Old Kingdom of Egypt

In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period

spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Old Kingdom of Egypt
Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it c. 2686 BC–c. 2181 BC
encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the
Fourth Dynasty, such as King Sneferu, who perfected the art of
pyramid-building, and the kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure,
who constructed the pyramids at Giza.[2] Egypt attained its first
sustained peak of civilization during the Old Kingdom, the first
of three so-called "Kingdom" periods (followed by the Middle
Kingdom and New Kingdom), which mark the high points of
civilization in the lower Nile Valley.[3]

The concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages"

was coined in 1845 by the German Egyptologist Baron von
Bunsen, and its definition would evolve significantly throughout
the 19th and the 20th centuries.[4] Not only was the last king of
the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old
Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at In-
Hedge, the Ancient Egyptian name for Memphis. The basic
justification for a separation between the two periods is the
revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects
on Egyptian society and the economy of large-scale building
projects.[3]

The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from

the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC).
Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is
scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally
"written in stone" and largely architectural in that it is through the
monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to
construct a history.[2] Egyptologists also include the Memphite
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa
2700 BC – circa 2200 BC), Egypt
continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While
consisted of the Nile River region south
the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, to Elephantine, as well as Sinai and the
it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural oases in the western desert.
decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Capital Memphis
Period.[5] During the Old Kingdom, the King of Egypt (not
called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god Common languages Ancient
Egyptian
who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth
of his subjects.[6] Religion Ancient
Egyptian
Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old religion
Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, Government Divine,
where Djoser established his court. A new era of building was absolute
initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, monarchy
Imhotep, is credited with the development of building with stone Pharaoh
and with the conception of the new architectural form, the step • c. 2686–c. 2649 Djoser (first)
pyramid.[6] The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for a large BC
number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for • c. 2184–c. 2181 Last king
Egypt's kings. BC depends on
the scholar,
Neitiqerty
Siptah (6th
Dynasty) or
Contents Neferirkare
(7th/8th
History Dynasty)
Rise of the Old Kingdom History
Height of the Old Kingdom
• Established c. 2686 BC
Fifth Dynasty • Disestablished c. 2181 BC
Decline into the First Intermediate Period Population
Art • 2500 BC 1.6 million[1]
References Preceded by Succeeded by
Further reading Early First
External links Dynastic Intermediate
Period of Period
Egypt

History

Rise of the Old Kingdom

The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime

between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the Third Dynasty, who ordered
the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid) in Memphis'
necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of
Djoser was his vizier, Imhotep.

It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian

states became known as nomes, under the rule of the king. The
former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or
The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era worshiped
their Pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual
flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian
views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe
worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the
stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as specially
selected people.[8]

Height of the Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the
Temple of Djoser at Saqqara Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC), which began with Sneferu (2613–
2589 BC). After Djoser, Pharaoh Sneferu was the next great pyramid
builder. Sneferu commissioned the building of not one, but three
pyramids. The first is called the Meidum Pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Sneferu abandoned it after
the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial
chamber.[9] Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid
 in Meidum, the Bent
Pyramid at Dahshur, and
the Red Pyramid, at
North Dahshur.
However, the full
development of the
pyramid style of building
was reached not at
Saqqara, but during the
building of 'The Great
The Great Sphinx of Giza in front of the
Pyramids' at Giza.[10]
Great Pyramid of Giza

Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who

built the Great Pyramid of Giza. After Khufu's death, his sons
Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have
Head of a King, c. 2650–2600 BC, quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional
Brooklyn Museum. The earliest thinking) the Great Sphinx of Giza. Recent re-examination of
representations of Egyptian Kings evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the
are on a small scale. From the Third Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father
Dynasty, statues were made showing
Khufu.[11] Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the
the ruler life-size; this head wearing
work of Khafre and Khufu himself.
the crown of Upper Egypt even
surpasses human scale.[7] There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with
Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today Sudan.[12]
The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure (2532–
2504 BC), who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC) and, perhaps, Djedefptah
(2498–2496 BC).

