (C) ≤ r = rank(A).
Therefore, rankc (A) ≤ rank(A). Now invoke AT . (Recall that M x ∈ C(M ) for any p × q
matrix M and q × 1 column vector x.)

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0.2.3 Position of the pivots in REFs

Theorem 0.2.2. If  and à are two REFs of the same matrix A, then their pivots are exactly
in the same places.

Proof: Let A have n columns and rank(A) = r. By definition of REF, the pivots occur
in row numbers 1, 2, ..., r. So let them occur in the column numbers k1 < k2 < · · · < kr and
`1 < `2 < · · · < `r respectively. Suppose t is least such that kt 6= `t . Assume w.l.o.g. that
kt < `t . Delete the last n − kt columns from A,  and à to get A0 , Â0 and Ã0 respectively.
Then the last two are the REF’s of A0 . In Â0 there are t pivots while Ã0 has only t − 1 which
gives two different ranks for A0 , a contradiction.

0.3 Properties of the determinant

The determinant function enjoys three crucial properties:

D-1 Skew-symmetry

D-2 Row-wise linearity

D-3 Normalization

These properties characterize the determinant function.

0.3.1 Additional useful properties:

In addition to the crucial 3 properties, the determinant satisfies two more useful properties:

• Multiplicative property: |AB| = |A||B|.

 
• Invariance under transposition: AT  = |A|.

We proceed to prove these additional properties.

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0.3.2 Determinants of product and transpose

Lemma 0.3.1. Let E be an elementary row matrix. Then


−1, E = Pjk , j 6= k





 T 
1. |E| = E  = 1, E = Ejk (c), j 6= k




λ, E = Mj (λ), λ 6= 0.


2. Let A be any square matrix of the same size as E. Then |EA| = |E||A|.

3. Let X be any square matrix with the last column 0. Then |X| = 0.

Proof:

T
1. • The first is skew-symmetry applied to In (the identity matrix) and Pjk = Pjk .
• For the second, assume j < k for definiteness and expand |Ejk (c)| by the j th row to
obtain
 
c.0 + · · · + 1.In−1  + · · · + 0 = 1 and Ejk (c)T = Ekj (c).
0 + · · · + |{z}
| {z }
j th term
kth term

• The third is by expanding diag{1, ..., λ, ...1} by j t h row to get

 
Mj (λ) = 0 + · · · + λ|In−1 | + · · · + 0 = λ and Mj (λ)T = Mj (λ).

 
2. • E = Pjk =⇒ |Pjk A| = −|A| (skew-symmetry) = Pjk |A|.
 
• E = Ejk (c) =⇒ |Ejk (c)A| = |A| + c.0 = Ejk (c)|A|. Due to linearity in the j th row,
the second term being a determinant whose j th row equals its k th row (j 6= k).
 
• E = Mj (λ) =⇒ |Mj (λ)A| = λ|A| = Mj (λ)|A| due to linearity in the j th row (or
expanding by the j th row).

3. Let X be n × n and Mjk be the (jk)th minor of X, then by inductive hypothesis Mjk =
0 if 1 ≤ k < n. Expanding by the first row, |X| = 0 + · · · + 0 + 0.M1n = 0.

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Corollary 0.3.1. Let A and B be n × n matrices then
 
|AB| = |A||B| and AT  = |A|.

Proof:
• First we consider A invertible. An invertible matrix is a product of ERM 0 s. So let A =
EN · · · E2 E1 . Then


|AB| = |EN · · · E2 E1 B| = |EN ||EN −1 · · · E2 E1 B| = · · · = |EN | · · · |E2 ||E1 | |B|.
| {z }
=|A|(see below)

Also by the same logic |A| = |AI| = |EN | · · · |E2 ||E1 ||I| = |EN | · · · |E2 ||E1 |.
Further, AT = E1T ...EN
T
is again a product of ERM’s and
 T  T  T     
A  = E1 ...EN  = E1 ...EN  = |A|.

• If A is not invertible, then there are ERM’s E1 , E2 , ..., EN such that the last row of
EN · · · E2 E1 A = GA say, is 0. Expansion by the last row shows that

0 = |GA| = |G||A|(∵ G is invertible) =⇒ |A| = 0 ∵ |G| =

6 0.

Now (GA)B also has the last row 0, hence

0 = |GAB| = |G||AB| =⇒ |AB| = 0 = 0.|B| = |A||B|.

