1.

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Artificial immune systems are computational systems, inspired by ideas, theories and components of
the immune system, which aim to solve complex computational problems, such as pattern recognition
and optimization.Artificial immune systems can be defined as a computational intelligence paradigm
inspired by theoretical immunology and observed immune functions, principles and models to solve
complex engineering and optimization problems.They have been successfully applied for
classification, clustering, anomaly detection, computer security, optimization, medical diagnosis,
bioinformatics, image processing, control, robotics, virus detection and web mining .Artificial
immune systems are biologically inspired systems, such as evolutionary algorithms, swarm
intelligence and neural networks . Human immune system is a complex of specialized cells, molecules
and organs which are responsible for protecting the body against attacks of pathogens, such as
bacteria and viruses.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines coronaviruses as a large family of viruses that cause
illness ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases.Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an
infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus.Most people infected with the COVID-
19 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special
treatment.Older people, and those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular disease,
diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious illness.[1]
herd immunity optimizer for Coronavirus pandemic is nature-inspired human-based
optimization concepts that can be used to solve Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) or many
optimization problems across a wide variety of optimization domains.
The basic herd immunity optimizer and immune theories used to explain how a
computational intelligence paradigm to perform pattern recognition,are described and their
corresponding computational models are presented for Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19)
[2].The speed of spreading coronavirus infection depends on how the infected individuals
directly contact other society members. In order to protect other members of society from the
disease, social distancing is suggested by health experts. Herd immunity is a state the
population reaches when most of the population is immune which results in the prevention of
disease transmission[2].Three types of individual cases are utilized for herd immunity:
susceptible, infected, and immuned. This is to determine how the newly generated solution
updates its genes with social distancing strategies.
1. Using data classification we propose artificial immune system and immune
optimizer for coronavirus pandemic
2. Implement complex computational problems, such as pattern recognition

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM (OBJECTIVE)

Viruses are normally spread and evolved very quickly among individuals of the population. The
health communities normally use a vaccine to build immunity against viruses. However, new viruses
need a period of time until their vaccine is discovered. In the meanwhile, the health care organizations
recommend treating the virus in one of two ways[2]:

● 1. They isolate the infected individuals from their surrounding communities and isolate all the
people they contact.
● They use herd immunity principle to stop pandemics where herd immunity accrued when a
significant portion of a population is immune resulting in protecting susceptible individuals.

Transmission speed of Coronavirus is very fast.The phases of hard immunity can be summarised as
follows First a group of infected people will infect another group of people
Second, a large number of infected people will recover and become immune and a third small
number of people will die finally after sometime the majority of the population will become protected
against the virus.Recent research confirms the impact of heart immunity on the spread of covid-19 as
neutralizing antibodies are detected at many individuals
The populations individuals are randomly spreading virus and make it as susceptible and very few
members are marked infected[2]
herd immunity optimizer for Coronavirus pandemic is nature-inspired human-based
optimization concepts that can be used to solve Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) or many
optimization problems across a wide variety of optimization domains.
The basic herd immunity optimizer and immune theories used to explain how a
computational intelligence paradigm to perform pattern recognition,are described and their
corresponding computational models are presented for Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19)
[2].The speed of spreading coronavirus infection depends on how the infected individuals
directly contact other society members. In order to protect other members of society from the
disease, social distancing is suggested by health experts. Herd immunity is a state the
population reaches when most of the population is immune which results in the prevention of
disease transmission[2].Three types of individual cases are utilized for herd immunity:
susceptible, infected, and immuned. This is to determine how the newly generated solution
updates its genes with social distancing strategies.
3. Using data classification we propose artificial immune system and immune
optimizer for coronavirus pandemic
4. Implement complex computational problems, such as pattern recognition

1.3 OBJECTIVE
1.3.1 My study is aimed at diagnosing COVID-19 and controlling the spread Coronavirus using
hybrid machine learning approaches.
1.3.2 I am going to use Artificial Immune Recognition Systems
1.3.3 Artificial Herd Immunity Optimizer for Coronavirus Pandemic

1.3 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED.

