Module: Lie Detection Techniques (3/1)

CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Objectives:
 Identify the different personalities develop lie detection;

 Know the personalities and the contributions on Polygraph.

A. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIO-SPHYMOGRAPH

1. Cesare Lombroso (1895) an

Italian criminologist who used the
“hydrosphymograph” in the
experiment he had conducted on
actual criminal suspects whose
truthfulness or deception he sought to
determine on the basis on the
presence or absence of blood
pressurepulse changes when the
suspects were questioned about the
offense under
investigation. This instrument however, is generally intended for medical
purposes not in the process of detecting lies or deception or the truthfulness
of the subject person. But later he was accorded the distinction of being the
first person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.
2. Angelo Mosso (1895) an Italian Physiologist who was influenced by
Lombroso, pursued his studies of emotion and fear and its influence on the
heart and respiration with an instrument for measuring blood pressure and
pulse change called “plethysmograph’ invented by Francis Franke, which
reveals periodic undulations in blood pressure caused by respiration cycle.
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3. William Moulton Marston (1915) an American Scientist who used an

ordinary

“Sphygmomanometer” by means of which he obtained periodic,

discontinuous blood pressure reading during the course of a test. He also
recorded the respiration and noted the time the subjects’ verbal responses.
He also experimented with the galvanometer to record skin resistance
changes and gripping devices to record tension. He uses the word association
test. He is considered the father of modern polygraphy.

4. John A. Larson (1921) an American Psychologist who constructed an

instrument capable on continuously recording all the three phenomena –
blood pressure, pulse and respiration – during the entire period of the test.
The instrument designed by Larson not only have recording pen for
cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and galvanograph but also it has the
muscular movement pen for arms and thighs.

5. Leonarde A. Keeler (1926) is an American Psychologist who

constructed a more satisfactory instrument than the one used by Larson. Later
on, Keeler made additional changes in the instrument, and at the time of his
death in 1949 the
“Keeler Polygraph” included, in addition to units for recordings blood
pressurepulse and respiration changes, a galvanometer for recording what is
known as the Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) or electrodermal responses. He
also introduced the card test and the peak of tension test.
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B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH

1. Vittorio Benussi (1914) is an Italian Psychologist who published an
account of his research on respiration changes as symptoms of deception. In
test cases, he measured recorded respiratory tracings and found that if the
length on inspiration were divided by the length of expiration the ratio was
greater before telling the truth than afterwards and greater after lying than
before lying. In summary, he
detected deception with a
pneumograph that graphically
measures the inhalation and
exhalation. He also
demonstrated the changes in
respiration-expiation ratio during
deception.

2. Harold E. Burtt (1918) improvised and conformingly utilized the

techniques of Benussi. Accordingly, he considered this method ( the
measuring of the recorded respiratory tracing) to be loss diagnostic value than
blood pressure techniques. He then determines that respiratory changes were
indications of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure
were of greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.

C. DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANOGRAPH

1. Luigi Galvani (1791) is an Italian

physiologist who was accorded the
distinction for developing the galvanic skin
reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electrical bodily resistance in terms
of ohms, the lowest current ever recorded.
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2. Sticker (1879) is responsible in discovering the amazing possibility of

Electrodermal response in discovering emotions. He claimed that a person
has
no control as to their response. He is the inventor of the first lie detector using
Electrodermal responses.
3. S. Veraguth (1907) is the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic
skin reflex.” He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity
of sweat glands.

D. DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE

1. Leonarde A. Keeler (1942) developed the “relevant-irrelevant tests.”
The theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and
innocent shows no reactions.

2. John E. Reid (1945) an American Lawyer/Polygraphist who developed

the

“reviewed control question” consisting of a known lie incorporated into

relevant-irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the innocent
subject, to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor and
to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered
the “guilt complex test” administered to the overly responsive subject.

3. Cleve Backster (1960) conceived the psychological sit theory that forms
the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant
monitoring of the subject’s reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue.
This is known as the Backster Zone Comparison Test.
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E. EARLY PUBLICATIONS ON POLYGRAPH AND POLYGRAPHY

1. Daniel Defoe (1730) wrote an essay in 1730 suggesting that taking the
pulse is practical and more humane method of identifying a liar rather than
subjecting the subject to various mechanical attachments.

2. Max Wertheimer (1904) published a paper with Julius Klein entitled

Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik with subtitle “Ideas about
experimental methods for the purpose of revealing the involvement of a
person in a criminal act.

3. Gesta Romanorum (1906) published his book in 1906 which stated that
during the Middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking
her pulse.

4. James Mackenzie (1906) a famous heart specialist who said polygraph

exists as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception. He first
described the instrument in an article entitled “The Ink Polygraph” which
appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.

5. Vittorio Benussi (1913) presented a paper before the second meeting

of the Italian Society for Psychology in Rome on the subject of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

6. Richard O. Archer (1953) is the first polygraphist to record

simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.

7. Richard I. Golden (1969) presented a paper during the Annual Seminar

of American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas regarding his
experiments using existing control question twice. The first time truthfully
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and the second time will lie, for the purpose or requiring additional psycho-
physiological data from the examinee by comparing his subjective truthful
answer with a known lie to the same question.
8. Fred E. Inbau (1942). Wrote a book Lie Detection and Criminal
Interrogation in 1942 that explained the peak of tension test in describing the
methodology for the administration of a guilty knowledge test when the subject
has not been informed of the essential details of the case such as the object
stolen, the amount of money missing, or the implement used in the
commission of the crime.