 
Next (GA)T = AT GT has the last column 0,so that AT GT  = 0. Then
      
0 = AT GT  = AT  GT  =⇒ AT  = 0 = |A|.
|{z}
6=0

Remark 0.3.1. Invertible matrices are dense in Mn (R), and X 7→ |XB| − |X||B| is a con-
tinuous function (a polynomial of degree n in n2 variables xij ), hence if |XB| − |X||B| = 0
for invertible matrices X, then it so for all matrices X.
 
Remark 0.3.2. Like wise by the continuity of X 7→ X T  −|X|, which vanishes for invertibles,
 T
X  = |X| for all X.

Corollary 0.3.2.

• Expansion of the determinant by the rows implies that by the columns and vice-versa.

• The determinant function is column-wise linear and skew-symmetric. In other words,

the column analogues of the properties D-1,D-2 hold.

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0.4 Definition of determinant
We indicate how an n × n determinant can be expanded by any row. We use induction on n.
So we assume that (n − 1) × (n − 1) determinants are well defined. Moreover, we assume that
theorem has been verified for n = 2. So let n > 2. We expand determinant of n × n matrix
A by its first and the second row and show equality.

Theorem 0.4.1. Let A be an n×n matrix. Let |A|1 and |A|2 be expansions of the determinant
by the first and the second row respectively. Then |A|1 = |A|2 .

Proof:
For J, K ⊆ n we use the notation AJK to denote the submatrix of A by taking the rows and
 
the columns corresponding to J and K respectively. Thus e.g. Mjk = Acj k c 
X
|A|1 = (−1)1+k a1k M1k
1≤k≤n
X
|A|2 = (−1)k a2k M2k
1≤k≤n

Next M1k = |A1̂k̂ | on expansion by the first row gives

X  
M1k = (−1)1+?? a2` A{1,2}c {k,`}c 
1≤`6=k≤n
X   X  
= (−1)1+` a2` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  + (−1)1+(`−1) a2` A{1,2}c {k,`}c 
1≤`<k k<`≤n
n X
X k−1 n n
k+`
  X X  
∴ |A|1 = (−1) a1k a2` A{1,2} {k,`} +
 c c  (−1)k+`−1 a1k a2` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  .
k=1 `=1 k=1 `=k+1

Similarly, on expanding by the first row we get

X   X  
M2k = (−1)1+` a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  + (−1)` a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c 
1≤`<k k<`≤n
n X
X k−1 n n
  X X  
∴ |A|2 = (−1)k+`+1 a2k a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  + (−1)k+` a2k a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  .
k=1 `=1 k=1 `=k+1

On re-arranging the sum for |A|2 , we get

n
X n
X n X
`−1
k+`+1
  X  
|A|2 = (−1) a2k a1` A{1,2} {k,`} +
 c c  (−1)k+` a2k a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c 
`=1 k=`+1 `=1 k=1
n X
X `−1 n
X n
X
k+`
   
= (−1) a2k a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c  + (−1)k+`+1 a2k a1` A{1,2}c {k,`}c 
`=1 k=1 `=1 k=`+1

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Finally on interchanging k and `,
n X
X k−1 n n
k+`
  X X  
|A|2 = (−1) a2` a1k A{1,2}c {k,`}c +
  (−1)k+`−1 a2` a1k A{1,2}c {k,`}c  ,
k=1 `=1 k=1 `=k+1

same as that for |A|1 .

Some explanations:

• Consider the ordered set of 7 elements: {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} (5 is missing). Then 1, 2, 3, 4

are the first, second, third and the fourth elements respectively but 6, 7, 8 are the fifth,
sixth and seventh. This explains the (??) in the exponent and its subsequent resolution.
n X
X k−1 n
X n
X
• = is like Fubini’s theorem
k=1 `=1 `=1 k=`+1

Z 1 Z x  Z 1 Z 1 
f (x, y) dy dx = f (x, y) dx dy.
x=0 y=0 y=0 x=y

n
X n
X n X
X `−1
Likewise for = .
k=1 `=k+1 `=1 k=1

When we rewrite the sum for |A|2 , in the first double sum we have k < ` hence it is the
second double sum for |A|1 and vice versa.

Exercise: Write the expansion |A|j by the j th row and compare with |A|1 for j > 2. This
will complete the proof of consistency of the definition. Should expand the minors M1k by its
(j − 1)th which will be the j th row of A. row. This is valid due to the induction hypothesis:
can expand n − 1 × n − 1 determinant by any of its rows.