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Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 24, 67-73.
Quality and durability of stone for construction
lan Sims
Messrs Sandberg, 40 Grosvenor Gardens, London SWlW 0LB, UK
Abstract
The use of natural stone materials in construction is now
experiencing a marked revival particularly for external clad-
dings. In contrast with most other construction materials,
there are few British Standard tests for natural stone or
Standard specifications defining the minimum quality
requirements for various purposes. The Code of Practice for
cladding is inadequate in these respects.
The range of test methods provided by ASTM and the
complementary series of Standard specifications covering the
major stone families are summarized but none of these
directly address durability. Selected quality assessment pro-
cedures from German, Italian and other European practices
and a number of different approaches to the evaluation of
durability of stone are critically reviewed. The crucial import-
ance of representative samples in such evaluations is recog-
nized but the aspects of source selection and sampling are not
discussed in detail.
Introduction
There has been a major revival in the use of many
types of natural stone materials from a diversity of
sources around the world, particularly as external clad-
dings to steel or concrete framed structures. In Lon-
don, for example, stone is the main cladding material
being used for the large and prestigious developments
at Broadgate in the City of London and for Canary
Wharf in the Docklands.
The modern use of stone, however, frequently
utilizes cladding sheets larger and thinner than ever
before, sometimes with special types of finish, such as
the flame-texturing of granite. Also, in contrast to the
traditional stone supply industry, a great range of
'exotic' rock types is now available for use from
sources worldwide for many of which there are no
records of performance in U K environmental con-
ditions. These new circumstances impose new require-
ments upon the stone supplier and stone user to assure
the quality and durability of the materials. Some re-
cent examples, both in Europe and in North America
have highlighted the difficulties which can occur when
the properties of the stone cladding materials have not
been adequately assessed in advance.
Whenever practicable the quarry sources should be
investigated as an initial part of any stone assessment.
0481-2085/91 $03.50 © 1991 The Geological Society
A suitable laboratory testing programme must then be
devised for an adequate number of representative
stone samples making due allowances for the aniso-
tropy of stone and the intended type of finish and
including the building and testing of full-scale mock-
up panels for high-rise buildings and new or unusual
cladding fixing systems. It is essential that stone panels
are also inspected after installation and it may also be
advisable to test in situ.
British Standards for stone
Codes of Practice
A number of British Standard Codes of Practice in-
clude some coverage of the uses of natural stone (see
Table 1), although these contain little guidance of any
value in respect of the quality or properties of the
stone materials themselves. Only BS 8298:1989 for
cladding (superseding CP 298:1972) will be further
considered in this paper.
BS 8298:1989 includes recommendations for the
design, installation and maintenance of mechanically
fixed stone cladding. The Code of Practice is unable to
make reference to other British Standards for tests or
quality specifications (see later) and does not itself
include any test methods. In these circumstances the
following generalized recommendations in respect of
stone quality are unhelpful and could lead to conflict-
ing interpretations:
'The stone to be used should not normally be affec-
ted by frost. Alternatively suitable measures should
be taken to provide reasonable protection. With cer-
tain stones, including the softer limestones, the use
of thin open joint construction is not recommended.
With these stones, the use of lead flashings on
cornice, string or other projecting courses is recom-
mended in order to avoid saturation on horizonal
surfaces and subsequent frost damage. It is essential
that the stone selected is sound, durable and of pro-
ven suitability for relatively thin cladding on exter-
nal faces. Care should be taken to ensure as far as
possible freedom from vents, cracks, large fissures,
sand and clay holes and other defects likely to affect
durability.'
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68 I. SIMS

