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Joint Less Pavements for Heavy-Duty Airport Application:

The Semi-Flexible Approach
Jean MayerI & Mikael Thau2

ABSTRACT
In Copenhagen Airport, extensive developments in the field of Semi-Flexible
pavement structures have demonstrated high potentials for very heavy loads
and static loads in particular. The experience of the Semi-Flexible Pavement
(SFP) concept dates back 25 years. However, during the late eighties, a new
generation of this special product emerged which brought about further
development towards high quality pavements exhibiting very high strength
and durability. Today, it is possible to design Semi-Flexible Pavements for
type E aircrafts in regard of aprons, stand gates, de-icing stands, start-up
pads, taxiways and other heavy loaded areas. More than 300,000m 2 has been
applied in Copenhagen Airport. Of this area, 165,000m 2 are constructed from
1988 through 2000 utilizing the enhanced second generation technique.
The general SFP concept consists of a joint less wearing course composed of
an open-graded asphalt concrete filled with a special slurry grout. The
underlying bituminous layers are designed for high strength and high load-
bearing capacity. The Semi-Flexible wearing course will not develop cracks
due to shrinkage, nor will it show any plastic flow.
The joint less SFP have provided Copenhagen Airport with a high
performing pavement with a minimum of maintenance. The better economy
and advantageous technology offered by the SFP have been desirable
compared to concrete slab pavements. The new enhanced Heavy-Duty Semi-
Flexible Pavement structures are expected to be the desired solution for
pavements designed for heavy loads.

1
Jean Mayer, Manager of Constructmon,CopenhagenAirport, Luflhavnsboulevarden6,
2770 Kastrup, Denmark;phone +45 32313231;j.mayer@cph.dk
2Mikael Thau, Director, LOTCON, Roegen Hedevej 148, 8472 Sporup, Denmark;
phone +45 26228146; mt@lotcon.dk

87

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 88 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS

Introduction
The first generation of the Semi-Flexible Pavement concept was developed
in the late sixties by the French construction company Jean Lefebvre and
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named "Salviacim" also known as Resin Modified Pavement (6). The

pavement concept was introduced in airports during the seventies and has
been used in a variety of airports throughout Europe and in the USA (1,3).
Including major civil airports such as Schiphol, Miami, Copenhagen and
several military airports.
The Semi-Flexible pavement (SFP) is best described as a semi-flexible,
semi-rigid pavement. The SFP is a tough and durable surfacing material that
combines the flexible characteristics of an asphalt concrete with the
abrasion, wear and deformation resistance of Portland cement concrete. The
SFP was originally developed as a fuel and abrasion resistant surfacing
material. However, very good performance was encountered when subjected
to heavy static loads and channelized slow moving traffic due to the rigid
part of the material.
The SFP consists of a joint less wearing course composed of an open-graded
asphalt concrete containing 25-30~ voids, which are filled with a special
slurry grout. The slurry grout is highly fluid and is able to penetrate the voids
in the open-graded asphalt concrete. The fast curing grout locks the asphalt
concrete in a fixed smmture, which is resistant to deformation, abrasion and
attack by fuel and chemicals. Under normal conditions, the slurry grout cures
to appropriate strength in 24 hours.
The typical uses of Semi-Flexible Pavements are found where superior
stability, resistance to excessive heat or resistance to spillage of fuels, oils
and other chemicals are needed. In airport application, this will typically be
aprons, stand gates, de-icing stands, start-up pads, tax iways and other heavy
loaded areas. The underlying structural layers are typically designed for high
strength and high load-bearing capacity.
In Copenhagen Airport, the experience of the Semi-Flexible Pavement
concept dates back 25 years when a total of more than 300,000m2 has been
applied since the introduction in the seventies (3). During the late eighties, a
new generation of the special slurry grout emerged which brought about
extensive developments of SFP structures demonstrating high potentials for
very heavy loads and static loads in particular. Today, it is possible to design
SFP's for type E aircrafts.

