MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR AT DIFFERENT AGES, OF MASONRY

PRISMS WITH THICK MORTAR JOINTS REPRODUCING A BYZANTINE

MASONRY

Luigia Binda1, C. Tedeschi2 and G. Baronio3

Abstract
The authors are working on experimental research concerning Roman and Byzantine brick
masonry built with thick mortar joints (with ratio joint/brick thickness greater/equal 1). After
the study of the composition of Byzantine mortars, similar mortars were reproduced and
used to built stack-bond prisms simulating the Byzantine brick walls. The prisms were
tested at different ages of curing being subjected during the curing time at step by step
increasing load simulating the variation of the masonry weight under construction. The
creep and mechanical behaviour up to failure are detected with the aim of understanding
the role of the thick mortar joints.

Introduction

Brick masonry with thick mortar joints date back to the late Roman Empire, but became
largely used in important palaces and churches during the Byzantine period (Vth to XIV
cent.). According to the modern theories thick joints decrease the strength of the masonry;
therefore several hypotheses had been tried to explain the use of thick joints in the ancient
times. Nevertheless wherever these type of joints were used, the behaviour of the
masonry seems to have been good even if large deformations took place in the structural
elements. Several cases exist of structural elements like arches and piers which suffered
large displacements due to soil and structure settlements without failure or even without
important cracks.
The authors have studied the composition of the Byzantine mortars, which were mainly
based on hydraulic lime or hydrated lime and pozzolanic materials (brick dust, pozzolana)
and well chosen size dimension of the aggregates according to the dimension of the joint,

1
Full Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy
2
Architect, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy
3
Associate Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy
so that in the case of thick joints they can be called rather concrete than mortar. Some of
these mortars were surprisingly strong, reaching even 7.0 to 10.0 N/mm2. One of the most
important Byzantine monuments in Italy is the Basilica of S. Vitale in Ravenna (Vth cent.)
where an experimental investigation was carried out based on: historic and geometrical
survey, crack pattern analysis, laboratory investigation on the materials, in situ testing and
monitoring. In Ravenna the soil subsidence has now reached, since the construction of S.
Vitale the value of 1.33 m; the structure has suffered large deformations but apparently
not very seroius damages, perhaps thanks to a sort of ductility developed by the thick
mortar joints.
With the aim of better understanding the role of these thick joints in a brick masonry with
large thickness (90cm in the case of the Basilica), the authors have reproduced mortars
with the same composition and bricks similar to the ones used in S.Vitale. 12 stack bond
prisms with joints 40mm thick were built in laboratory and tested in compression at
different age of curing: 28,60, 90, 365 days. The creep behaviour of the prisms was also
detected. The results seem to confirm that thick joints played an important role in the
deformability of the ancient structures increasing the ductility of the wall under settlements
and displacements.