TABLE 1. British Standards f o r stone Other British Standards

BS 435:1975
BS 680 : Part 2 : 1971
* BS 743 : 1970
BS 5390:1976 (1984)
* BS 5534:Part 1 : 1978
(1985)
BS 5534 : Part 2 : 1986
BS 5628 : Part 1 : 1978
BS 5628 : Part 2 : 1985
BS 5642 : Part 1 : 1978
BS 5642 : Part 2 : 1983
BS 6100 : Section 5.2 : 1984
* BS 8000:Part 6
(in preparation)
* BS 8000 : Section I 1.2
(in preparation)
* BS 8298" 1989
* Includes stone amongst other materials.
Specification for dressed natu-
ral stone kerbs, channels,
quadrants and setts.
Specification for roofing slates.
Specification for materials for
damp-proof courses.
Code of Practice for stone
masonry.
Slating and tiling
Code of Practice for
use of masonry
(Specifications for) sills and
copings.
Glossary of building and civil
engineering terms: stone.
Workmanship on building
sites, Code of Practice for
roof, slate, tile covering and
cladding.
Workmanship on building
sites, Code of Practice for wall
and floor tiling, natural stone.
Design and installation of
natural stone cladding and
lining.
In contrast to m o s t other m a j o r construction materials
such as concrete, steel or asphalt, there are few British
S t a n d a r d tests for natural stone n o r S t a n d a r d specifi-
cations defining the m i n i m u m quality requirements for
various purposes (see Table 1). Those which do exist
are concerned with the m o r e traditional uses of stone,
such as for kerbs and setts (BS 435), slate roofing (BS
680) or sills and copings (BS 5642), rather than with
cladding, although t o d a y this is the p r e d o m i n a n t appli-
cation for natural stone.
A s u m m a r y of the testable properties specified or
r e c o m m e n d e d for stone in British Standards is given in
Table 2. A useful glossary o f terms for stone is given
in BS 6100:1984, Section 5.2.
Other authoritative guidance and standards
UK Buildings Research Establishment
In the U K , the B R E has long been a source o f expert
guidance on the use and properties o f stone; the excel-
lent report by Schaffer (1932, reprinted 1985) remains

TABLE 2. B S stone specifications - quality and test requirements

BS Specification General Reference to stone properties

for stone materials quality (Test method given only where shown in bold print)

BS 435
Dressed natural stone
kerbs, channels,
quadrants and setts
BS 680 Water absorption
Roofing slates Wetting and drying
Sulphuric acid immersion
BS 743t Wetting and drying test for slate Refers for methods
Materials for Sulphuric acid immersion test for slate, to BS now superseded
damp-proof courses by BS 5642

BS 5390 Crushing strength; wet and dry density; freeze-thaw; crystallization; porosity;
CP for stone masonry saturation coefficient; microporosity (occasionally, petrography and chemical
analysis of water extracts for 'harmful impurities').
BS 5534 As for BS 680. Also refers for methods to BS 680.
Slating and tiling
BS 56425' Wetting and drying for slate.
Sills and copings Suiphuric acid immersion for slate.
BS 8298
Design and installation
of natural stone
cladding and lining

* Indicates a content of general quality requirements.

t Includes stone amongst other materials.
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STONE QUALITY AND DURABILITY 69

TABLE 3. Summary of tests needed for different building stones (from Ross & Butlin 1989)

Type of Crystallization Saturation Acid Wet/ Water

stone End use test coefficient immersion Porosity dry absorption
Limestone General 5" * -- * --
Sandstone General * * * * --
Sandstone Severe exposure ~- -- t -- -- v

Slate Roofing -- -- * -- t t
Slate Copings -- -- t -- t
Slate Damp course -- -- t -- t

t These tests should always be carried out for the stone in question.
* These tests may be required for certain applications of the stone.
Note. The test conditions may vary for different stones (see Ross & Butlin 1989).