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Development of Second Generation Semi-Flexible Pavements

In the northern part of Europe, pavement distress caused by freeze/thaw
cycles represents an important factor, which needs to be addressed during the
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design of the pavement materials utilized. Especially the climate of

Denmark, which fluctuates around O~ during winter, has a significant
impact on the performance of the SFP.

Photo 1: CopenhagenAirport

For the SFP, these climatic conditions dictate high resistance to freeze/thaw
effects, which lead to requirements for a very low residual void content. The
first generation of SFP did not provide a pavement layer in which the
residual void content was low enough. Especially a high void section in the
bottom of the semi-flexible layer subjected to freeze/thaw effects could
cause pavement failure. Consequently, Densit and Phoenix Contractors
representing a Danish mortar producer and a Danish asphalt contractor,
respectively joint forces in 1987 to develop a second generation of the SFP
system. The objective was to develop a system, which with a high degree of
reliability could be produced and laid to an appropriate low content of
residual voids. The output of this effort was named Densiphalt (2,4).

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The second generation of SFP was optimized in two directions. First, the
open-graded asphalt concrete was optimized to get a higher fraction of the
total voids penetrable for the slurry grout. Second, a new type of High
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Performance (HP) slurry grout based on micro silica technology was

developed which exhibited superior properties to penetrate the void structure
of the open-graded asphalt concrete.
The open-graded asphalt contains 3.6-4.6% plain asphalt cement, some filler
and fiber to achieve a sufficient thickness of the bituminous mortar on the
coarse aggregates. The gradation should comply with:

Percent passing OAC Type 12 OAC Type 20

Sieve size:
25.4mm 100
19.0mm 100 95-100
12.5mm 95-100 < 30
8.0ram < 20 < 10
#4 <12 -
#200 4-5 4-5
Since the introduction of the second generation of SFP, the performance of
these pavements has been very successful. The effective penetration of the
I-IP slurry grout into the voids of the open-graded asphalt concrete and
subsequent very low content of residual void (approximately 1%) has shown
to eliminate any problems related to fi'eeze/thaw effects.

Photo 2 & 3: Structure within the Semi-Flexible wearing course (p. 2) and
surface appearance of the Semi-Flexible Pavement (p. 3)

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 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS 91

Use of Semi-Flexible Pavements

In Copenhagen airport two types of SFP structures are normally used. The
standard SFP consists of a 50ram Semi-Flexible wearing course (SF wearing
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course), a 60mm Bituminous Binder layer and a Bituminous Base layer

placed on the unbound base. The standard structure has proven effective for
taxiways and remote aprons.
The Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible Pavement (HDSFP) is designed for very
heavy static loads. The HDSFP structure consists of a 90-100ram SF wearing
course, a 80-100mm High Modulus Polymer Modified Asphalt Concrete
Binder layer and a High Modulus Bituminous Base layer placed on the
unbound base.
Since 1988, a total of 165,000m 2 has been applied in Copenhagen Airport
utilizing the new generation of SFP. 50,000m 2 of these are constructed in
HDSFP. The HDSFP is applied on aprons, stand gates, de-icing stands, start-
up pads and other heavy loaded areas for use of all types of aircrafts
including type E aircrafts.

The Way to Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible Pavements

In Copenhagen Airport, an alternative to the concrete slab pavement is
desirable. The joint less Semi-Flexible Pavement concept provides the
airport with several advantages over the conventional concrete slab
pavement.

9 Flexible when redesigning airport facilities. Activities which require

breaking up part of the pavement are highly facilitated by the ease and
speed of remedial works provided by the semi-flexible technology.

9 Fast curing of SFP is very important for the efficiency of the airport.
9 Elimination of joints is important due to environmental requirements and
restrictions concerning penetration of any spillage to the ground.