1.3.1TOOLS
1. Jupyter notebook ,language used Python

1.3.2TECHNIQUES
1. Data Classification and Pattern Recognition
2. Classification accuracy with fuzzy classification methods
3. Artificial Immune Recognition Systems
4. Three types of individual cases are utilized for herd immunity: susceptible,
infected, and immuned. This is to determine how the newly generated solution
updates its genes with social distancing strategies [2].Using Computational
intelligence paradigms we perform pattern recognition for all three categories
and individuals are described and their corresponding computational models are
presented for Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19).
Clonal selection is the theory in immunology to explain the basic characteristics of the
adaptive immune system regarding antigenic stimulus.According to the clonal selection
theory, only the cells that are capable of recognizing an antigen will be proliferated. Negative
selection based algorithms have been successfully applied for anomaly detection, time series
prediction, image segmentation and hardware fault tolerance
2. LITERATURE SURVEY

COVID-19 is the disease caused by the new coronavirus that emerged in China in December
2019.COVID-19 symptoms include cough, fever or chills, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing,
muscle or body aches, sore throat, new loss of taste or smell, diarrhea, headache, new fatigue, nausea
or vomiting and congestion or runny nose. COVID-19 can be severe, and some cases have caused
death.The new coronavirus can be spread from person to person.People with COVID-19 Symptoms
may appear 2-14 days after exposure to the virus. Varieties of machine learning based models have
been proposed for performing clinical diagnostics.To mitigate the COVID-19 diagnosis problem,
different classification systems have been used.Classification accuracy with fuzzy classification
methods normally used.Three rules of spreading virus is social distancing concept :susceptible,
infected and immuned.The population members are moved from susceptible to infected from infected
to immune according to immunity.a few numbers of infected individuals will reach the die
state.Coronavirus herd immunity optimizer,Viruses are normally spread and evolved very quickly
among individuals of the population. The health communities normally use a vaccine to build
immunity against viruses. However, new viruses need a period of time until their vaccine is
discovered. In the meanwhile, the health care organizations recommend treating the virus in one of
two ways:

● They isolate the infected individuals from their surrounding communities and isolate all the
people they contact.
● They use herd immunity principle to stop pandemics where herd immunity accrued when a
significant portion of a population is immune resulting in protecting susceptible individuals.
An innovative intelligent method called Artificial Immune Systems (AISs) has been
implemented on different platforms and applications specifically in the field of pattern
recognition[16][17][18]

2.1BIOLOGICAL AND ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS

All living organisms are capable of presenting some type of defence against foreign attack. The
evolution of species that resulted in the emergence of the vertebrates also led to the evolution of the
immune system of this species.

The immune system of vertebrates is composed of various molecules, cells, and organs spread all over
the body. There is no central organ controlling the functioning of the immune system, and there are
several elements in transit and different compartments performing complementary roles. The main
task of the immune system is to survey the organism in the search for malfunctioning cells from their
own body (e.g., cancer and tumour cells) and foreign disease-causing elements (e.g., viruses and
bacteria). Every aspect that the immune system can recognise is called an antigen (Ag). The cells that
initially belong to our body are harmless to its functioning self-antigen, while the disease-causing
elements are named nonself (or nonself antigens). Thus, the immune system has to distinguish
between what is self from what is nonself; a process called self/nonself discrimination and performed
basically through pattern recognition events. From a pattern recognition perspective, the most
appealing characteristic of the IS is receptor molecules on the surface of immune cells, capable of
recognising an almost limitless range of antigenic patterns. One can identify two major groups of
immune cells, known as B-cells and T-cells. These cells are relatively similar but differ in how they
recognise antigens and their functional roles[14]. B-cells can recognise antigens free in solution (e.g.,
in the bloodstream), while T-cells require antigens to be presented by other accessory cells.
Antigens are covered with molecules called epitopes. The receptor molecules recognise these on the
surface of B-cells, called antibodies (Ab). An antigen recognised by a T-cell receptor must be
processed and presented by an accessory cell[14].
The immune system of vertebrates is composed of a great variety of molecules, cells, and organs
spread all over the body. There is no central organ controlling the functioning of the immune system,
and there are several elements in transit and in different compartments performing complementary
roles. The main task of the immune system is to survey the organism in the search for malfunctioning
cells from their own body (e.g., cancer and tumour cells), and foreign disease causing elements (e.g.,
viruses and bacteria). Every element that can be recognised by the immune system is called an antigen
(Ag). The cells that originally belong to our body and are harmless to its functioning are termed self
(or self antigens), while the disease causing elements are named nonself (or nonself antigens). The
immune system, thus, has to be capable of distinguishing between what is self from what is nonself; a
process called self/nonself discrimination, and performed basically through pattern recognition events.
From a pattern recognition perspective, the most appealing characteristic of the IS is the presence of
receptor molecules, on the surface of immune cells, capable of recognising an almost limitless range
of antigenic patterns. One can identify two major groups of immune cells, known as B-cells and T-
cells. These two types of cells are rather similar, but differ with relation to how they recognise
antigens and by their functional roles[14]. B-cells are capable of recognising antigens free in solution
(e.g., in the bloodstream), while T-cells require antigens to be presented by other accessory cells.
antigens are covered with molecules, named epitopes. These allow them to be recognised by the
receptor molecules on the surface of B-cells, called antibodies (Ab).An antigen to be recognised by a
T-cell receptor, it has to be processed and presented by an accessory cell[14].

Figure 1:
Pattern recognition in the immune system. (a) B-cell recognizes an antigen (Ag) free in solution. (b)
T-cell recognizes an antigen presented by an accessory cell.

Antigenic recognition is the first prerequisite for the immune system to be activated and to mount an
immune response. The recognition has to satisfy some criteria. First, the cell receptor recognises an
antigen with a certain affinity, and a binding between the receptor and the antigen occurs with
strength proportional to this affinity.The human immune system contains an organ called thymus that
is located behind the breastbone, which performs a crucial role in the maturation of T-cells. After T-
cells are generated, they migrate into the thymus where they mature. During this maturation, all T-
cells that recognise self-antigens are excluded from the population of T-cells; a process termed
negative selection. If a B-cell encounters a nonself antigen with a sufficient affinity, it proliferates and
differentiates into memory and effector cells; a process named clonal selection. In contrast, if a B-cell
recognises a self-antigen, it might result in suppression, as proposed by the immune network theory.
In the following subsections, each of these processes (negative selection, clonal selection, and
network theory) will be described separately, along with their computational algorithms
counterparts[14][15].

2.2 NEGATIVE SELECTION

Negative selection proposes an alternative approach to perform pattern recognition. The purpose of
pattern recognition is to find the useful relations and patterns from the information. In common
approaches, these patterns are recognized from the stored information about them. In this approach,
the complement set of information about the patterns are stored and patterns recognized regarding
these information. The focus of negative selection algorithms is on anomaly detection problems such
as computer and network intrusion detection. Besides it is used in time series prediction, image
inspection and segmentation, and hardware fault tolerance[14][15].

Given an appropriate problem representation,define the set of patterns to be protected and call it the
self-set(P).Based upon the negative selection algorithm,generate a set of detectors (M) that will be
responsible to identify all elements that do not belong to herself-set,i.e.,the nonself elements. The
negative selection algorithm runs as follows

1. Generate random candidate elements (C) using the same representation adopted;
2. Compare (match) the elements in C with the elements in P. If an element of P is recognized
by an element of C, then discard this element of C; else store this element of C in the detector
set M.

After Generating The Set Of Detectors (M),the next stage of the algorithm consists in monitoring the
system for the presence of non self patterns.In The Case,assume a set P*of patterns to be protected.
This set might be composed of the set P plus other new patterns, or it can be a completely novel set.
For all elements of the detector set, that corresponds to the nonself patterns, check if it recognizes
(matches) an element of P* and, if yes, then a nonself pattern was recognized and an action has to be
taken[14][15].

Figure 2: Pattern recognition via the negative selection algorithm. (a) Generating the set of detectors.
(b) Monitoring for the presence of undesired (nonself) patterns.

2.3 CLONAL SELECTION

Clonal selection describes the basic feature of adaptive immune response: only those cells that
recognize the AG proliferate. In consequence, they are selected over those that do not. These clones
have mutated from the original cell at a rate inversely proportional to the match strength. Fukuda,
Mori and Tsukiyama first developed an algorithm that included clonal selection to solve
computational problems ,scheduling and resource-allocation optimization problems. Clonal selection
was popularized by de Castro and Von Zuben, who developed an algorithm called CLONALG,which
currently exists in two versions: for optimization and for pattern recognition. Another form of the
clonal selection algorithm is artificial immune recognition system (AIRS),which was developed from
the AINE immune network.Typical applications for clonal selection include the following: unimodal,
combinatorial, multimodal, and non-stationary function optimization,initializing the centers of radial
basis functions, various types of pattern recognition,graph coloring problems,multiple character
recognition problems, automated scheduling,and document classification. In and,a clonal selection
algorithm was applied to time series forecasting[14].

clonal selection algorithm,named CLONALG that uses the basic processes involved in clonal
selection.This algorithm was initially proposed to perform pattern recognition and then adapted to
solve multi-model optimization tasks.Give naseto patterns to be recognized(P), the basic steps of the
CLONALG algorithm are as follows (de Castro and Von Zuben 2002):

1. Randomly initialize a population of individuals (M)

2. For each pattern of P, present it to the population M and determine its affinity (match) with
each element of the population M
3. Selectn1of the best highestaffinityelementsofMandgeneratecopiesoftheseindividuals
proportionally to their affinity with the antigen. The higher the affinity, the higher the number
of copies, and vice-versa;
4. Mutate all these copies with a rate proportional to their affinity with the input pattern: the
higher the affinity, the smaller the mutation rate, and vice-versa.
5. Add these mutated individuals to the population M and re-select n2 of these maturated
(optimized) individuals to be kept as memories of the system
6. Repeat Steps2 to 5 until a certain criterion asset,such as a minimum pattern recognition or
classification error.

Figure 3: Clonal selection, expansion (proliferation), affinity maturation, and maintenance of memory
cells. The highest affinity cells are selected to proliferate. Their progenies (clones) suffer mutation
with high rates and those whose receptors present high affinity with the antigen are maintained as
memory cells.

2.4 IMMUNE NETWORK

The immune network theory proposes that the immune system has a dynamic behaviour even in the
absence of external stimuli . It is suggested that the immune cells and molecules are capable of
recognising each other, which endows the system with an eigen behaviour that is not dependent on
foreign stimulation. Several immunologists have refuted this theory, however its computational
aspects are relevant and it has proved itself to be a powerful model for computational systems[14].
The immune (idiotypic) network theory was proposed by Jerne.In artificial models based on this
theory,immune cells can match other immune cells as well as AGs.This leads to the creation of a
network between the immune cells. The recognition of an AG results in network activation and cell
proliferation, whilst the recognition of a cell receptor by another cell receptor results in network
suppression. Several immune network models have been developed. The CLONALG algorithm
mentioned above was extended by employing the metaphor of the immune network theory and then
applied to data clustering. This led to the development of the aiNet algorithm. Another immune
network theory inspired by AIS is AINE, which is applied to data clustering. A model combining the
ideas of aiNet and AINE has also been proposed.Apart from data clustering, immune network models
have been applied to: detecting gene promoter sequences,data mining and diagnosis. The idiotypic
network theory is no longer widely accepted by immunologists[15]

Figure 4: Immune network theory. The recognition of antigen by an antibody (cell receptor) leads to
network activation, while the recognition of an isotope by another antibody results

3 MAPPING IMMUNE SYSTEM TO PRACTICAL APPLICATION

An artificial immune system looks more like a predator-prey model or a simple pattern recognition
problem deeper insight reveals that the paradigm can be extended and used to suit a large variety e of
applications ranging from computer security autonomous navigation and control search and
optimisation agent-based system design scheduling and even data analysis and mining[14][15].

3.1 MODELLING PATTERN RECOGNITION IN AIS

The immune system and translating it to suit the computational world requires some ingenuity.For
instance while dealing with a pattern recognition problem how do we model the affinity between the
antibodies paratopes and the antigen epitopes .The epitopes paratopes pair forms extensively reasons
that are complementary in nature. In the computational world this would be measured by finding the
distance between each of these surfaces for shapes.Thus if we have an antibody whose shape could be
define using N numbers of parameters (this could be the height depth length width of the bump a
groove that makes the the receptors)then the set of all such N dimensional point make up for what is
termed as a shape space. A point in this shape is space defines the shape of the antibody receptor
which in turn decides how it will bind with the antigen.Thus an antibody A in shape space S can be
represented as a set of N co-ordinates <A1 A2 A3 …..... …..An>. If we plot this
point on the N-dimensional space we may imagine that all points that lie
within a circle or a sphere of a small radius ∈ would have almost the
same level of complementarity∈ AS(cross reactivity threshold). The volume Vr of
recognition which could be a circle sphere some shape selected based on the application at hand is
referred to as the recognition reason. Thus all antibodies at a volume we are will cross react with the
antigen having epitopes complementary to the parrot stops within the reason.

shape space could be of different forms based on the nature of the values the coordinates assume. For
instance a real value shape space could have real valued coordinates. A point in such a space would be
represented by a real valued vector. One may also imagine an integer shape space symbolic shape
space and hamming shape space points on each of these being expressed as an integer vector a
symbolic vector (name age gender race) and a hamming vector up down slanting actively.

affinity can be assumed to be given by the the distance between two vectors one that decides the
shape of an antigen ab and the other the shape of an antibody receptor Ag. Euclidean, Manhattan or
some such distance measuring technique would be used to find the affinities

4. IMMUNITY OPTIMIZER

Herd immunity refers to a situation where enough people in a population have immunity to the
infection to be able to effectively stop that disease from spreading. For herd immunity, it does not
matter whether the immunity comes from vaccination, or from the people who had the disease. The
crucial thing is that they are immune. As more people become infected with COVID-19, the disease
caused by the virus, there will be more people who recover and who are then immune to future
infection. Herd immunity is affected by the basic reproduction rate, which represents how many
people will be probably infected from the transmitting cases. This can indicate how quickly the
disease will spread in the population. Generally speaking, when the number of immune cases reaches
a large percentage of the population (i.e., larger than 60%) the population will be shielded from
having more infected cases, and such percentage is called herd immunity threshold. The transmitting
cases pass the infection, and the immune system of the infected person will preserve an
immunological memory of the disease. This will enable the infected person to become immune
against that virus in the future, and thus, it will stop the disease from circulation. The coronavirus herd
immunity concept is mathematically modeled to develop the proposed optimization algorithm. The
algorithm relies on the concept of how to best protect the community against the disease by
converting the majority of the susceptible population which is not infected to become immuned. As a
result, even the remaining susceptible cases will not be infected because the immune population will
not be transmitting the disease anymore[2].

Table 1.0 SUMMARY OF THE SURVEY

S, CATEGORY/SUBCATE year METHODOLOGY USED KEY AUTHO Gaps

N GORY FINDINGS RS
1 Artificial Immune 2002 Artificial Immune Systems, Artificial L. N. de Hybridising
Systems: A Novel Negative Selection, Clonal neural Castro neural networks
Paradigm to Pattern Selection, Immune Network networks as and J. with artificial
Recognition pattern Timmis immune systems
recognition
paradigms.

2 Improved Pattern 2003 Clonal selection algorithm Clonal Jennifer Efficiency of the
Recognition with CLONALG for pattern selection A. White CLONAL
 Artificial Clonal recognition algorithm, and algorithm; the
Selection? Pattern Simon time taken to
recognition M. generate the
AIS Garrett memory cells is
high reduce the
training time
through the
implementation
of CLONCLAS

3 A Survey of artificial May machine learning, pattern Jieqiong suitable design

immune applications 2010 recognition and Zheng · methodology and
classification, computer Yunfang a set of
virus detection, anomaly Chen · appropriate
detection, Wei modeling
optimization,robotics Zhang techniques suited
to the nature of
the immune
processes chosen
for inspiration
4 An Artificial Immune 2012 Composed of memory cells classification, Grzegorz Apply the
System for Classification (ABs) working as dimensionality Dudek AISLFS to
with Local Feature recognition units reduction, regression
Selection local feature problems,
selection, especially to
supervised short-term
learning. electrical load
forecasting,
apply AISLFS to
unsupervised
learning, where
data clusters can
be formed based
on locally
selected features
3 Artificial Immune System 2015 Automated classification of Artificial Aytuğ Development of
Based Web Page web pages ,artificial immune immune Onan robust
Classification system based classification systems, classification
algorithms, namely Immunos-1, models
Immunos-1 and Immunos-99 Immunos-99,
algorithms are compared to Web
two standard machine document
learning techniques, namely classification
C4.5 decision tree classifier
and Naïve Bayes
classification.
6 IoMT amid COVID-19 2 Data mining in IoMT, IoMT COVID-19 zana Role of IoMT
pandemic: Application, Nov ecosystem,IoMT pandemic Hafizah, with respect to
architecture, technology, 2020 architectures mitigationIoM Mohd big data, machine
and security T Aman,W learning, and
applicationIo an blockchain.
MT Haslina,
architectureIo Hassan
MT
securityIoMT
technology
7 Coronavirus herd 2020 herd immunity optimizer Coronavirus Moham The random–
immunity optimizer (CHIO) COVID-19 med random–random
(CHIO) Herd Azmi , social distancing
immunity Zaid strategies in the
Optimization Abdi , herd immunity
Nature Iyad evolution
inspired revealed the best
Metaheuristic performance of
CHIO

3. RESEARCH GAP IDENTIFIED (RELATED TO OBJECTIVE)

1. Development of robust classification models using Data Classification and Pattern

Recognition to Artificial immune systems and Artificial herd immunity optimizer for
Coronavirus pandemic
 2. Efficiency of the CLONAL algorithm; the time taken to generate the memory cells is high
reduce the training time through the implementation of CLONCLAS

4. WORK PLAN

Phases Details WORK TO BE DONE DURATION (MONTHLY)

From To
Fix a Research paper and Reading broad problem 1 July 2020 31 July 2020
Phase-I area
(Artificial immune systems)

findings problems and reading sub area of 1 Aug 2020 31 Aug 2020
problem(Artificial herd immunity optimizer for
Coronavirus Pandemic)

Finding Gapes and scopes 1 Sep 2020 30 Sep 2020

Tools and technology to be used 1 Oct 2020 31 Oct 2020

Preparing Research Proposal 1 Nov 2020 30 Nov 2020

Phase-II Implement Artificial herd immunity optimizer for

Coronavirus pandemic using pattern Recognition
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