unsurpassed as a study of stone weathering. More
recently the BRE Digest 269 (1983) on stone selection
and the Report by Ross & Butlin (1989) on durability
tests have helped to overcome the paucity of British
Standards for stone materials.
Ross & Butlin describe a number of test methods
for stone and recommend the tests which are appropri-
ate for three types: limestone, sandstone and slate (see
Table 3). In some cases the tests are only considered
necessary for certain applications. These limited recom-
mendations provide a useful preliminary guide but
do not help with the evaluation of the many granite,
marble or other varieties of stone which are increas-
ingly being used.
The BRE has also published comprehensive reviews
of the limestone, magnesian limestone and sandstone
building stones from existing (and some defunct) U K
sources (Leary 1983, 1986; Hart 1988) as well as a
review of the building limestones of France (Honey-
borne 1982). These books illustrate the application of
the assessment techniques later recommended by Ross
& Butlin (1989) and are an invaluable source of refer-
ence data.
American Standards
In the USA, national standards are published by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). A
range of test methods for stone is provided by ASTM
together with a complementary series of Standard spe-
cifications covering the major building stone 'families'
(slate, marble, limestone, granite and sandstone).
These standards are used extensively on an inter-
national basis. The tests include index properties, such
as bulk specific gravity and water absorption, but
others, such as flexural strength or abrasion resistance
might be useful in design. The ASTM stone test series
does not include any procedures to assist in the direct
assessment of durability, apart from those given for
roofing slates and the aspect of abrasive wear. The
testable properties required by each of the ASTM
stone specifications are shown in Table 4.
Gere (1988) considers that water absorption (ASTM
C97) and modulus of rupture (ASTM C99) are the
two most important physical properties to be estab-
lished in a stone testing programme. In all types of
flexure testing the anistropy of stone and the orien-
tation of 'rift' are important factors. In addition the
type of finish can alter the inherent stone properties;
for example, flame texturing of granite can reduce the
flexural strength by up to 35% (Gere 1988) as well as
reducing the weathering durability of the exposed
stone surface. McCabe (1987) considers that the
modulus of rupture (ASTM C99) and flexural strength
(ASTM C880) tests are performed on specimens which
are too small and use loading conditions which are
inconsistent with actual wind loading: he recommends
the larger-scale testing of whole panels.
European Standards
The German national standards for stone are given
in D I N 52 and include a procedure for freeze-thaw
testing. The Italian marble producers (Marmi Italiani)
have also published some brief details of test methods,
mainly based on research carried out over many years
at the University of Pisa. There are some tests for
stone in Belgian and French national standards. The
practices for appraising limestone for building in
France have been reviewed by Mamillan (1982) and
are summarized in Table 5.
Some evaluation procedures for stone
durability
Petrographical examination
Macroscopical inspection of stone has long been a
principal means of assessing the 'quality' of stone mat-
erials and of individual stone units during machining.
The basic quality requirements described in Code of
Practice BS 8298 as 'freedom from vents, cracks, large
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70 I. S I M S

TABLE 4. A S T M stone specifications and test requirements

ASTM test methods

ASTM C120 C121 C217
specification C97 C99 Flexure Water C 170 Weather C241 C880
for Absorption & Modulus of testing absorption Compressive resistance Abrasion Flexural
building stone specificgravity rupture of slate of slate strength of slate resistance strength

C406
Roofing slate
C503 *
Marble (exterior)
C568 *
Limestone
C615 *
Granite
C616 *
Sandstone
C629
Slate

TABLE 5. French approach to testing limestones for various building locations (after Mamillan 1982)

Type of test
Frost Frost
resistance resistance
Type of Coefficient of (freeze-thaw (coeff. of Wear
location Porosity capillarity cycles) absorption) resistance

a. Elevation
b. Projection
String course
cornice
c. Footing
basement
d. Flagstones
(interior)
d. Flagstones
(exterior)

fissures, sand and clay holes and other defects likely
to affect durability' could be substantially assessed
macroscopically.
The preparation and examination of thin sections
under a petrological microscope is an additional and
extremely valuable technique for evaluating stone qual-
ity and potential durability. The mineralogical compo-
sition of stone can be established in this way, including
any possibly unstable constituents such as clay-like
minerals caused by secondary alteration and/or weath-
ering, or iron constituents which could oxidize to
cause discoloration and surficial disruption.
The examination of microtextures can enable poten-
tially frost susceptible stones to be identified, such as
oolitic limestones with micritic rather than sparry rock
cements (Sedman & Barlow 1989) or volcanic rocks
which have been microbrecciated. Microstructural fea-
tures can by examined in thin sections, perhaps to
locate planes of weakness such as weak mineralized
seams or lineations, or features which will facilitate the
migration of moisture and destructive salts through the
stone panel. The microscopic damage induced by
machining, fixing or face finishes can also be assessed
by petrographical examination.
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STONE QUALITY AND DURABILITY 71

Saturation coefficient
The vulnerability of porous building stones, such as
many limestones and some sandstones, is more depen-
dent upon pore size and distribution than upon the
absolute pore volume. The BRE (Ross & Butlin 1989)
has therefore devised the concept of a 'saturation
coefficient', which is the ratio of water absorption to
total pore volume. In general stones with a saturation
coefficient greater than 0.8 (1.0 is the maximum poss-
ible) are more susceptible to frost damage if the stone
concerned is conspicuously porous. As the critical level
of porosity is not defined, the saturation coefficient can
only be used as a comparative guide value. According
to Ross & Butlin, saturation coefficient is only of very
limited usefulness for sandstone materials.
Salt crystallization
The cyclic crystallization of salts within a porous
building material has often been used to assess the
susceptibility to frost action, although some workers
question this analogous relationship. The BRE Salt
Crystallization Test (Ross & Butlin 1989) is mainly
intended for use with limestones and sandstones,
although the method has sometimes been applied to
other types of stone. In this test, small cubes of stone
are repetitively soaked in sodium sulphate solution and
then oven dried for a total of 15 cycles; durability is
assessed from the magnitude of weight loss which
occurs. The use of control stones for comparative
purposes is necessitated by the poor reproducibility of
the method, but Ross & Butlin have provided a classi-
fication of durability for limestones from 'A' (weight
loss of < 1%) to 'E' (weight loss >35%), with an
additional class 'F' for samples which shatter, ambi-
guously, 'early in the test'. These durability classes can
then be related to the various basic zones of a building
which will be exposed to conditions of differing
severity (see Table 6). At present there is no similar
classification for building sandstones.
Acid dissolution
The industrial pollution of local atmospheres can lead
to the precipitation of slightly acidic water and this is
a major cause of damage to stone on buildings. All
limestone materials are particularly vulnerable to such
damage, leading to the erosion of surfaces and profiles
and sometimes delamination due to the surficial
accumulation of sulphate crystals. Some sandstones are
wholly or partially cemented by calcite and are there-
fore also vulnerable to acid dissolution and potentially
substantial decay and loss of strength. The BRE Acid
Dissolution Test for Sandstones (Ross & Butlin 1989)
can be carried out using alternative acid strengths,
depending upon the durability period required.
Although a version of this test was specified for sand-
stone sills and copings in BS 3798 this has now been
superseded by BS 5642 which does not include the test.
Winkler Durability Index
It is known that many stones are markedly weaker
and less resistant in the saturated state than in the dry
condition, either because of a reduction in the integrity
of the rock matrix or because of the susceptibility to
wetting of clay-like secondary alteration minerals
within the stone. Several rock durability tests are

TABLE 6. Durability classes for limestones, based on weight loss in the crystallization test, and the suitability of the
stones for use in particular exposure zones of a building under different environmental conditions (from Ross &
Butlin 1989)
Inland Exposed coastal
Low pollution High pollution Low pollution High pollution
Limestone No Frost Frost No Frost Frost No Frost Frost No Frost Frost
durability Crystallization
class loss (%) Zonest Zones Zones Zones Zones Zones Zones Zones
A <1 1--4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4
B 1 to 5 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2*-4 2*-4
C >5 to 15 2-4 2-4 3-4 3-4 3*-4 4 --
D > 15 to 35 3-4 4 3-4 4 -- -- --
E > 35 4 4 4* . . . .
F Shatters early
in test 4 4 . . . . .

t The exposure zones are illustrated in Fig. 1 of Ross & Butlin (1989).
* Probably limited to 50 years' life.
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72
based upon a comparison of properties determined for
both wet and dry specimens. Winkler (1986) has
demonstrated such a relationship using the ASTM
modulus of rupture test (ASTM C99) (see Fig. 1).
This approach is potentially very useful, although it
is quite likely that the relationship exemplified by Fig.
1 would vary, possibly quite substantially, for different
types of stone or even for different sources of one type
of stone. Winkler concedes that in some cases the
positive pore pressure caused by saturation might over-
ride the softening effect and so produce a misleadingly
optimistic evaluation if this method of assessment
was used in isolation.
,~ 6 / , 1 oo
~-5
==
/,~ .,./80
=o so
)-2 .9oO~ ~ 3 0
MODULUS OF RUPTURE,(R)
(dry)
FIG. |. Approximate evaluation of stone durability as a func-
tion of the dry-to-wet strength ratio (from Winkler 1986).
Thermal cycling
Although ASTM does not provide a test method
specifically for freeze-thaw resistance of stone, it is
quite common in the USA for stone materials to be
subjected to the ASTM C666 freeze-thaw test which is
primarily intended for concrete samples. Some US
specifications call for stone samples to be exposed to
'ageing' by freeze-thaw cycling prior to the execution
of a range of conventional strength tests.
Some thin stone cladding panels can be distorted by
heating and cooling cycles. Erlin (1989) has ascribed
bowing (or 'dishing') of some thin Carrara marble
panels to a process of 'thermal hysteresis' whereby the
thermal expansion of calcite crystals causes irreversible
deformation. He devised a laboratory test involving a
temperature range of 20 to 60°C. Although some
workers consider that the cause of such bowing or
dishing is related to the heat release of built-in geologi-
I. SIMS
cal strain, it is acknowledged that minimizing panel
thickness for marble is an effective preventative
measure (see Fig. 2).
o.
u.
o
.1-
I-
I1.
uJ
/ 5 10
PANEL THICKNESS,(mm)
15 20
FIG. 2. Approximate relationship between bowing of marble
panels and the panel thickness (after Erlin 1989).
Selection and sampling
As with any other material, the testing and evaluation
of stone is only as reliable as the samples are represen-
tative. In the particular case of building stone it is
always important to establish that the samples derive
from the same part of and level within the quarry
from which the contract supply will be produced. It is
preferable for the laboratory test programme to be
conducted using quarry face samples obtained during a
preliminary quarry inspection rather than commercial
'samples' provided by the supplier, possibly from a
long-term stock produced from material long since
quarried out. The factors of safety to be taken into
account in the structural design will be based largely
upon the scatter of test results and it is thus important
to ensure that added variability caused by undue
sampling error is avoided, or at least minimized.
Summary
There are few British Standards to assist in the assess-
ment of building stone for quality and durability. At
present the limited BRE advice is the most useful UK
guidance available in respect of limestones and sand-
stones from UK sources. A variety of pertinent labora-
tory tests and specifications is provided by ASTM,
although supplementary large-scale and/or durability
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STONE QUALITY AND DURABILITY
testing ,s probably also advisable. Several durability
tests for stone have been described, some of which are
relatively specific to particular stone types and others
merely adaptations from tests for other building
materials. Whichever test procedures are chosen for a
particular stone material, the important aspect of
sample representativeness must not be overlooked.
References
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. 1983. The Selection of
Natural Building Stone. BRE Digest 269, HMSO,
London.
ERLIN, B. 1989. When is a bow not a bow? Stone World,
February, 86-90.
GERE, A. S. 1988. Design considerations for using stone
veneer on high-rise buildings. ASTM STP 996, In:
DONALDSON,B. (ed.) New Stone Technology, Design, and
Construction for Exterior Wall Systems 32-46.
HART, D. 1988. The Building Magnesian Limestones of the
British Isles. Building Research Establishment Report,
HMSO, London.
73
HONEYBORNE,O. B. :1982. The Building Limestones of France.
Building Research Establishment Report, HMSO, Lon-
don.
LEARY, E. 1983. The Building Limestones of the British lsles.
Building Research Establishment Report, HMSO,
London.
-- 1986. The Building Sandstones of the British Isles. Build-
ing Research Establishment Report, HMSO, London.
MAMILLAN, M. 1982. Recent Knowledge of lthe Physical
Properties of Building Stones. CEBTP, Paris, France,
June, 297-299.
McCABE, J. T. 1987. The role of engineers in designing and
specifying natural stone. Dimensional Stone, Jan/Feb,
55-57.
Ross, K. D. & BUa'LIN, R. N. 1989. Durability Tests for
Building Stone. BRE Report BR 141, London.
SCHAFFER, R. J. 1932. The Weathering of Natural Building
Stones. Reprinted facsimile 1985, BRE Special Report
BR6, London.
SEOMAN, J. H. F. & BARLOW, S. L. 1989. The durability of
the Bath building stone. In: GASKARTH,J. W. & LUMS-
DEN, A. C. (eds) Proceedings of the 6th Extractive Indus-
try Geology Conference, University of Birmingham, 16-
19 April 1989. Institution of Geologists, London, 82-
91.
WINKLER, E. M. 1986. A durability index for stone. Bulletin
of the Association of Engineering Geologists, 23, 3, 344--
347.