State of the art of the research

The authors started their research on mortars made with lime and brick dust and pebbles
as binders in 1981 [Binda et al.1998], [Baronio et al. 1985] with a study on the reaction
layers and new formations between the hydrated lime and brick pebbles. The mortar
studied was sampled from the most ancient church in Milan, San Lorenzo (IV-Vth cent.).
Since then a number of mortars sampled from ancient and old historic buildings has been
examined [Baronio et al. 1988], [Baronio et al. 1987], and an experimental procedure to
study the composition of mortars has been proposed [Baronio et al. 1991] based on
chemical, physical, and mineralogical-petrographycal analyses.
In 1994 the authors’ interest was attracted by the study of Byzantine churches (S. Vitale in
Ravenna, Vth cent AD) and particularly by the use of thick mortar joints (Fig.1) [Binda et
al. 1996b]. These joints which can reach a thickness of 50 to 100mm as it is the case of
Hagia Sofia in Istanbul are usually made with a sort of concrete rather than with a normal
mortar. In fact the size of the aggregate of the joint can reach even 20 to 25mm as in a
concrete. Also in these cases crushed and powdered bricks are frequently used and
eventually the strength of this concrete can be surprisingly high for a binder based only on
hydrated lime. It is well known that
crushed bricks were mixed with putty lime
by the Romans and also before them to
obtain hydraulic mortars when the
pozzolana or the natural hydraulic lime
were not available. So the high strength
could be attributed to the fact that the
joints were made with an hydraulic
material. Nevertheless a study conducted
by the authors [Baronio et al. 1997a]
showed that the reactions between lime
and brick pebbles, not always did occur or
that the complete brick pebble did not
Fig.1 - Thick mortar joints from S. Vitale always react with the lime, particularly
when it was too big in size. In fact some of
the powdered bricks subject to the pozzolanicity test [Baronio et al. 1997a] did not react or
developed only a long term reaction (within more than 30 days); furthermore some modern
bricks even fired at low temperature as required did not develop any pozzolanicity due to
the low content clay. The study of the conditions for obtaining a pozzolanic reaction from
clays showed that temperature and duration of the firing process must be chosen very
carefully as a function of the minerals contained in the clay, in order to have a pozzolanic
material; this explained why some of the combinations used in the past were failing. A
study of the role of thick mortar joints in Byzantine masonry has been carried out since
1997 [Baronio et al. 1997b], [Binda et al 1996a]. The research started with the study of the
composition of thick mortar joints and of the grain size distribution of the aggregates. The
hypothesis was made that the choice of thick joints and their special role where not only
based on the pozzolanic reaction but also on the physical and mechanical characteristics
of the crushed bricks, which, apart from the possibility of a pozzolanic reaction, could also
be used as aggregates due to their water absorption characteristics and their strength.
Mortars, or rather concrete having the same composition were reproduced in laboratory
and their chemical, mechanical and physical characteristics were detected [Baronio et al.
1997b], [Baronio et al. 1997c]. Also bricks of the same dimension and similar composition
as the ones used in S. Vitale in Ravenna were reproduced and used to built stack bond
prisms [Baronio et al. 1997c] which were cured under load steps simulating the increasing
dead load under construction in a S. Vitale pier. The displacements were measured and
the creep behavior was studied at early stage showing an apparent asymptotic tendency
at the age of 30 days but in reality a continuous long term creep.
A joint research was carried out with the University of Stuttgart, where other prisms were
built with the same type of mortar and different joint thickness from 2cm to 4 to 6cm. The
prisms were subject to a load increasing step by step during the first 130 days up to a
maximum value of 5.8 kN correspondent to a value of stress of 0.0352 MPa and then the
prism was left at constant load until 1 year of age. At 1 year the prisms were tested under
compression until failure and the behavior of the different joint thickness was detected
[Falter et al. 1998].

Experimental results

In order to study the development of the mechanical properties at different ages, a series
of 12 prisms was built with the reproduced mortar and a joint thickness of 4cm. The prisms
were subjected to increasing load from the first day up to the day of testing with a
maximun of 130 days and being cured at 20°C and 65% R.H. At 28, 60, 90 and 365 days
they were subject to the compression test up to failure and their behavior was
investigated.