9 Friction can be improved by proper treatment of the new SFP surface.

9 Better economy (The price of SFP compared to a 300ram concrete slab
pavement is 50% for the standard SFP and 60% for the HDSFP).

In pursuing alternatives to concrete slab pavement, the airport constructed

four new stand gates using the standard SFP structure in 1999. The stand
gates were designed for a traffic counting 50 type C aircrafts a week and
were equipped with the modem electronic docking system to direct the
aircrafts to the stand gate.

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The standard SFP structure has a history of being a very good performer
with regard to aprons for type C aircrafts. However, the introduction of the
SFP structure at stand gates equipped with modem electronic docking
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systems to direct the aircrafts precisely to the boarding bridges went

unsuccessful. Severe deformation showed up under the main gears of the
aircrafts and after 3 months in service, the pavement had to be repaired.
The distress was subject to an investigation to define the cause. The
investigation concluded that the deformation could be identified in the
bituminous layers underneath the SF wearing course. The design and
material properties of the bituminous mixtures conformed to the
specification. However, it was the first time the SFP structure was used in
connection with boarding bridges and the very precise placing of the
aircrafts at the exact same spot. The static loads of aircrafts placed at the
same spot will add small contributions of deformation to that same spot and
eventually develop significant deformation. On the other hand, at a remote
apron these small contributions of deformation will not add up, but will
develop a general pattern of small deformations within the affected area (7).
A proposal was prepared still assuming utilization of the SFP concept (8). To
strengthen the system, the resistance to deformation within the bituminous
layers should be enhanced and the vertical stress on the bituminous layers
should be decreased. To reduce the vertical stress on top of the bituminous
layers, the advantage of the very high load spreading properties provided by
the SF wearing course was taken into account.

Table 1: Stiffness of Densiphait in MPa

Temperature
Frequency 0~ 200(2 40~
0.1 Hz 15,700 5,300 1,300
1.0Hz 19,900 8,200 2,500
4.9 Hz 22,800 10,800 4,000
9.8Hz 23,900 12,100 4,800
19.6Hz 25,400 13,300 5,800

Table I: The table indicates a dependency of the semi-flexible material in

regard of temperature and loading time. The dependency is less
than normally anticipated for asphalt mixture, which may be a
logic consequence of the semi-flexible nature of the material.

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 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS 93

A linear elastic analysis was performed to investigate how the vertical stress
at the top of the bituminous layers depended on the thickness of wearing
course layer. This vertical stress was then compared to expected optimum
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strength of high performing polymer modified asphalt concrete,

To try out the resistance to deformation when subjected to a static load, a
trial pavement was constructed and tested simulating full-scale condition (5).
The trial pavement shown in figure 1 was loaded in a tent at elevated
temperatures for 104 days. The result of the trial is shown in table 2.

Figure 1: Full-scale trial to test the response o f the Heavy-Duty Semi-

Flexible Pavement when subject to static loads comparable to
large aircrafts. Note that the SF wearing course thickness is
l l Omm and not 90ram as designed. This was caused by a mistake
during construction. It was decided not to reconstruct the trial
pavement. Instead the loading was increased to 284 kN to obtain
the target stress on the bituminous layer.

During the trial, the pavement temperature was controlled by heating

devices, and the actual temperature in several depths of the pavement was
monitored continuously. The pavement temperature was increased in several
steps to the maximum level experienced in Denmark. The temperatures

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 94 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS

achieved were compared with actual annual variations in pavement

temperatures in Denmark. It was possible to transform the trial period of 104
days in the tent to an equivalent time period measured in average annual
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days in the field. Assuming a daily effective loading time at the stand gate of
315 minutes, the transformation gave an equivalent time period of 1270
average annual days.