F. OTHER PIONEERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY

1. Anton Mesmer (1778) is the first one to introduce hypnotism as a
method of detecting deception.

2. Francis Galton (1879) developed the much acclaimed psychological

test known as the Word Association Test (WAT) whereby the patient is
presented with group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the
patient to utter his first thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav
Jung later developed the work and experiment of Galton.

3. Wilhelm Wundt (1879). He founded the first physiological laboratory

in

Leipig, Germany in 1879 that immediately attracted students all over the world

4. Fere (1888) is a French Scientist who discovered the electro-cement

response in 1888 that causes the increase in the action of the heart and
vital energy with human emotions. He asserted that human body has the
ability to generate or store, discharge high voltage of static electricity.
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5. Charles E. Cady (19th Century) recommended the use of chloroform

to solve Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters.
Based from his 3-year experience as army surgeon, he had observed rebel
officers divulge important information while they were partly under the
influence of choloform.

6. Arthur McDonald (1908) is the acquaintance of Cesare Lombroso who

appeared before the US congressional hearing in 1908 proposing the
creation of a federal laboratory to study criminals and suggested the use
of an apparatus containing all of the elements of a modern polygraph.

7. Hugo Munterberg (1908). A German-Ameican psychologist and

philosopher who introduced the forensic application of WAT in lie
detection in US and further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by
recording physiological changes.

8. Otto Lowenstein (1920) is a German psychiatrist who introduced an

apparatus that has two pneumographs, which could record simultaneously
the movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all the three
dimension: this instrument is huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in
working order, but it was considered as true polygraph.

9. C.W. Darrow (1930). He devised a research on photo polygraph,

(However, it did not last long) which records several responses
simultaneously to include the following:
a. Electrodermal response (skin)

b. Blood Pressure

c. Heart beat rate

d. Time between verbal stimuli and verbal response

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e. Signal marks

f. Involuntary tremors of one hand

g. Breathing amplitude and frequency

h. Voluntary movement of the hand

10. Akamatsu, Uchida & Togawa (1933) are Japanese

psychologists who suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for
the detection of deception because the conductance level was found to
decrease during emotional changes.

11. Christian Ruckmick (1936) repudiated the term

psychogalvanic skin reflex (GSR) because such reaction is not a reflex
accordingly. He explained that the psychological nature of the so-called
psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood, thus he proposed the
term electrodermal response.

12. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns (1951). They are Lie Detector
Specialists from Michigan City in USA sometime in 1951. They invented an
Electronic Psychometer using electrodermal responses as bases for lie
detection. They are the ones who have proven that results of lie detection
test is 95% accurate but with 5% margin of error.

13. Allen Bell (1972) is an American inventor who developed a

device called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument
detects slight trembling in the voice, which may be interpreted to determine
if person is telling the truth.
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14. Alexander R. Luria (20th Century) is a Russian psychologist who

modified the WAT that was introduced by Francis Galton so that it is
suitable in the Russian setting.

15. Galilei Galileo devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium,” an

instrument used to measure heartbeat frequency of the subject under lie
detection test.

16. D’ Arsonval is a French Scientist who declared that electricity is

generated by the body. He named it as External Friction. He asserted that
sweat glands which the body at times store the electricity and other times,
discharge them.

17. Walter G. Summers. He developed the pathometer which

measured apparent change in skin resistance to electricity. He also used
control questions which he called as emotional standards, carefully selected
from the subject’s life in an attempt to evoke “intense psychogalvanic
reactions” to surprise, anger, shame, or anxiety…” such as “ Are you living
with your wife?” or “Were you ever arrested?”

18. E.P. Coffey. He is an FBI special agent who observed and

conducted cases with Keeler and reported on the test methods used to solve
a number of cases some of which involves banks. He was also regarded as
the first FBI polygraphist and probably the first examiner in the US Federal
Government. He established the first Federal polygraph research program.

The first FBI use of polygraph in espionage was in 1938. Leon Turrou, an
FBI agent was fired by FBI director Edgar Hoover for spoiling the case and
letting too many German agents escape. Turrou subsequently wrote a book
entitled Nazi Spies in America in which Hoover was never mentioned.
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19. Thomas Hayes Jaycox. Conducted a “name test” which he

described as a group of names of men who might have committed the crime
to a suspect who
gave little or no apparent response except to one name at which his blood
pressure and respiration become abnormal.

20. Clarence D. Lee. He designed in 1938 the Berkeley

Psychograph consisting of a chart drive or recording unit, a cardiograph or
respiration unit, a cardiograph or pulse blood pressure unit and a stimulus
signal unit

21. Ronald E. Decker. He is the head of the Army Polygraph

School (APS) who introduced the modification of the Reid Polygraph
Technique and called the General Question Test (MGQT).

22. Paul K. Minor. The Chief Polygraph Examiner of the FBI who
modified in 1980 the R-1 technique to include control questions of measured
relevance to the target issue but not designed to cause an arousal; this latest
modification of the R-1 technique is known as the Modified Relevant
Irrelevant (MRI) Technique.

23. James Allan Matte. He developed the Polygraph Quadri-Zone

Comparison Technique (renamed in January 1995 as Quadri-Track Zone
Comparison Technique (QTZCT).
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TOPICS VIDEO LINKS

( MAJOR COMPONENTS OF https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5rJm4jOcbc
POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENT)

Pioneers in the History of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlsuPiwiZXA

Polygraphy

POLYGRAPHY - PART 1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QsVU8OrDpZQ

References:
King - eo , Chester (2006). Introduction to Specific Lie Detection . Unpublished notes from
the University of the Cordilleras: Baguio City

http://www.truthverifier.com.htm l
http://wwwpolytest.org/polyfaq.htm