Mortar and brick properties

In order to compare the new results with the results obtained previously in Milan [Baronio
et al. 1997c] and Stuttgart [Falter et al. 1998] the mortar composition and the grain size
distribution of the aggregate was kept constant as much as possible. Putty lime is not
produced for the purpose of using it as a binder so it is always very difficult to keep
constant the water/binder ratio when using this material; therefore the result in the mortar
preparation strongly depend on the workability test.
Following the results of the experimental study carried on the conglomerate joints of San
Vitale and of San Michele in Africisco, a similar material was reproduced as in the
mentioned above experiments. The aggregate quantities and the grain size distribution
were calculated on the basis of the original material according to [Binda et al. 1996a]. In
Table 1 details of the percentage and
Particle Size Amount Calc.+ Sil. Brick
type of aggregates in various size
[mm] [%] [%] [%]
intervals are given.
16 ÷ 6 10 5.0 5.0
The ratio binder/aggregate of the mix
6÷3 17 8.5 8.5
was 1:3. The workability test was
3 ÷ 0.075 73 65.7 7.3
carried out according to the Italian
Code [UNI 8020-11/1979] and the 100 79.2 20.8
average value was 60%. Table 1. Dimensions and size intervals of
Sets of three specimens of dimension aggregates used for the new conglomerate
40mmx40mmx160mm, were
prepared in coincidence with the preparation of the prisms, cured in the same climatic
room and submitted to the flexural and compression tests at different age of curing in
order to compare the results with the ones obtained previously and have information on
the mechanical strength of the mortar used for the prisms.
The mean values of two sets of mortar specimens subject to compression and flexural
tests in a previous work (Old) [Baronio et al. 1997c] are plotted in Fig.2 together with the
results obtained now from two sets of specimens (New1, New2). They clearly show that
the flexural and compressive strength of the material is increasing up to 240 days then in
some cases it is reaching an apparently steady state up to 360 days. The new sets of data
seem to give equal or better results. This type of scattering is typical for these mortars.
The carbonation test was carried out with an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein on the
fractured surfaces of the remaining portions soon after the mechanical tests. The values of
depth of carbonation at different ages are reported in Fig. 3. As a consequence of the low
rate of carbonation and the slow loss of mass in the conglomerates, a pozzolanic reaction
between the binder and the brick pebbles can be successful even if it takes place in long
times.
[N/mm 2]
2.0 [mm]

1.8 Flex, Comp New1 55

Flex, Comp New2 50
1.6
Flex, Comp Old 45
1.4
40
Depth of carbonation

1.2 35
Strength

1.0 30
25
0.8
20
0.6
15
0.4 10
0.2 5

0.0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Time [Days] Time [days]

Fig. 2. Compression and flexural strength of Fig. 3. Carbonation at different age of curing
conglomerates

The bricks used for the stack-bond prisms were produced for this research program with
ferrous clays adding quartz sand fired at a temperature of 950°C; they have a bulk density
of1500-1600 kg/m3 and a total absorption of 20-23%. Compression tests were carried on 6
brick specimens built up with cubes (36mm dimension) cut in the direction normal to the
bedding from the large bricks. The machine platen influence was avoided by piling three
cubes one over the other [Binda et al. 1996c].The mean compression strength was 14.16
N/mm2, the Poisson ratio 0.14, the Young modulus 4650 N/mm2. The brick dimensions,
510x310x40mm3, were chosen similar to the dimensions of the bricks of S. Vitale in
Ravenna. Subsequently the brick were cut into the following dimension: 310x310x40mm in
order to obtain prisms with an acceptable dimension according to the codes.

Preparation and curing of the prisms

According to the research program 12 stack-bond prisms were prepared and submitted
starting from 24h after the preparation to slowly increasing loads. The prisms were made
with four brick courses and three conglomerate joints [Binda et al. 1988] 45mm thick. The
height of the specimens 5min after they were built was 293mm; so the prism dimension
was at the preparation 310x310x290mm3.
Three timber molds were used to contain the joints. After 24 hours the specimens were
demolded and cured for different times (28,60,90,365 days) at 20°C and 65% R.H (as
required by the Italian Code for hydraulic mortars). The loading program was applied daily
step by step simulating the dead load increasing during the construction as it happens in a
very thick wall or in a large pier built by two masons. The load step corresponds to the
weight of three bricks, that is 30daN. Fig. 4 shows some of the prisms after the first
loading step was carried out (by simply applying three bricks on the top.
The load was increased up to the corresponding stress value of 0.15 N/mm2. A further
increase was impossible due to the lack of a better equipment in the climatic room.
In Fig.5 time is reported against the loading program and the deformation respectively for
the 28 and 60 and the 90 days of curing. The strain values represent an average of the
values measured on the four faces of each prism. Even with a low load creep is still is
increasing after 90 days.