Table 2 Results of Full-Scale Trial

Deformation Initial Running Total

Semi-Flexible wearing course 0.0ram 0.0ram 0.0ram

High Modulus SBS mod. Asph. C. 1.5mm 2.5mm 4.0ram

Conventional Asphalt Concrete 0.5mm 2.0mm 2.5mm

Unbound layers and sub-grade 1.5ram 0.0ram 1.Smm

Total pavement 3.5ram 4.5mm 8.0mm

Table 2: Development of deformation within individual layers. The initial

deformation takes place quickly after the loading has been
applied The running deformation represents the ongoing
deformation throughout the trial.

The Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible Pavement Design

The results achieved during the full-scale trial gave confidence that the SFP
concept could be sufficiently enhanced to a strength necessary to
accommodate the heavy static loads at stand gates for type C and type E
aircrafts.
For HDSFP it was decided to use SF wearing course thickness of 90ram for
type C aircrafts and 100ram for type E aircrafts respectively to achieve an
acceptable vertical stress level on the top of the underlying bituminous layer.
This assuming appropriate strength and resistance to deformation exhibited
by the underlying Bituminous Binder layer.
The performance of the Bituminous Binder layer is considered to be critical
for overall pavement performance. Due to the visco-elastic nature of the
underlying bituminous layers, some permanent deformations will be
expected to add up when subject to repeated static loads placed at the exact

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 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS 95

same spot. However, if the rate of deformation could be reduced to an

acceptable low level, this disadvantage could be balanced by the advantages
provided by the Semi-Flexible Pavement. The results of the full-scale trial
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indicates that re-profiling of the surface may be necessary every eight to ten
years and will involve only the limited area affected by the main gears of the
aircrafts. The necessary work can be conducted within 24 hours and given
one to two days to cure the HP slurry grout, the total time for closing the
area is two to three days. An example of a HDSFP structure for type E
aircrafts is shown below.

Aircraft Type E
Semi-Flexible Wearing Course 100mm
High Modulus SBS Modified Asphalt Concrete1 90mm
High Modulus Asphalt Concrete2 60mm
Reclaimed Crushed Concrete3 250mm
Sub-base 250mm
Sub-grade assumed to exhibit CBR minimum 7%.
1. HighModulusSBS ModifiedAsphaltConcrete is designedwith 100%crushed granite
aggregate and hard asphaltcementmodifiedwith highcontent(>6%)of SBS polymer.
2. HighModulusAsphaltConcreteis designedwithhard asphaltcement.
3. Crushedgranularbase can be usedas alternativeto reclaimedcrushedconcrete.

Construction with Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible Pavements

Since the introduction of Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible pavement in 1999, a
total of 50,000m2 has been applied for heavy loaded areas for the use of all
types of aircrafts including type E aircrafts. The performance of these special
pavements has so far been very successful.

The four stand gates constructed as standard SFP structure mentioned above
were partly reconstructed during 1999 as HDSFP, The part of the area,
which received the main loading was milled to a depth of 170mm and
replaced with 80ram High Modulus SBS Modified Asphalt Concrete
developed to resist extreme static loads. On the surface, 90ram of Densiphalt
was applied (a semi-flexible material). The performance of the replaced
section has been excellent.

The promising results achieved from the full-scale trial gave confidence in
the HDSFP structure, and the pavement concept was chosen to be used in
new construction planned for the year 2000. The construction represented a

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 96 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS

total area o f 92,000rn 2 of SFP including de-icing stands, remote aprons, start-
up pads and taxiways for the use of all types of aircrafts including type E
aircrafts. Of this area, approximately 45,000m were constructed as HDSFP.
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Especially, the HDSFP structure is feasible for the use at de-icing stands due
to the impermeable pavement which facilitates safe catch and re-use of de-
icing chemicals. The area was taken into service in October 2000 and until
now the performance has been excellent.

Construction Methods and Climatic Conditions

The open-graded asphalt concrete determines the thickness of the semi-
flexible layer. The open-graded mixture is placed with standard asphalt
concrete paving equipment. The compaction should be very light only
setting the material. For thick layers above 60ram, the open-graded asphalt
should be laid in two lifts (No tack coat between the two layers). Care should
be taken to place the mix with a good surface regularity because
irregularities in the open-graded asphalt concrete will show up as spots in the
final surface giving an unpleasant appearance. For the same reason,
handwork should be minimized.