Fifth Dynasty

The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–

2487 BC) and was marked by the growing importance of the cult
of sun god Ra. Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the
construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth
Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir.
Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC), who
commanded an expedition to Punt. Sahure was in turn succeeded
by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC), who was Sahure's son.
Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was
followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–
2453 BC) and Shepseskare, the latter of uncertain parentage.[13]
Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother
Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long-lived pharaoh who built
extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza.

The last pharaohs of the dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421– Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid at
2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC), and Unas (2375– Giza
2345), the earliest ruler to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his
pyramid.
Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold,
copper, and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open
sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled the length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt—
possibly modern-day Somalia—for ebony, ivory, and aromatic resins. Shipbuilders of that era did not use pegs
(treenails) or metal fasteners, but relied on the rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure
were tightly tied and bound together.

Decline into the First Intermediate Period

During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful
nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became
hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the Pharaoh.
However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake
Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries
earlier.

Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the
dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The
country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign.

The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation.
For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile.[14]

Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An
important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi, a nomarch during the early First Intermediate Period, describes
the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land.

Art
The most defining feature of ancient Egyptian art is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art
was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion
and ideology.[15] This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over the dynasties. The three
primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrate this quite
well.[15] These characteristics, initiated in the Early Dynastic Period[16] and solidified during the Old
Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the
foundation of its art.[17]

Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach
a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction
would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art.[15] It was therefore imperative that whoever was
represented be as identifiable as possible. The guidelines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid
system developed in the Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most
importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable.[19] Composite composition, the second principle, also
contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspectives were used in order to ensure that the onlooker
could determine precisely what they saw.[15] Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text,
literacy rates were not high, so the art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of
the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs,
and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of
a building or location.[15] The third principle, the hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society.
The larger the figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. The
similarity in size equated to similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences weren't
 shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller
than men. Children retain adult features and proportions but are
substantially smaller in size.[15]

Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several

characteristics that can help date a piece to a particular time frame.
Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as
they vary between kingdoms.[19] Old Kingdom male figures have
characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious
musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders
and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso.[19] However, in the
Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their
shoulders narrow. The eyes also tend to get much larger.[15] In order
to help maintain the consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians
used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at
the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of
False Door from the Tomb of Metjetji. the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the
ca. 2353–2323 BC, Dynasty 5–6, Old ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee,
Kingdom. Tomb of Metjetji at and the middle of the lower leg.[19] From the soles of the feet to the
Saqqara.[18] hairline was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and
the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final
third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that
appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well.[19] These proportions not only
help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of
order, which tied into the solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile.[15]

Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in

Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the
representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact
rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable
through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions
or context.[15] A huge, more important part of a king's portrayal was
about the idea of the office of kingship,[15] which were dependent on
the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for
Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired. As
such, the king was portrayed as young vital, with features that agreed
with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in
male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite, the jubilee run
which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king
running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic
borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's
physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his
reign.[21] This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the
Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art.[17]
Statue of Menkaure with Hathor and
The sculpture was a major product of the Old Kingdom. The position Anput from the Egyptian Museum in
of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, Cairo. Demonstrates a group statue
either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the of graywacke with Old Kingdom
king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and features and proportions.[20]
children, were also common.[16]
It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as
gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite, was relatively common in the Old Kingdom.[22] The color of the stone
had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately.[15] Four colors were distinguished in the ancient
Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white.[22] Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the
soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and
white with purity.[15] The statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput is an example of a typical Old Kingdom
sculpture. The three figures display frontality and axiality, while fitting with the proportions of this time period.
The graywacke came from the Eastern Desert in Egypt[23] and is therefore associated with rebirth and the
rising of the sun in the east.

