Orbital Maneuvers 1

5 Orbital Maneuvers

5.1 Introduction
For earth satellites, the launch vehicle may insert a spacecraft into a desired orbit. This is
equivalent to establishing a particular v at a particular r.
~ ~
Prevalent use of the Space Shuttle and other launch vehicles producing smaller than desired
orbits has increased the need for maneuvering to obtain a desired orbit.
Maneuvers are also needed for interplanetary flight.
Consider a direct transfer from one two-body orbit to another:

v1 = velocity of initial orbit

~
v2 = velocity of final orbit
~
∆v = v2 − v1
~ ~ ~
= velocity change

If two orbits share a point, then a transfer can be accomplished with a single maneuver. We’ll
assume maneuvers are impulsive and occur instantaneously. The most important parameter
is
∆v = |∆v|
~
This is the magnitude of the velocity change and is a measure of fuel consumption. Minimum
fuel maneuvers use minimum ∆v. The time of flight (tof) is also important.

5.2 Coplanar Transfers

Assume that the initial and final orbits lie in the same plane. In this case, the maneuver can
change a, e, and ω.
Tangential Transfers
(i) (ii)
Orbital Maneuvers 2

In this case, both orbits are tangent at the transfer point and the velocity vectors are aligned.
Hence,
∆vp = v2 − v1
and a positive ∆vp indicates an increase in speed and a negative ∆vp indicates a decrease in
speed. The values of v1 and v2 can be determined from the vis-viva equation:
s
2µ µ
v= −
r a
For case (i) above, s
s
µ 2µ µ
v1 = , v2 = −
r1 r1 a

One can also consider nontangential orbits:

In this case, the magnitude of ∆v is given by the cosine law:

(∆v)2 = v12 + v22 − 2v1 v2 cos φ

where φ can be determined from the flight path angle of the two orbits.

In the case where the two orbits have no point in common, no transfer is possible using a
single maneuver.
Orbital Maneuvers 3

Hohmann Transfers
This is the minimum energy transfer between two coplanar circular orbits. It was originally
published in 1925 by Walter Hohmann and later extended to the case of two coplanar, coaxial
(coincident apsidal lines) ellipses.

The Hohmann transfer consists of two tangential maneuvers. The two orbits are connected
by a transfer ellipse with periapsis at the radius of orbit 1 and apoapsis at the radius of orbit
2. For the transfer ellipse, at = (r1 + r2 )/2. Hence,
s s
2µ µ µ
∆vp = vtp − v1 = − −
r1 at r1
s s
µ 2µ µ
∆va = v2 − vta = − −
r2 r2 at
∆v = ∆vp + ∆va

Note that the time of flight is half the period of the transfer ellipse:
q
tof = π a3t /µ

Some tedious manipulations allow one to express the ratio ∆v/v1 in terms of the ratio r2 /r1 :
s s s
∆v r2 2 r1 2 r1
 
= − + −1 (1)
v1 r1 [1 + (r2 /r1 )] r2 [1 + (r2 /r1 )] r2

A sketch of this relationship is given below:

The Hohmann transfer is the minimum total ∆v transfer if r2 /r1 < 11.94 but maximizes the
tof. For r2 /r1 > 11.94, there is another alternative.
Orbital Maneuvers 4

Bi-elliptic Transfers
This maneuver consists of two Hohmann transfers. The first one is a transfer to a circular
orbit with larger radius than the the target one. The second transfer is an inward transfer
to the target orbit.

q
vi = µ/ri , i = 1, 2, 3
at1 = (r1 + r3 )/2
at2 = (r2 + r3 )/2

For transfer orbit 1:

s
2µ µ
periapsis : v1p = −
r1 at1
s
2µ µ
apoapsis : v1a = −
r3 at1

For transfer orbit 2:

s
2µ µ
apoapsis : v2a = −
r3 at2
s
2µ µ
periapsis : v2p = −
r2 at2

∆v calculations:

∆v1 = v1p − v1
∆v2 = v2a − v1a = (v2a − v3 ) + (v3 − v1a )
∆v3 = v2 − v2p
∆v = |∆v1 | + |∆v2 | + |∆v3 |

The minimum total ∆v occurs when r3 → ∞. In this case, the ellipses tend towards parabolas
and one terms the maneuver an infinite bi-elliptic transfer.
For r2 /r1 > 11.94, the infinite bi-elliptic transfer is more efficient than the Hohmann transfer
but the tof is even longer.
Orbital Maneuvers 5

It can also be shown that bi-elliptic transfers with r2 < r3 < ∞ are always more efficient
than the Hohmann transfer for r2 /r1 > 15.58. In the range of radii
r2
11.94 ≤ ≤ 15.58
r1
an additional test is required to determine whether a given bi-elliptic transfer with r3 > r2
will be better than the corresponding Hohmann transfer.

5.3 Noncoplanar Transfers

Plane Change
In general, a plane change will alter the inclination (i) and the right ascension of the the
ascending node (ω). It is the simplest noncoplanar maneuver and results in a change of
orbital plane with no change in size or shape.

The corresponding ∆v is given by

∆v = 2v sin(θ/2) (2)

Hence, the velocity increment depends on the velocity at the maneuver location and can be
large, i.e., for θ = 60◦ , ∆v = v.
Orbital Maneuvers 6

A general plane change will alter both i and Ω:

In order to accomplish a pure change in inclination, the plane change must occur at the node
(i.e., equatorial crossing):

The ascending node is unchanged.

5.4 Combined Maneuvers

Consider a transfer between two noncoplanar circular orbits:

This suggests a plane change and a Hohmann transfer. The plane change can be combined
with the perigee and/or apogee maneuvers. If some plane change is performed at perigee
and some at apogee, then we have a split change. Given Eq. (2), the plane change should
be performed at apogee where the velocity is lowest.
Orbital Maneuvers 7

(i) perigee maneuver

s
µ
∆vp = vp − v1 , v1 =
r1

and vp is the perigee velocity of the elliptical transfer orbit which has an apogee at the radius
of the larger orbit: s
2µ µ r1 + r2
vp = − , at =
r1 at 2

(ii) apogee maneuver

∆va2 = va2 + v22 − 2va v2 cos θ

s
2µ µ
va = −
r2 at
s
µ
v2 =
r2

Note that the line of apsides of the transfer ellipse must contain the point where orbit 2
pierces the plane of orbit 1 so that the transfer ellipse and the target orbit share a point. A
Orbital Maneuvers 8

common application of this maneuver is transfer into orbits in the equatorial plane.

The minimum inclination orbit obtainable from the launch vehicle is equal to the latitude
of the launch site (note that the orbital plane must contain the centre of the earth and
the launch site which is roughly the location of the orbit insertion position). Hence, direct
injection into an equatorial orbit is difficult. The combined maneuver can be used to transfer
to the equatorial plane. The perigee maneuver is peformed at the node. The angle of the
plane change which is combined with circularization at apogee is the inclination of the initial
orbit.