Photo 4: Installation of High Performance slurry grout, d continues high

shear mixer deliver the grout through the tube as shown.

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 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS 97

The HP slurry grout can be mixed in a concrete batch plant or a small

portable mixer. The use of a continuous high shear mixer is highly
recommended. After the asphalt mixture has cooled, the HP slurry grout is
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poured onto the open-graded asphalt material and squeegeed over the surface
(Photo 4). The process continues until all voids are filled with grout.
The climatic condition is very important for the installation of the HP slurry
grout. The grout has a very low water content and in case of significant
evaporation in hot and windy conditions, the workability of the grout may be
reduced risking insufficient penetration into the open-graded asphalt
concrete and formation of pinholes. During hot days, the installation of the
grout should be done at night. The grout should not be installed at
temperatures below 5~

Finished SFP - Treatment of Finished Surface

In Copenhagen Airport, the finished surface of SFP will typically get a
treatment to improve friction. Shot blasting has shown to be an appropriate
procedure to achieve the desired surface texture. A qualified contractor may
carry out shot blasting after the surface has been left to cure for a minimum
of 24 hours (preferably 72 hours).

QC/QA
Quality control of the open-graded asphalt mixture contains asphalt content,
gradation and voids. The voids in the laid open-graded asphalt concrete shall
be 25-30%. If the void content is too low, it will not be possible to
completely fill the void structure and the final SFP will have insufficient
strength and durability. If the percentage of voids is excessive, the material
may not have enough flexibility. The void content can be measured on cores,
or the quality control can be managed during the installation of the grout.
During the installation of the HP slurry grout, the consumption of powder for
the grout will give an effective indication of the voids in the open-graded
asphalt concrete. In addition, the water/powder ratio should be controlled by
viscosity tests at the site. If necessary, cores can be cut to check for
appropriate filling of the open-graded asphalt concrete and to test the
strength either by compressive strength or by indirect tensile strength.
The final surface should be checked for pinholes. Pinholes some times
appear in the SFP surface. Generally, pinholes are not wanted. However, if
pinholes appear as a surface phenomenon (< 5mm depth) they will not hurt
the pavement, and the surface will normally be accepted if the area involved
represents less than 5-10% of the total area.

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 98 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS

Further Developments
With the purpose to eliminate any risk of plastic deformation in the
bituminous layers of the pavement structure, an investigation has been
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initiated to study the possibility to exchange the bituminous layers under the
SF wearing course with a Semi-Flexible base layer (9).
In the structural layers, the resistance to fatigue has to be addressed. The
fatigue properties of the semi-flexible material Densiphalt have been tested
in a four-point beam bending test in accordance with the Dutch Road and
Hydraulic Engineering Division of Rijkswaterstaat doc. W-DWW-94530.

The result of the laboratory test gave the following fatigue response at 20~

Log Nf = -4,6665 * log ei + 14,962 (R2 = 0,9665)

Nf : Number of load repetitions to reduce the initial stiffness
of the material to half of its initial stiffness

~i : Initial strain

To get an idea of the shift factor to full-scale use, it was decided to run tests
in a full-scale laboratory wheel tracking machine located at the National
Danish Road Institute.

Figure2: The Danish Road Institute's Full-Scale Wheel Tracking

Machine.

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 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS 99

The specimen under test is prepared as a slab and is confined in a steel

frame. For the fatigue experiment, it was necessary to introduce a rubber
base to facilitate the deflections of the slab. When the wheel is running over
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the slab, strain gauges placed in the bottom of the slab measure the
horizontal strain of the slab.
The results from the full-scale test justified a shift factor of 3. Currently,
Copenhagen Airport plans to put down a test section within the 2001
construction program to try out the concept in the field.

Conclusion
The Semi-Flexible Pavement (SFP) is a tough and durable surfacing material
that combines the flexible characteristics of an asphalt concrete with the
abrasion, wear and deformation resistance of Portland cement concrete. The
experience of the SFP concept in Copenhagen Airport dates back 25 years.
Several significant improvements have been added to the original concept
and a very high performance has been achieved. Today, it is possible to
design Semi-Flexible Pavements for all types of aircrafts including type E
aircrafts. Since the 1970s, a total of more than 300,000m 2 has been applied.
Of this area, 165,000m 2 are constructed from 1988 through 2000 utilizing the
enhanced second generation SFP technique.
In the pursue for alternatives to concrete slab pavement, the airport
introduced the Heavy-Duty Semi-Flexible Pavement (HDSFP) which could
be used on heavy loaded areas and especially areas subject to the repeated
static loads present at stand gates equipped with electronic docking systems.
The HDSFP structure utilizes thick Semi-Flexible wearing courses
representing 90mm for type C aircrafts and 100mm for type E aircrafts
respectively. The underlying bituminous layers are comprised of High
Modulus Polymer Modified Asphalt Concrete Binder layer and a High
Modulus Bituminous Base layer. Today, 50,000m ~ of HDSFP have been put
down in Copenhagen Airport.
A detailed QC/QA program has been developed and implemented. The key
parameter to correct the quality of SFP is the achievement of correct voids in
the final open-graded asphalt layer and effective installation of the slurry
grout.
The HDSFP design strives to minimize the total layer thickness of the
bituminous binder and base layers to minimize the risk of deformations in
these layers. However, some permanent deformations will be expected to
add up when subject to the repeated static loads present at stand gates

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 I00 ADVANCINGAIRFIELDPAVEMENTS

equipped with electronic docking systems. If necessary re-profiling of the

semi-flexible surface will be acceptable because the area involved is limited
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to the area affected by the main gears of the aircrafts, and the remedy work
can be conducted very efficiently within a total time of two to three days
when the area has to be closed.
The performance of the Semi-Flexible Pavement concept has proven successful
for more than a decade, and the new HDSFP structures are expected to be the
desired solution for pavements designed for heavy loads. Better economy with
possible savings up to 50%, the ease of construction and the elimination of
reflection joints have especially been desirable compared to typical concrete
slab pavements. Several uses are anticipated as potential applications for the
SFP concept. Today, the airport has applied standard SFP and HDSFP at aprons,
stand gates, de-icing stands, start-up pad, taxiways and other heavy loaded
areas. For the future SFP construction of touch-down areas on runways is under
consideration, and further enhancement of the concept to eliminate any risk of
plastic deformation is currently investigated.

References

1) Ahlfich R.C. and Anderton G.L., Proceedings of Airport Pavement

Innovation, Theory to Practice (1993) p181.
2) Borgmarm J. and Andersen L., Densiphalt Subjected to Static Loads,
Densit/Phoenix joint report ( 199 I).
3) Densit A/S, Densiphalt Reference List - Airports (2000).
4) Densit A/S, What is Densiphalt, Densit Info.
5) M61nitz S. and Thau M., Full-Scale Trial of Semi-Flexible Pavement for
Use at Areas Subjected to Heavy Static loads, Moe & Broedsgaard /
COW1 joint report (2000).
6) Roffe J.C., Salviacim- Introducing the Pavement (1989).
7) Thau M., Stand gate D1 & 1)2: Deformations- Damage Analyze and
Remedy Measure, COWl report (1999).
8) Thau M., Stand gate D1 & D2: Proposal of Semi-Flexible Pavement,
COW1 report (1999).
9) Thau M., Full-Scale Test of Densiphalt for Use as Semi-Flexible Base
Layer, COW1 report (2000).

Advancing Airfield Pavements