3.0

2.5

2.0
Strain [x10 -3]

1.5

prism 28d
1.0
prism 60d

prism 90d
0.5

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
time (days)
Fig. 5. Strain-time plot up to 90 days for
Fig. 4. Some specimens under the first STB2.2 and STB2.3,STB2.4, STB2.5. STB2.6
loading step of 3 bricks and STB2.7,

Testing of the prisms

At the defined age the prisms were subject to the compression test as follows. Prisms:
STB2.1, STB2.2 and STB2.3 after 28 days, STB2.4 and STB2.5 after 60 days, STB2.6
and STB2.7 after 90 days, STB2.8, STB2.9 and STB2.10 after 365 days.
Other 2 prisms were unloaded but they are still under a low weight in the climatic chamber
to be tested later. This in order to check the modification of the properties when the age is
more than 1 year of curing.
 The specimens were capped with gypsum and tested with a servo controlled hydraulic
press MTS (Material Testing System) which operated under displacement control.
In order to minimize the friction effects due to the machine platens a couple of 0.4mm
thick Teflon sheets were placed between each prism contact surface and the steel plates.
A pre-loading of 0.5 MPa was imposed in order to correct errors due to building
imperfections of the specimens. Loading was carried out at a rate of 1µm/s, unloading at a
rate of 25 µm/s. The displacements were measured between the plates and directly on the
specimens at joints and at bricks as shown in Fig. 6. In the figure only two sides are
shown, being the remaining two measured in a symmetric way.
In Fig. 7 the stress-strain average curves are plotted for specimens SB2.2., SB2.5.,
SB2.7., SB2.9. Surprisingly the strenght of the specimens is very similar.
The values given in the diagram for the horizontal strains correspond to the values
measured on each specimen by LVDT6 and LVDT5 respectively on the mortar joint and
on the brick. An LVDT was also applied to a brick at each face of the prism; this measure
was not always possible during the whole test because, as the mortar joints failed, the
falling material caused the detachment of the brick LVDT.

Fig. 6 - Measuring device schema.

σ [N/mm2 ] σ [N/mm2 ]
5 6 5 6 5 5 4 4
6 5 4
5 4
6
4 4

3 3

prism 90d
prism 28d
2 mortar 90d
mortar 28d
brick 28d brick 90d

prism 60d prism 365d

1
mortar 60d mortar 365d

brick 60d brick 365d

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Strain [x10 ]
-3 Strain [x10 -3 ]

Fig. 7a. Stress-Strain plots of prisms Fig. 7b- Stress-Strain plots of prisms (SB2.7,
(SB2.2, SB2.5 at 28 and 60 days) SB29 at 90 and 365 days)

The values of the vertical displacements were measured by the LVDTs4 between the
platens of the machine. In order to understand better the role played by the mortar joints
also the vertical displacements were measured on the joint itself. Since it was difficult to fix
the small CPDT1 (Clamp on Point Displacement Transducer) to the joint and it gave too
much scatter in the measurement due the weakness of the joint, an LVDT3 was fixed
between two bricks as shown in Fig. 6.
In Fig.8a,b the stresses against the vertical strains obtained from the displacements
measured by LVDT3 on specimens SB2.2 (28 days) and SB2.9 (365 days) as a
comparison. The curve points are an average of the values measured on the four faces of
the specimens. If the deformations are compared to the ones of Fig. 7, it can be seen that
large deformations occur in the mortar joints at a very early stage.
Fig.9 reports the stresses against the horizontal strains from the values measured by
LVDT2 directly on the bricks. Large horizontal displacements in the brick start at 75% of
the peak stress at the age of 28 days, while they start at the 44% at the age of 365
days.These values should be compared to those of Fig. 7.

σ [N/mm2 ]
σ [N/mm 2 ]
5.0 5.0
4.5 4.5
4.0 4.0
3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-3
Strain [x10 ] Strain [x10 -3 ]

Fig. 8a. Stress-Strain plot at 28 days Fig. 8b. Stress-Strain plot at 365 days
(displacements measured by LVDT3) (displacement measured by LVDT3)

σ [N/mm 2 ] σ [N/mm 2]
5.0
5
4.5

4.0 4
3.5

3.0 3
2.5

2.0 2
1.5

1.0 1
0.5

0.0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Strain [x10 -3 ] Strain [x10 -3 ]

Fig. 9a. Stress-Strain plot at 28 days Fig. 9b. Stress-Strain plot at 365 days
(displacements measureds by LVDT2 on the (displacements measured by LVDT2 on the
brick) brick.)
Evaluation of the results and comments