References
1. Steven Snape (16 March 2019). "Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt" (https://brewminate.c
om/estimating-population-in-ancient-egypt/). Retrieved 5 January 2021.
2. "Old Kingdom of Egypt" (https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt/). World History
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
3. Malek, Jaromir. 2003. "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0192804587, p.83
4. Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention,
and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=BTMAu2LRbVUC&pg=PA182). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-
020672-2.
5. Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, pp. 55 & 60.
6. Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 56.
7. Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art.
Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 22.
8. Herlin, Susan J. (2003). "Ancient African Civilizations to ca. 1500: Pharaonic Egypt to Ca. 800
BC" (https://web.archive.org/web/20030823031522/http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/t
extsup.htm). p. 27. Archived from the original (http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/textsu
p.htm) on August 23, 2003. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
9. "Ancient Egypt – the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom" (http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgio
tto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1525828). www.penfield.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
10. Carl Roebuck (1984), The World of Ancient Times, p. 57.
11. Vassil Dobrev, French Institute, Cairo, link 1 (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/afric
aandindianocean/egypt/1478998/I-have-solved-riddle-of-the-Sphinx-says-Frenchman.html),
link 2 (http://documentarystorm.com/riddle-of-the-sphinx/)
12. p.5, The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy.
13. Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv
Orientální, Volume 69: 2001
14. Jean-Daniel Stanley; et al. (2003). "Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt:
Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence" (https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/file
s/24322095/POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF) (PDF). Geoarchaeology. 18 (3): 395–
402. doi:10.1002/gea.10065 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgea.10065).
15. Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
16. Sourouzian, Hourig (2010). A Companion to Ancient Egypt. I. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
pp. 853–881.
17. Arnold, Dorothea (1999). When the Pyramids Were Built: Egyptian Art of the Old Kingdom. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art and Rizzoli International Publications Inc. pp. 7–17.
18. "The Metropolitan Museum" (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543907).
19. Robins, Gay (1994). Proportion, and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. University of Texas Press.
20. "Statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Cynopolis" (http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/detail.
aspx?id=14994). The Global Egyptian Museum.
21. Malek, Jaromir (1999). Egyptian Art. London: Phaidon Press Limited.
22. Morgan, Lyvia (2011). "Enlivening the Body: Color and Stone Statues in Old Kingdom Egypt".
Notes in the History of Art. 30 (3): 4–11. doi:10.1086/sou.30.3.23208555 (https://doi.org/10.108
6%2Fsou.30.3.23208555).
23. Klemm, Dietrich (2001). "The Building Stones of Ancient Egypt: A Gift of its Geology". African
Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 631–642. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.111.9099 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/vi
ewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.111.9099). doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2FS0899-5362%2801%2900085-9).

Further reading
Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005.
Callender, Gae. Egypt In the Old Kingdom: An Introduction. South Melbourne: Longman, 1998.
Kanawati, Naguib. Governmental Reforms In Old Kingdom Egypt. Warminster: Aris & Phillips,
1980.
Kanawati, Naguib., and Alexandra Woods. Artists of the Old Kingdom: Techniques and
Achievements. 1st English ed. Egypt: Supreme Council of Antiquities Press, 2009.
Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Málek, Jaromír., and Werner Forman. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Ancient Egypt During the
Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
McFarlane, A., and Anna-Latifa Mourad. Behind the Scenes: Daily Life In Old Kingdom Egypt.
North Ryde, N.S.W.: Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2012.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1999.
Papazian, Hratch. Domain of Pharaoh: The Structure and Components of the Economy of Old
Kingdom Egypt. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 2012.
Ryholt, Kim S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.
1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1997.
Sowada, K., and Peter Grave. Egypt In the Eastern Mediterranean During the Old Kingdom: An
Archaeological Perspective. Fribourg: Academic Press, 2009.
Strudwick, Nigel. The Administration of Egypt In the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their
Holders. London: KPI, 1985.
Warden, Leslie Anne. Pottery and Economy In Old Kingdom Egypt. Boston: Brill, 2013.
Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001.

External links
The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocaly
pse_egypt_01.shtml) from BBC History
Middle East on The Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom (https://web.archive.org/web/2006051602
2803/http://www.on-the-matrix.com/mideast/OldKingdom.asp) – Photographs of many of the
historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan (http://www.aldokkan.com/egypt/old_kingdom.htm)
 Succeeded by
Preceded by Time Periods of Egypt
First Intermediate
Early Dynastic Period 2686–2181 BC
Period

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