From Fig.5a,b it is possible to note that the highest deformation of the specimen under the
increasing load takes place during the first 400 hours (16 days approximately). Then the
deformation dramatically decreases, but the increase is continuous at a lower rate every
time a new loading step is applied. The deformation is of course due to two synergetic
phenomena taking place during the mortar setting: creep and shrinkage. It was not
possible to measure separately the two deformations, therefore the values found are the
results of the two causes. This behaviour was also detected during the research carried
out in Stuttgart, and the displacements measured were much higher in the case of a prism
wrapped in an aluminum foil in order to avoid dehydration and carbonation (Fig.10) [UNI
8020-11/1979]. Of course under low loads the deformation measured is the one taking
place in the mortar joints (Fig. 8a,b). Therefore during the construction of the Byzantine
buildings the mortar joints highly deformed and the deformation could be even much
higher in the internal part of the walls where carbonation had not yet taken place. Under
this behaviour a much lower strength of the prisms could be expected at an early age. On
the contrary the strenght of the 28 days prisms (Fig. 7) is not much lower than the
strength of the one year old prisms. This difference can be considered very slight due to
the well known data scattering in the case of masonry testing.
Nevertheless it is now clear that the strength of the masonry at early age is not so low as it
could be expected; 4.0 N/mm2 is not a low value for such a masonry. Similar results were
reached in [UNI8020-11/1979] for the cases of prisms where carbonation was not allowed.
Of course the early age prisms reach a much higher deformation at failure (Fig.7).

16 40
Prism 2/3 (dehydration and
carbonation avoided)
14
stress σy [N/mm2 . 100]

12 30

10 Prism 2/2
strain

8 20

Prism 2/1
4 10

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
time [days]
Fig. 10: Stress and strain plotted against the age

In order to understand these results some data elaboration was carried out. In Fig.11a,b
the formation of the first four cracks in every joint and brick is plotted against the loading
value in the cases of SB2.2. and SB2.9. aged respectively 28 and 365 days. The
difference is clear: (i) at an early age the cracks appear in the mortar joints at very low
load value and in the brick at much higher value, (ii) at the age of 365 days the formation
of cracks occurs in the mortar joint and in the bricks contemporaneously (tendentially
before in the bricks) and at higher load values.
This difference explains very well the large displacements measured for the early age
specimens.
The occurrence of first cracks in the mortar joints explains also the bilinear behaviour of
the 28 days specimens appearing in Fig. 7, but more clearly in Fig.8. In fact the
changement in slope of the stress-strain curve occurs when the first cracks appear with
loss of the carbonated layer of mortar as it can be seen in Fig. 12. Fig. 9 reports the
 σ [N/mm2 ] σ [N/mm2 ]
5.5 5.0

5.0 4.5

4.5 4.0

4.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5

1.0 1.0

Brick
0.5 0.5 Brick
Mortar Mortar
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of cracks Number of cracks
Fig.11a. Stress value plotted against the Fig. 11b. Stress value plotted against the
first four cracks formation at the age of first four cracks formation at the age of
28 days 365 days
70

60 failure

onset of cracking
50
Strain [x10-3]

40

30

20

10

Fig. 12. Failure of mortar joints in compression

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Time [days]
Fig. 13. Vertical deformation value at onset
of cracking and at failure at different age.

horizontal deformation measured on the brick by LVDT2, showing clearly that at an early
age the horizontal deformation and hence the tensile stress appears in the bricks much
later than at the age of 365 days.
A further elaboration of the results is shown in the Fig. 13 where the mean values of strain
at onset of cracking and at failure of the prisms are reported for the various ages. The
values of the tangent modulus are plotted in Figs 14a,b against the stress at two different
ages for the prisms of Fig. 7a,b as an example. Once again the totally different behaviour
at early and late age is very clear.

Conclusions and further development of the research

The experimental results obtained from the mechanical tests allow to draw some
conclusions even if the research is still in progress:
• the laboratory reproduction of the thick mortar joints from the studied composition of the
ancient mortar was successful and allowed to collect more knowledge on the role of
these joints in the masonry mechanical behaviour;
 500
500
prism 90d
prism 28d prism 365d
Modulus of elasticity [N/mm2 ]

400 400
prism 60d

Modulus of elasticity [N/mm 2 ]

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Stress [N/mm 2 ] Stress [N/mm2 ]
Fig. 14a. Tangent modulus against Fig. 14b. Tangent modulus against
stress variation of prisms at 28 and stress variation of prisms at 90 and
60 days. 365 days.

• the mechanical characteristics of the thick joints counteracted those of the bricks as the
wall height was increasing;
• during the construction even if the mortar was still soft, the masonry had sufficient
strenght to bear the dead load;
• settlements of the soil could also occur with large deformations but very seldom brittle
cracking of the masonry took place;
• overall the Byzantine masonry proved to be an intelligent material highly suitable to
react towards possible stresses occurring during the structure long life-span.
The tests show that extensive experiments are required to understand the behaviour of
ancient building materials and to evaluate the effects of loads and displacements on the
structure such as cracks and deformations.
Further research is being carried out on site and in laboratory in order to develop new
knowledge expecially on the effect of the variation of the mortar composition and of the
aggregate size and dimension on the short and long term behaviuor of these masonries.

Aknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dr. H.Falter from Stuttgart and the technicians, M. Antico, M.
Cucchi, M. Iscandri and P. Perolari. The research was supported by MURST.

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 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR AT DIFFERENT AGES, OF MASONRY
PRISMS WITH THICK MORTAR JOINTS REPRODUCING A BYZANTINE
MASONRY
Binda, L.4, Tedeschi, C.5, Baronio, G.6

Brick masonries with thick mortar joints date back to the late Roman Empire, but became
largely used in important palaces and churches during the Byzantine period (Vth to XIV
cent.). According to the modern theories thick joints decrease the strength of the masonry;
therefore several hypotheses had been tried to explain the use of thick joints in the ancient
times. Nevertheless wherever these type of joints were used the behaviour of the masonry
seems to have been good even if large deformations took place in the structural elements.
Several cases exist of structural elements like arches and piers which suffered large
displacements due to soil and structure settlements without failure or even without
important cracks.
The authors have studied the composition of the Byzantine mortars which were mainly
based on hydraulic lime or hydrated lime and pozzolanic materials (brick dust, pozzolana)
and well chosen size dimension of the aggregates according to the dimension of the joint,
so that in the case of thick joints they can be called rather concrete than mortar.Following
the results of the experimental study carried on the conglomerate joints of San Vitale and
of San Michele in Africisco a similar material was reproduced. The aggregate quantities
and the grain size distribution were calculated on the basis of the original material.
Sets of three specimens of dimension 40mmx40mmx160mm, were prepared in
coincidence with the preparation of the prisms, cured in the same climatic room and
submitted to the flexural and compression tests at different age of curing.
According to the research program 12 stack-bond prisms were prepared and submitted
starting from 24h after the preparation to slowly increasing loads. The prisms were made
with four brick courses and three conglomerate joints 45mm thick. The height of the
specimens 5min after they were built was 293mm; so the prism dimension was at the
preparation 310x310x290mm. After 24 hours the specimens were demolded and cured for
different times (28,60,90,365 days) at 20°C and 65% R.H loading program was applied
daily step by step simulating the dead load increasing during the construction. At the
defined age the prisms were subject to the compression test and deformation on the
single component and on the wall were carefully measured.
The experimental results obtained from the mechanical tests allow to draw some
conclusions even if the research is still in progress:
• the laboratory reproduction of the thick mortar joints was successful and allowed to
collect more knowledge on the role of these joints in the masonry mechanical
behaviour;
• during the construction of the ancient wall even if the mortar was still soft, the masonry
had sufficient strenght to bear the dead load;
• settlements of the soil could also occur with large deformations but very seldom brittle
cracking of the masonry took place;
• overall the Byzantine masonry proved to be an „intelligent“ material highly suitable to
react towards possible stresses occurring during the structure long life-span.

4
Full Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy
5
Architect, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy
6
Associate Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy