Organic EN

ORGANIC FARMING AND FOOD
1. Introduction
Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use
pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones. Organic production is a
holistic system designed to create a harmonious relationship between people and environment, farming and agro-
ecosystem, including protection of soil organisms, plants, livestock. The principal goal of organic production is to
develop enterprises that are sustainable and consistent with a natural perpetuation of species and environment.
This course, as a part of the IMPROFARM project on innovative trends in agriculture, aims at creating a brief but
complete curriculum in organic farming and food, enabling the learner/user to better understand context, regulations,
know-how and techniques to start an organic farming business.
MODULE 1 Basic knowledge in organic farming
The purpose of this module is the following:
1. Learning outcome 1
To understand the basis of organic farming and main differences from conventional agriculture
To recognize the procedures for organic farming and related transition
MODULE 1.1 Basic knowledge in organic farming
1.1.1 THE ORIGINS OF ORGANIC FARMING
The beginnings of modern organic farming can be traced back to end of the 19th century, when groups of thinkers,
mainly in Germany, began to analyse the widening gap between man and nature, and to speculate as to how this
tendency might be reversed. In the framework of this research, Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher, teacher,
and founder of anthroposophy, created, in 1924, a new concept of farming in which the farm was seen as a self-
sufficient living organism. His disciple Ehrenfried Pfeiffer developed this theory and called it "biodynamic farming".
The main principles of this approach were:
 the rejection of the use of soluble mineral-based plant foods;
 the independence and self-sufficiency of the farm, thanks to a policy of breeding livestock and growing a
variety of crops;
 a belief in the importance of a natural and healthy diet;
 a belief in the importance of lunar and astral influences on the crops.
In England, the "organic farming" school of thought was born immediately after the Second World War. Based
mainly on the ideas of Sir Albert Howard and his assistant Lady Eve Balfour, it emphasised the importance of the
fertility and the biological balance of the soil. In pursuit of these goals, the use of organic compost was considered of
great importance, especially since this was believed to develop the plants’ resistance to parasites and diseases. The
organic farming doctrine also stressed the importance of the husbandry of natural resources and respect for the
environment - and this included using any given area of land in the way that nature intended.
In Switzerland, a third movement, led by H.P.Rusch and H.Muller got underway in the 1940’s. Called "biological
farming", it was based in the principle of making the most efficient use of renewable resources. Accordingly, it was
deemed essential to care for the humus of the soil: compost should be applied to the surface, and tilling should be
kept to the strict minimum in order to avoid damaging the soil’s microflora.
In France, the Lemaire Boucher method gathered support, and was controlled and sponsored by a company that
sold the foodstuffs produced by using its techniques. A particular feature of this method was the use of fossilised
algae remains as a fertiliser.
In Italy, Alfonso Draghetti, with its “Principles of farm physiology” (“Principi di fisiologia dell’azienda agraria”, Ist. Ed.
Agricolo, Bologna 1948), started a revision of some prevailing theses of the modern agriculture on economic
convenience of chemical fertilizers, by revaluing use of natural manures according to the rules of a natural fertility
corresponding to the productive life cycle which centre is constituted by the farm.
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The spreading of these methods in the post-Second World War period was an actively pursued aim of the first
associations of organically-minded farmers and technical consultants. Apart from the associations of biodynamic
farmers in various European countries, it is worth mentioning the following, by way of example: the Soil Association
in Britain; Nature et Progrès in France; Suolo e Salute (Soil and Health) in Italy; and Organic Gardening and
Farming in the USA.
From the 70's to the 90’s

Organic farming really came to the fore at the end of the 1970’s, when the increasingly influential environmentalist
movement meant that farmers and consumers were more concerned about environmental issues. This phenomenon
initially developed in North European countries such as Denmark, Germany and Holland, and then spread to the
countries of the Mediterranean Basin (France, Italy and Greece) and the United States. It gave rise to the creation of
new associations of organic farmers.
In 1972, in France, five organic farming associations founded IFOAM (International Federation of Organic
Associations and Movements); and by 1987, these five had become over one hundred, in 25 countries. The truly
explosive growth in the popularity of organic farming over the last few years has led to an increase by a factor of five
in the number of associations belonging to IFOAM: there are now about 500 of them operating in 100 countries.
In 1977, IFOAM started to define and harmonise the techniques associated with organic farming. They set out to
create a code of practice that was flexible enough to embrace the various schools of thought on which organic
farming was based, but that was also scientifically rigorous and true to the basic aims of the movement. This
process was made necessary by the following aims:
 to provide clear
 information to producers and consumers;
 to create conditions
 that would facilitate regulation and self-regulation;
 to take stepsagainst fraud and misleading advertising.
In 1980 IFOAM published the first standard for organic production and processing, a basic guide for all members
and certification bodies.
It was only in 1991, with the passing of EC Regulation 2092, that the organic farming method became an officially
recognised set of rules, guidelines, and procedures that clearly defined a specific method of production.
In June 1992 the Codex Alimentarius Commission decided to discuss and develop the “Guidelines for the
Production, Processing, Marketing and Labelling of Organically Produced Foods”, established in Codex
Alimentarius 1999.
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1.1.2 ORGANIC FARMING TODAY
Basic principles and techniques

Organic agriculture is defined as a production system that is managed to respond to site specific conditions by
integrating cultural, biological and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance
and conserve biodiversity.
The fundamental principles of organic farming are as follows:
 to view the farm as a single system or "organism" that exists within the context of a local ecosystem;
 to protect the balance of relationships within the farm’s own system, as well as those existing between the
farm’s system and the surrounding ecosystem;
 to maintain a marked degree of biodiversity within the system, so as to promote the control of parasites and
destructive organisms;
 to encourage the biological cyclicity of the natural system, paying particular attention to the cycle of organic
substances, so as to promote humification;
 to make maximum use of solar energy and to reduce the use of all types of external input to an absolute
minimum.
More specifically, organic farming entails:
 use of cover crops, green manures, animal manures and crop rotations to fertilize the soil, maximize
biological activity and maintain long-term soil health;
 use of biological control, crop rotation and other techniques to manage weeds, insects and diseases;
 an emphasis on biodiversity of the agricultural system and the surrounding environment;
 using rotational grazing and mixed forage pastures for livestock operations and alternative healthcare for
animal wellbeing;
 reduction of external and off-farm inputs and elimination of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers and/or
other materials, such as hormones, antibiotics and GMO;
 a focus on renewable resources, soil and water conservation and management practice that restore
maintenance and enhance ecological balance.
Using nature as a model for the agricultural system, recycling nutrients, encouraging natural predators to manage
pests, increasing plant densities to block weeds, organic farmers don’t merely substitute non-toxic materials for
pesticides and fertilizers, but rather consider the farm as an integrated entity, with all parts interconnected. When
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livestock and poultry are incorporated into organic systems, the potential for diversification and integration is even
greater: livestock feed on grasses and mixed forages, both of which help to improve soil structure. At the same time,
livestock provide manure to fertilize soil and can be used to prepare a new cycle.
Various research confirmed that the organic system can be more efficient at storing nitrogen and have positive
effects on soil quality, including higher biological activity and a doubling of organic matter in 10 years (USDA
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education). It is also confirmed that an organic cropping system consumes 3
to 4 times less energy than a conventional system, while also producing 6 times more biomass per unit of energy
consumed (South Dakota State University comparative trial at the Northeast Research Station, Watertown)
Having stated these general principles, we can go on to look at specific farming techniques in order to promote a
clearer idea of how the organic system works and how it differs from the conventional system of farming.
Firstly, in order to preserve its relationship with the surrounding ecosystem, the farm should grow crops and local
ecotypes that are most suited to the local environment. Furthermore, hedgerows and wooded areas should be
maintained and improved, both in order to increase the biodiversity of the system, and also to act as windbreaks and
to prevent erosion. In this way the farm not only has a minimum impact on the rural landscape, but can even
enhance it.
Ploughing should be kept to a minimum, so as to discourage compacting and erosion, and favour humus generation.
Ploughing that breaks up the clods of earth should always be very superficial, whilst medium- and full-depth
ploughing should only be done with equipment that does not turn the earth.
Grass-planting and mulching can be carried out in order to improve the structure, strength and porosity of the soil.
But organic fertilising should always be done after composting in order to enhance humus spontaneous production.
Weed-control should be done mainly with the following methods: crop-rotation, mechanical or physical means, and
occasionally by burning.
Crop-rotation must be frequent, alternating leguminous crops with deep-rooted crops, so as to protect the soil from
structural damage, limit the washing away of nutrients, and guarantee fresh supplies of nitrogen through the regular
presence of nitrogen-fixing plants. Suitable crop-rotation also acts to control parasites living in the soil.
Parasite control should be carried out via the appropriate manipulation of the antagonisms that exist in nature. In
some cases (vegetable-growing) it is appropriate to use plants that act as repellents. And sometimes the methods
used can be biological, physical and/or agronomical, biotechnical (attracters and repellents), or low-toxicity mineral
and natural plant-treatments.
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Some schools of thought
Within the world of organic farming, there are various schools of thought that are distinguished from each other by
differences in outlook or technique.
Biodynamic agriculture
This type of farming is characterised by its own particular scientific and spiritual credo. Principally, it represents a
world-view in which man, agriculture, the environment and the productive cycle are all part of a whole that must
develop harmoniously. In 1924, Dr. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, gave a series of eight talks on the
fertility of the soil: he put forward a world-view in which all the constituent elements inter-reacted and in which man
had only a limited capacity to influence the factors that determine the world’s development. Steiner’s philosophy
never envisages leaving nature entirely to herself, but on the other hand talks in terms of man participating wisely in
the whole range of events that lead towards the production of food for consumption. Yields will depend on the
context and the range of atmospheric conditions such as rain, wind, temperature, sunshine, the length of the day,
and numerous other variables that taken together could be said to make up the macroclimate. These theories
spread mainly in Germany and the north of Europe. The farmer should make sure that all organic substances
resulting from the various processes that take place on the farm, are put back into the system; and he should try to
create harmony between all aspects of the farm - livestock, fields, grassland, woodland - in order to encourage self-
sufficiency. The basic objective of a biodynamic farm is self-sufficiency in fertilisers, seeds, animal-rearing and the
production of biochemical preparations. The use of external inputs is to be reduced to the minimum; and the only
fertilisers that can be bought in are organic manure and possibly rock powder, limestone, and untreated phosphates.
Home-produced manure is to be converted into compost on the spot, and can be supplemented by very small
quantities of plant-based preparations (alpine yarrow, camomile, nettles, oak-bark, dandelion, and valerian) made to
Dr. Steiner’s own recipes. The aim of this is to encourage the correct development of the processes involved in the
decomposition and metamorphosis of the compost. Two home-produced preparations are applied directly to the
fields. One of these contains small quantities of humus and cow dung to stimulate the soil’s life-giving processes;
and the other contains finely-ground quartz to strengthen the plants, increase their assimilative powers and ability to
photosynthesise, and also to increase their resistance to disease. Where sowing and planting are concerned,
cosmic forces should be studied, in particular the position of the moon and the planets, since these are considered
to influence the earth and the crops. Therefore a seeding calendar should be drawn up every year, so that the
farmer can make the best use of favourable planetary and astrological influences and avoid unfavourable ones.
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Permaculture
The term "permaculture" was coined in 1975 by Bill Mollison, an Australian. It derives from combining two words -
permanent and agriculture - in order to suggest a global and holistic approach to farming. The various constituent
elements of any given area are consciously arranged so as to promote mutually beneficial relationships. The aim is
to work towards a natural ecosystem in which need for man to intervene with energy and labour is progressively
reduced as the system becomes more stable, lasting, and - eventually - permanent.
The permaculture method envisages year-round crop-growing, together with farming methods and activities that
consume small amounts of energy in the most efficient way possible. The method is intended to appeal to small
groups or communities that care about the planet’s future, and it is concerned more with self-sufficiency in food than
with producing food for commercial purposes.
The underlying principles of this philosophy are:
 small-scale exploitation of the land;
 growing a broad variety of crops rather than just large quantities of one crop;
 growing perennial rather than annual crops;
 the virtue of a broad variety of animal and vegetable species, crops, microclimates and habitats;
 thinking long-term, with future generations in mind;
 growing local species, since these are well adapted to the soil and the climate; (not hybrids, which are weak,
expensive, and unable to adapt);
 the inclusion of all the constituent elements of the system in a mutually beneficial network of working
relationships: people, plants, animals, sun, wind, water, buildings, land;
 showing particular concern for so-called marginal or unproductive areas: land that is steep, rocky, arid, or
marshy.
The permaculture method aims to anticipate the effects of the important climactic changes that are taking place, and
maintains that plants have a moderating influence on the climate and are able to reduce its harshness. Variety and
ecodiversity are seen as an insurance policy against fire, drought, wind, or heavy rainfall. The structural and
functional variety of plants increases the number of microclimates, which in their turn create favourable conditions
for a larger variety of useful plants; thus plants create better conditions for both man and animals - a typical example
of positive interaction as envisaged by the permaculture approach.
The main permaculture associations are:
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 Permaculture Consultancy, Australia
 Permaculture Institute of North America, USA
 Permaculture Pyrénées / Ass. Las Encantadas, France
 Permakultur Institut, Germany
 Permaculture Association, Britain
The zero-tillage system

This system is based on the principle of minimum interference with the workings of nature. It was developed in
Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka, and is influenced by the philosophical and religious precepts of Zen Buddhism and
Taoism.
There are four basic principles that should govern man’s relationship with the earth:
 Not to break up the earth in any way, since roots, insects, and microorganism break it up in any case;
 Not to use fertilisers, since they damage the quality of the soil. Conventional agricultural practices undermine
the qualitative and quantitative relationships that exist in the ground, thereby making it vulnerable and at the
same time creating a need for fertilisers. The zero breakup method enables the soil to maintain itself and
provide itself with fertilisers through its own natural cycles and those of the animal and vegetable life that it
hosts.
 Not to use chemical products, since they weaken plants. Once a plant is prone to disease, insects become a
threat. The danger of disease is always present, but it strikes only when the environment has lost its natural
equilibrium. Nature is capable of maintaining a perfect equilibrium by herself, and a healthy environment
wards off disease.
 Not to remove weeds, since they have always been part of a living ecological structure. Weeds that grow
naturally are extremely strong and encourage all forms of life; so it is a basic principle of natural agriculture
that they should be left alone.
When a farmer first adopts natural methods of agriculture, the land will need a few years to recover its lost vitality;
the crop from land that has been over-exposed to fertilisers will initially be between 10 and 15% smaller than before.
In Japan, it has been shown that after a three-year period in which the soil has not been broken up or hoed, it is
possible to obtain higher yields than those obtained by standard modern methods: in an average year, a half-hectare
of land will yield 3.5 tons of barley and a further 3.5 tons of rice.
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In order to practise this method, a farmer must have a thorough knowledge and understanding of nature, plants,
water, the land and the surrounding area.
The zero breakup method does not envisage leaving these things entirely to themselves. It envisages presiding over
them with the wisdom that derives from an understanding of the way the universe is ordered, making a minimum use
of artificial human labour, and allowing the plants to live unaided and unmolested.
Organic farming, apart from specific kinds, is based on multiple choices: vision, motivation, knowledge,
entrepreneurship attitudes, feeling with organic farming, technical competences and means. Therefore to become an
organic farmer means also to share a vision in harmony with principles of sustainability and land protection (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Factors that affect the adoption of organic farming
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Module 1 Summary
The main findings of this module are :
 Differences between organic farming and conventional agriculture
which are interrelated with
 FARM MANAGEMENT MODULE
 Learning outcome 1
To understand the basis of organic farming and main differences from conventional agriculture
To recognize the procedures for organic farming and related transition
Related learning outcome/s or chapter/s :
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Module 1 - Tests and assignments
1 ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
What is IFOAM?
 International standard for organic farming
 International association of organic associations and movements
 International financial system for small and medium enterprises
What is biodynamic agriculture?

 Farming approach based on the principle that all organic substances are to be put back into the
natural system
 Technological approach based on intensive use of agricultural machineries
 Kind of farming based on use of GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)
What is permaculture?
 Kind of farming based on permanent cultivations
 Cultural approach based on primitive and old fashioned farming
 Method for sustainable energy saving farming aiming at a slow decrease of human intervention
What is crop rotation?

 Intensive cultivation method permitting quick and extra-seasonal replacement of crops
 Farming technique based on rotating crops with high nitrogen needs with those returning it to the soil
 Alternative use of GMO, conventional and organic seeds
What is biodiversity?
 Variety of living organisms (crops, animals, spontaneous plants,..) inhabiting an area
 Proliferation of bacteria
 Method to analyze and select seeds for crops
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2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
TRUE OR FALSE TRUE FALSE
Organic farmers are allowed to use grow chemical pesticides

Crop rotation is good for soil fertility
Conventional farming saves energy and is friendly for environment
Clover is able to improve by rotation soil fertility
Biological control of weed and parasites is not admitted in organic farming
Use of renewable energy sources is included in organic farming method
Biodiversity can be more protected by conventional than by organic farming
Intensive breeding is recommended for organic farming
Codex Alimentarius is an old book on use of vegetables and meats
Food safety has to be respected also by organic food producers
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

WRITE A DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO FARMERS: ONE OF THEM IS A CONVENTIONAL FARMER AND THE
OTHER ONE USES ORGANIC METHODS TO PRODUCE FOOD.
WHEN READY TWO PERSONS WILL PLAY THE ROLES AND THE CLASS WILL VOTE THE WINNER.
A NOTE TAKER WILL DRAW UP A REPORT.
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MODULE 2 General rules for organic farming
To get at a glance meaning and consequences of the regulations and policies on organic
farming and related certification
To know economic relevance and consistence of organic farming
In the EU
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MODULE 1.2 General rules and overview for organic farming and food
1.2.1 EU REGULATIONS AND POLICIES ON ORGANIC FARMING
The approval by the European Council of Regulation 2092/91 marked a vital step towards the official recognition of
organic farming methods throughout Europe. This Regulation had set out the basic principles of the method, as well
as rules governing the processing, sale, and importation of organically produced goods. The Regulation CE
834/2007 updated the previous one, also focusing on biodiversity, animal welfare and environmental issues:
“Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that combines best
environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources, the application of high
animal welfare standards and a production method in line with the preference of certain consumers for products
produced using natural substances and processes. The organic production method thus plays a dual societal role,
where it on the one hand provides for a specific market responding to a consumer demand for organic products, and
on the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the environment and animal welfare, as well
as to rural development.”
The “Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products
and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91” is intended to mark the formal recognition of the sector and to lay
down norms to be respected by all those wishing to be considered as part of it. The intention is also to enable
consumers to clearly identify organically produced food without any risk of error; thus putting an end to a series of
fraudulent claims made by producers. The new label, clearly distinguished by the previous one, similar to those
identifying the protected European quality products, PGI, PDO and TSG, aims also to avoid any confusion with other
non organic products.
Throughout the European Union, the term "organic" on food labels and advertisements for foodstuffs and agricultural
produce can only be used for items produced in accordance with the Regulation’s rules concerning production and
processing methods. The special legally defined status thus attached to the term "organic" in English, applies
correspondingly to the term "biological" in Italian, French, Greek, Dutch and Portuguese, and to "ecological" in
Spanish, Danish and German.
It is worth pointing out the Regulation EC 834/2007, as already before the Regulation EEC 2092/91 expressly
forbids the use of the term "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological") for products, since the term can only be used to
refer to the method. This is not an idle distinction, since whilst all agricultural produce is necessarily organic (or
biological / ecological), the method can only be referred to as "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological") when it
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rigorously respects certain defined criteria of production, for example: the non-use of chemical products; the use of
animal manures as fertilisers; and parasite control through the use of predator insects.
The Regulation therefore defines a method or process, and not a product.
Regulation 2092/91 was applicable only to unprocessed vegetable produce (fruit, vegetables, cereals, etc.) and to
products for human consumption that contain mainly ingredients of vegetable origin, whilst Regulation 1807/99 was
referred to livestock production.
On July 20, 2007, the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and
labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91. The Commission subsequently adopted
implementing regulations: Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 completed the standards with detailed
production rules, labelling rules and control requirements and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1235/2008
implemented the new import regime. All the new regulations came into force on January 1, 2009. The regulations
guarantees that terms such as organic, bio and eco are only used on food products that are produced according to
the standards laid down in the regulation. One of the key developments of the European organic sector in 2010 was
the launch of the new EU logo for organic products. Since July 1, 2010, the organic logo of the EU (see Figure 2)
has been obligatory on all pre-packaged organic products that have been produced in all EU member states and
meet the necessary standards.
Figure 2 - Logo of the EU for organic agriculture and food since July 1 , 2010
Another important reference for organic producers is the 2005 version of the “IFOAM Norms for Organic Production
and Processing” including basic standards and accreditation criteria according to the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements. The EC regulations are more careful to satisfaction and guarantee of consumers,
whilst the IFOAM norms have a more complete and adequate cognitive approach to satisfy knowledge and
competences needed by producers.
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Production methods
The fertility and the biological processes of the soil must be ensured by the following methods: growing leguminous
plants and plants with deep roots, and ploughing-in leguminous plants, whilst at the same time adopting crop-
rotation over a cycle lasting several years; and enriching the soil with organic matter (composted or not) produced by
farms that comply with the regulations governing the organic method. Certain by-products from livestock breeding
(animal manure) can be used, provided that they come from livestock bred according to an organic method that
complies with the national regulations in force.
If the above steps are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutrition for the crops being grown in rotation, or if they do
not result in the soil having a suitable balance of minerals, so that supplements are deemed to be necessary, then it
is allowed to use a limited number of organic manures or natural minerals with low solubility. Approved substances
for plants and plant production are listed in Annex2 of the Regulation 2092/91, also including fertilizers and soil
conditioners in Annex II A. Some differences between EU Member States depend on specific permitted substances.
IFOAM proposes periodic inputs evaluation for amendments to Annex II of the regulation 2092/91. A new frontier is
constituted of the so called bio-based products, from agriculture and forestry raw fibres to produce intermediate and
chemical products with low degree of toxicity, high environmental sustainability and biodegradability, improved Life
Cycle Assessment index and low carbon footprint (see REACH, Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and
Restriction of Chemicals, regulation EC 1907/2006, entered into force on 1st June 2007).
Parasite control, protection from disease, as well as the elimination of weeds, should be effected by a range of
methods aimed at avoiding the need to use insecticides. This involves: choosing species and varieties of plant that
are naturally resistant; appropriate crop-rotation; weed-removal by burning; and protecting the natural enemies of
parasites. Only if the crops are in immediate danger is the farmer allowed to use a limited number of plant treatment
products. These are listed in Appendix IIB of Regulation 2092/91.
The Regulation allows for a so called conversion or transition period, this being the time necessary to make the
change from conventional agricultural methods to organic ones.
This involves a minimum period of two years (before the seeding) for annual crops, and three years (before the first
harvest) for (perennial) trees. Depending on the use that was previously made of the land, the conversion period can
be shortened or extended. The conversion period and the restrictions relating to the sale of crops grown in it, do not
apply to farmers who have used organic methods for at least two years. Organic food-treatment and processing
must obviously comply with current EU rules, or, where these do not exist, with the relevant national laws. It should
be emphasised that the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007, as well as before the Regulation 2092/91,
forbids ionizing radiation treatment at any stage of the organic method of food production. Genetically modified
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organisms (GMO) that could be legitimately used, if authorized by the European Food Safety Authority, on the basis
of the “precaution principle”, as part of conventional food-production processes, cannot currently be used at any
stage of the organic method of food-production.
Crops to grow during conversion

Looking at the organic farm as being ‘one organism’, the focus does not lie on cultivating specific crops only. Rather,
the focus is on choosing crops that can easily be integrated into the existing farming system and will contribute to its
improvement. But the choice also depends on the farmer’s knowledge on the right management of the crops, their
contribution to a diverse family diet or their demand in the market. Besides growing crops for food, farmers may
need to grow leguminous cover crops to provide high-protein feed for livestock and to be used as green manures
to feed the soil. Planting trees for shade, as windbreak, for firewood, feed, mulching material or for other uses, can
be recommended in most situations. Criteria for crop selection during conversion:
 In a first place organic farmers should grow enough food for their family. But they may also want to grow
crops for the market to get money for other family needs. The farmers should also grow crops that contribute
to improvement of soil fertility. Farmers who keep livestock need to grow pasture grass and legumes.
 Basically, farmers should select crops with low risk of failure. Cereals and legumes such as maize, sorghum,
millet, beans and peas are especially suitable for conversion, since they cost little to produce, generally have
moderate nutrient demands and are robust against pests and diseases. In addition, many of the traditional
crops can be stored and sold in domestic markets. High-value short term crops, such as most vegetables,
are more delicate to grow and highly susceptible to pest and disease attack. Therefore, they should not be
grown on a larger scale, unless the farmer can endure some losses in harvest.
 The crops to grow for sale should include crops that can be sold at the farm gate, at the roadside market or
can be transported directly to nearby markets in urban centres. Choosing the right crop to sell on the market
may require some market information. Decision making for crops for local or export markets requires detailed
information from traders or exporters on the crops, requested varieties, quantities, qualities and season.
 High-value perennial crops such as fruit trees take at least 3 years until the first harvest from the date of
planting. This makes them appropriate crops for the conversion period. For new plantations, species and
varieties must be carefully selected to suit the organic market and production requirements. For conversion
of an existing orchard, it might be necessary to replace old existing varieties, if they are very susceptible to
diseases and the product quality does not match with the market requirements.
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 The success of a crop will also depend on provision of favourable growing conditions. The better a crop
variety matches local soil and climate conditions, and is tolerant or resistant to common pests and diseases,
the better it will grow.
 Planting of hedges and agro-forestry trees can be valuable to help establish a diverse farming system.
 Growing leguminous green manures provides nutrients to the soil. Green manures do not provide immediate
income, but in the long-term, they make the soil fertile and productive for the future.
Many farmers want to see quick results and often ask how long it takes for organic crops to grow. Organic farming
does not aim to make crops grow faster. Crops will grow faster and larger when they have better growing conditions
than before. Although conventionally grown crops can be made to grow faster by intensive use of synthetic fertilizers
and sprays, organic crops are nurtured to grow at their normal, natural rate in order to be less susceptible to pests
and diseases and build up good physical and nutritional structure. However, organic farmers do a lot to make their
crops grow healthy and to produce good yields.
Avoiding contamination
It is in the responsibility of organic farmers to protect the organic fields from being sprayed with synthetic pesticides.
Even if the neighbour is not farming organically, an organic farmer can grow organic foods and fibres. To avoid
pesticide drift from neighbouring fields onto the crops, organic farmers should safeguard the organic fields by using
any of the following measures:
 Planting of natural hedges on the boundary to neighbouring fields can avoid the risk of pesticide spray drift
through wind or run-off water. The wider the border area around the fields, the better.
 To avoid runoff from upstream fields, organic farmers should divert the water away or talk to the farmers
upstream about how to work together to minimize the risk of contamination through water. Organic farmers
who are interested in saving nature, should share their knowledge and experiences with neighbours with the
aim of helping them to either adopt organic farming practices or to minimize the risk of contaminating nature.
A specific focus has to be put on contamination risks from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). Genetically
modified seeds and planting materials are produced by transferring isolated genes from plants, animals or
microorganisms into the crop genome, circumventing pollination and crossing natural barriers. This is seen as a
violation of the integrity of the cell as the smallest living entity and is not accepted in organic farming. Genetically
modified products should, therefore, not be used in organic farming, and organic farmers should protect their
production against any GMO contamination. However, with the increased use of GM crops in the conventional
farming systems, the risk of GMO contamination is expected to increase. Species which cross-pollinate, such as
18
rapeseed or maize, or insect pollinated crops, such as soybean or cotton, are at a higher risk of being contaminated
by a nearby genetically modified crop. Species that are mainly vegetative pollinated such as potatoes, cassava or
banana are at lower risk of GMO contamination. Besides the genetic contamination, there is also a risk of physical
contamination caused by GMO residues along the production and market chain, if GMO and organic products are
not properly separated.
Recommendations to farmers for reducing the GMO contamination risk:
 Use either personally selected seeds or get organic or untreated seeds that were not genetically modified
from neighbouring farmers you and are certain do not use GMO seeds and are not surrounded by GM crops
of conventional farmers (distance of at least 1 km). If you use seeds from a trader, make sure that he is
registered and can confirm where the seed is derived from. Check that he is not involved in GM production
and multiplication. Ask your trader for a certificate confirming GM free seeds and inquire about the trader’s
involvement in the GM-seed market.
 Check for the breeding habits of the specific crops you are interested in. Most cross breeding species such
as maize can disperse by wind or bees to distances of up to 1 to 3 km.
 Seeds of some crops can survive for 5 to 20 years in the soil. Therefore, precautions must be taken that no
GM crops have been planted on land that shall be used for organic production.
 Create protective safety (buffer) zones around your fields to reduce the risk of GMO pollen dispersal, if GM
crops are cultivated in this region. Isolation distances between GM crops and organic fields should be
established, about 2-3 times larger than those required for seed production for a given species. For dispersal
of critical GM crops such as maize, the isolation distance should probably not be less than 2 to 3 km. This
will reduce GMO dispersal by pollen to a great extent. For wind pollinated crops, like maize, borders or
hedges with tall plant species, such as sugarcane or trees, can additionally prevent cross-pollination with GM
crops.
 Avoid any physical GM contamination by using sowing and harvesting machines, transporters, processing
and storage facilities not used for GM crops. In case you have to use the same machines, thorough cleaning
is necessary. Do not store organic products next to GM products.
 GMO free regions should be encouraged wherever possible, especially for own seed production.
The conversion process for organic certification

From the point of view of certification, the period of conversion starts when a farmer manages his farm in
accordance with the organic regulations. This starts when a farmer renounces use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers
19
and GMO or treated seeds. Stepwise reduction of agrochemicals cannot be considered part of the conversion
period. An important step of the conversion period is the recognition of the farm as organic by a certification body.
The conversion period is accomplished after the third year or third harvest is certified as organic. Nevertheless,
even if the formal conversion period is accomplished, the adaptation of the farm is not finished. It usually takes
several years to establish a well-balanced farm ecosystem and restore natural soil fertility. According to the basic
regulations of IFOAM, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, the entire farm must be
managed organically. This is true for all private organic labels as well. Whereas most governmental regulations allow
farmers to certify a part of the farm as organic and still manage the rest of the farm conventionally. Such separation,
however, involves risks and, therefore, also some restrictions and constraints. Generally, for small farms, only
conversion of the entire farm can be recommended, as the farm unit would become too small to enable
establishment of a diverse production system, allow proper crop rotation and introduction of livestock.
The procedure of inspection and certification

Once a farmer or a farmer group has taken the decision to convert his or their farm(s), the farmer or the farmer
group can take the first step towards certification by contacting the certification body and asking for information on
the certification procedure, the costs and the subscription forms for certification. This can happen at any time of the
year. The contact between the farmer and the certification body may also be established through an agricultural
adviser. Following the farmer’s contact, the certification company will give the farmer the application forms for
starting the official conversion process, and the organic regulation manual to make sure that the farmer has all
information available on the requirements of organic agriculture. The farmer is then asked to get familiar with the
regulations and sign the application. Together with the application, the farmer provides detailed information about
the farm to be certified.
Based on the forms, the certification body sets up a contract and forwards it to the farmer. The farmer signs the
contract, declaring commitment to comply with organic regulations and the conditions of the certification procedure
including the annual visit, the duty of record keeping and payment of certification fees.
The conversion can start at 1st of January or during the year when the crop season starts (for example flowering of
fruit trees or soil preparation for vegetable crops). When converting, the farmer must start keeping records, such as
purchase and application of inputs (fertilizers, pest and disease management agents, seeds) as well as marketing of
products. The records will serve as one of the references on crop and animal husbandry for certification.
Every year the farm is inspected by an inspection officer or by a member of the participatory control system. During
inspection, the farmer informs the officer about the management of the crops and of livestock and his or her
20
successes and failures. The officer consults the records and takes a look at the fields and the stables. Inspection
also includes an estimation of the risk of contamination of the farm through synthetic pesticides and GMO from
neighbouring fields. In case products are transformed on the farm, the procedures will also be discussed. The more
open and honest the communication by the farmer is, the better any possible misunderstandings can be avoided.
Based on the farm-visit the inspection officer writes the inspection report and forwards it to the certifiers for analysis
and final certification decision. If the farm complies with the organic regulations, the farmer receives the certificate, if
necessary with additional recommendations for the management. In case of non-compliance with requirements, for
example, following the use of synthetic pesticides, the certifier is not authorized to issue a certificate.
With the certificate, the farmer may now sell his products as organic in conversion during the first 2-3 years. After the
third year only, the farmer can sell his products as full organic.
Organic seed requirements for certification

For organic certification according to most standards, farmers are required to use only organic seed and planting
materials, if available. If organic seed and planting materials are not commercially available, the following options (in
order of preference) may be permitted with documentation that organic seed is not available:
 Seed grown only with substances in accordance with organic standards (can be from fields under
conversion).
 Untreated seed and planting stock from neighbours or group members.
 Non-organic seed for perennial plants may be used. Perennial plants or crops must be managed organically
for at least 12 months before harvest or sale as organic, but the original plants need not be organic.
Arrangements in brief for control and inspection

People or companies who, as part of a commercial activity, produce, process, or import from another country
foodstuffs or agricultural produce that are sold as "organic", must notify this fact to the appropriate authority or
authorities of the Member State under whose jurisdiction they fall; and furthermore, they must make their operations
available for inspection by the authority or authorities appointed by the Member State. The Member State may
nominate one or more bodies from the public or private sectors to act as its appointed inspectors. And a separate
body appointed by the Member State is specifically responsible for ensuring, via its own inspections, that the
appointed inspectors are carrying out their duties in a fair and proper way.
21
Organically produced food can only be sold as such if it has been checked and certified by the Member State’s
inspectors.
The methods and criteria of the inspections are specified in EU regulations, and adapted from those set out in detail
in Appendix III of Regulation No 2092/91, on the Regulations EC 834/2007 and 889/2008, also including labelling
rules.
When the farm is first inspected, the inspector submits a full description of it to the authority he represents. After
that, it is the farmer’s duty every year to notify the authority of his crop-growing programme for every plot of land.
The farmer must keep a detailed record of the products he buys and the farm produce he sells, specifying quantity,
exact nature, and origin or destination.
If a farm uses organic and conventional methods contemporaneously, there must be a rigorous separation between
the cultivated areas and the storage spaces set aside for each method. It is not allowed to grow the same variety of
crop using both methods. During the inspection of such a farm, the inspector will consider it as a whole, and will look
at every part of it, including the part where conventional agriculture is practised. If the inspector should find any
breach of regulations, the authority should withdraw the farmer’s right to make any reference to organic farming
methods, either with regard to the whole crop, or to that part of it that is affected by the breach. In the event of
blatant breaches, or those having long-term effects, the authority can ban the farmer from making any reference, for
a specified length of time, to the organic process in connection with the crops grows and/or sells. Each Member
State organises the arrangements for control and inspection in its own national territory.
Labelling of organically produced foodstuffs

EU legislation lays down very precise rules concerning the labelling and advertising of organically produced
foodstuffs. This is intended to put an end to a state of affairs that until recently was highly ambiguous and tended to
leave the consumer confused or annoyed. Regulation 2092/91 created various categories of produce according to
the proportion of organically produced ingredients that each category contains. The new Regulation EC No
834/2007 also maintains the same categories and proportion. This proportion is expressed as a percentage.
Only two types of product can be sold with labelling that refers to the organic method of production. These are: i)
unprocessed organically-produced (vegetable) agricultural produce and ii) processed products containing over 95%
of ingredients defined as produced by organic methods. This last category can contain a maximum of 5% of
ingredients produced by conventional farming methods, provided that such ingredients are not available, or are
available in insufficient quantities in organic form on the EU market (i.e. exotic fruit, specific natural flavours,
products of hunting and fishing, ingredients added for specific nutrition purposes,..).
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If the producer wishes, the labelling for this category can also state that the product conforms to EU organic farming
standards. USA and EU have agreed an “equivalence arrangement”, taking effect on 1st June 2012, by recognising
that organic products certified to the USDA organic or European Union (EU) organic standards may be sold and
labelled as organic in both the U.S. and the EU. It is also foreseen in order to facilitating trade between the two
largest markets in the world, collaboration programs to promote organic agriculture, protect organic integrity and
share technical information and best practices.
Article 27(4) of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of organic
products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2091/92, provides that the competent authority may confer its control
competences to one or more control authorities and/or delegate control tasks to one ore more control bodies. The
updated list of the control bodies is published on http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/files/consumer-
confidence/inspection-certification/EU_control_bodies_authorities_en.pdf .
Incentives to convert to organic farming

A measure of the interest shown by many Member States in organic methods of farming, is the fact that they
encouraged farmers to adopt them even before the approval of Regulation 2078/92 on agricultural environmental
measures.
The first Member State to introduce financial incentives for organic farming was Denmark, which set up a scheme to
encourage consulting, information, and marketing services; farms were also eligible for direct grants and subsidies
during the conversion period. Since then also other EU countries introduced grants and subsidies to stimulate the
conversion to organic farming, contributing to enlarge the organic farmers’ movement.
Amongst EU countries, Germany was the first to introduce, in 1989, a conversion programme to organic farming as
part of the European Community’s general agricultural policy. The German programme set out mainly to reduce
agricultural output, and did not contain any stated environmental aims. Financial aid made available for conversion
to organic farming was DM 425 per hectare per year for crops of which there was a surplus, and DM 300 for other
crops. The subsidies lasted for a period of five years. (Lampkin, 1996)
The approval of EC Regulation 2078/92 marked the Community’s commitment to finance and promote
environmentally-friendly methods of production in the agricultural sector. The Regulation included a range of
measures which together tended to reduce the quantity of agricultural produce, to protect the rural landscape, and to
save endangered plant and animal species.
Specifically, the measures were as follows:
 to reduce the use of chemical products on farms, and to promote organic farming methods
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 to discourage all forms of intensive farming
 to reduce the density of the sheep and goat population
 to encourage the introduction of a range of environmentally-friendly practices, including the protection the
landscape and the breeding of endangered animal species
 to protect abandoned farm- and forest-land
 20-year set-aside in order to allow it to regain its vitality
 to manage land with an eye to public access and recreational uses
 to offer training and to promote public awareness
Most Member States have concentrated their energy on the first and last of these measures. Furthermore, most
Member States have granted aids and subsidies both to existing organic farms and to those wishing to convert to
organic methods and some of them have set up networks to provide consumers with information and technical
advice. Arrangements for control and inspection are not financed by the EU, but some Member Countries have
made funds available for these purposes. The new Agro-environment measures included in the Rural Development
Plans 2007/2013 are addressed to at least one of two broad objectives, reducing environmental risks associated
with modern farming on the one hand, and preserving nature and cultivated landscapes on the other hand.
France, Britain, Greece, and some of the German Länder have decided just to offer financial help during the
conversion period.
1.2.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN EUROPE
Global turnover in organic food was almost 55 billion US dollars or approximately 40 billion Euros in 2009 (Sahota
2011). About one quarter of the world’s organic agricultural land, estimated 37.2 million hectares in total, is in
Europe, which accounts for 9.2 million hectares (Willer & Kilcher 2011).
Since the beginning of the 1990s, organic farming has rapidly developed in almost all European countries (European
Commission 2010). In Europe, currently more than nine million hectares are managed organically by more than
260,000 producers (2009, see Table 1). In the European Union there were 8.3 million hectares in 2008 dedicated to
organic farming, constituting 4.7 percent of the European whole agricultural land. They were managed organically by
almost 220, 000 producers (Willer & Kilcher 2011). Between 2008 and 2009, the organic agricultural land in Europe
increased by almost 1 million hectares (see Figure 1). The increase is due to high growth rates in Turkey, Spain,
Italy and France. In recent years, growth rates were higher in the new member states compared to those in the EU
24
15. The country with the largest organic agricultural land area in 2010 was Spain with 1,456,672 hectares, followed
by Italy with 1,113,742 hectares, Germany with 990,702 hectares, France with 845,442 hectares and United
Kingdom with 699,638 (see Figure 3). Italy is the country in Europe with the highest number of producers (41,807
producers).
The European market for organic food and drink

In 2010, the EU organic food and drink market (general retails sales, specialised shops, farm gates sales etc.) was
estimated to value approximately 18,400 million euro. The largest market is Germany with approximately 6 billion €
(2010), followed by France (approx. 3,4 billion €), and the UK (approx. 2 billion €). Denmark, Austria and Switzerland
account for the highest market shares with more than five percent of the total food and drink market. While land area
under organic management has expanded rapidly in many new EU member states as well as in candidate and
potential EU candidate countries, consumption levels have remained low in these countries (less than 1 percent).
Whereas 2009 was characterised by slower growth than the previous years, with stagnation in some countries, the
situation has changed in 2010 with organic products showing notable increases in sales again, which can be related
to the improvement of economic conditions in general. In 2010 prices rose considerably in the second half of the
year after a lower harvest of many crops, so it is likely that the limiting factor for market growth could again be
supply. Overall it is estimated that market development in 2010 across Europe resulted in single digit growth rate for
sales values and a bigger growth rate for the sales volumes. For 2011 market actors expect ongoing mainly single-
digit growth of the organic market in many countries. USA are the largest international market with more than 20
billions euro (see Figure 5).
Action plans for organic food and farming

Organic action plans provide a framework for integrating policies and measures in order to encourage organic sector
development. Thus action plans serve as a strategic instrument for governments to achieve policy goals, particularly
when multiple policy areas (such as agriculture, environment, and trade) and different levels of policy formulation are
to be integrated (Schmid & al. 2008). According to a recent survey at least 26 countries or regions in Europe have
an action plan (Gonzálvez 2011), many of them with quantitative targets. Austria for instance aimed to have 20%
organic land by 2010. This goal was almost achieved: the country had a 19.5% share of organic land in 2010. In
2004 the European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming was launched. The information campaign proposed in
the plan started in July 2008. With this campaign, Action 1 - a multi-annual EU wide information and promotion
campaign to inform consumers, public institutions' canteens, schools and other key actors is implemented.
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Convergence between Rural Development and Organic Action Plans
Regulation EC 1698/2005 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural
Development enables member states to support the conversion to and maintenance of organic farming. While most
member states avail of this opportunity the level of support varies significantly (Pohl 2009; Schwarz, Nieberg,
Sanders 2010). Many non-EU countries also provide similar support. Rural development programmes have enabled
broader based support of the organic sector, for example investment in processing, training, marketing and
promotion.
In June 2004 the European Commission published the European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming. The
plan sets out a range of policy measures to support the development of the organic sector in order to meet
consumer demands in a market-oriented way and to deliver public goods such as environmental protection and
animal welfare. The plan proposes 21 actions in different policy fields.
Through Action Point 6 (EU Commission 2004, COM (2004) 415 Final, that requires “actions in order to preserve the
benefits for the environment and nature protection in the long term”, the Commission strongly recommends Member
States to make full use within their Rural Development Programmes of the instruments available to support organic
farming, for example by developing national or regional Action Plans.
Research
Today, organic farming research is funded under national research programmes or national organic action plans, as
well as through European Research Programmes (7th Framework Programme 2007/2013). Even though no figures
for all European countries are available, it is known that the funds of the eleven countries who are part of the ERA-
Net project CORE Organic amounted to more than 60 million Euros annually in 2006 (Lange & al. 2006). The Food,
Agriculture and Biotechnology strand of FP7 Cooperation Programme amounts to 1,935 million €, of which about
10% can be estimated on organic farming topics. Since the mid-1990s, several organic farming research projects
have been funded under the framework programmes of the European Commission. Furthermore, there are several
European projects that do not have organic farming as their focus, but carried out research related to organic
farming in the framework of individual work packages, such as i.e. quality food products, also including Protected
Designation of Origin (PDO), Geographical Protected Indication (GPI) and Traditional Specialty Guaranteed (STG).
Nevertheless all efforts no specific Technology Platform was created to deal with agriculture and public goods in
general or with organic food and farming in particular. This omission was pointed out by the European Commission
26
at the conference "Towards Future Challenges of Agricultural Research in Europe" in Brussels, 26-27 June 2007.
Zoran Staneiˇc, Deputy Director General of DG Research said: “The technology platforms and the SCAR Working
Groups have shown their capacity to break down research challenges to specific fields covering the 4 Fs: Food,
Feed, Fibre and Fuel. In some areas, however, we are lacking appropriate platforms, for example in public goods
oriented research or organic agriculture.” Consequently, the IFOAM EU Group, representing the organic sector in
close cooperation with ISOFAR (International Society of Organic Agriculture Research), initiated a process aimed at
developing a vision for innovative research activities for organic agriculture and food systems with a strong focus on
providing public goods, also involving relevant partners, stakeholders, organizations and Members of the European
Parliament. The main result is represented by the publication “Vision for an Organic Food and Farming Research
Agenda to 2025 – Organic Knowledge for the Future” (July 2008). A Technology Platform (TP Organics) will be the
long-term vehicle for hosting and facilitating the future debate on how research strategies can be continuously
adjusted and how they might be translated into concrete research programmes and projects.
All updated information on organic farming research can be follow up on the website http://www.organic-europe.net .
27
Table 1: Organic agricultural land and share of total agricultural land in Europe 2009
28
Graphic 1: Development of organic agricultural land (including conversion areas) in Europe 1985-2009 . Source FiBL (Research
Institute of Organic Agriculture) and Aberystwith University (Wales)
Graphic 2: Growth of the European market for organic food 2005-2009
Source: Surveys by FiBL, AMI and ORC 2011
30
Figure 3 Organic agricultural land areas in Europe. Source FiBl/IFOAM
“The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2012” (data based on 2010).
Graphic 3 - The ten countries with the highest per capita consumption (in €). Source FiBl/IFOAM
“The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2012” (data 2010).
32
Graphic 4 - The ten countries with the largest organic markets. Source FiBl/IFOAM
“The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2012” (data 2010).
33
What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June?
 EU Regulation on organic farming updating the Regulation 2092/91
 EU Regulation on agricultural environmental measures
 EU Regulation on CAP subsidies
What is the conversion process to organic farming?

 Charter of principles listing all the procedures for organic farming
 Farming based on intensive land use
 Transition process to manage a farm by adopting organic farming practices and organic standards
What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 889/2008?

 EU Regulation on farming best practices
 EU Regulation on organic standards including labelling rules and control requirements
 EU Regulation on incentives for conversion to organic farming
What are the organic action plans?

 Development plans for EU rural areas
 EU regional plans to favour coexistence of conventional and organic farming
 EU initiatives to develop the organic food market, improve transparency and consumer confidence
What is the largest national organic market in Europe?

 Switzerland
 Italy
 Germany
34
2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
The EC 834/2007 is the ongoing Council Regulation for organic farming

The European market for organic food diminished in the years 2005-2009
USA is the world largest market for organic food
USA is the country with the world highest per capita organic food consumption
Italy is the EU country with the largest organic arable land in hectares
Reg. EC 1698/2005 allows support from member states to organic farming
Austria is the EU member state with the largest share of organic agricultural land
Organic action plans in EU are not connected to the Rural Development Plans
The economic impact of organic farming is growing at EU and world level
Food containing 70% of organic ingredients can be certified as “organic”
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

WRITE A DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO FARMERS: ONE OF THEM HAS TO EXPLAIN TO ANOTHER HOW TO
CONVERT A CONVENTIONAL FARM IN AN ORGANIC FARM.
WHEN READY TWO PERSONS WILL PLAY THE ROLES AND THE CLASS WILL GIVE THEIR FURTHER
ADVICE TO IMPROVE THE CONTENTS OF THE DIALOGUE.
35
Module 2 Summary
 Specific regulations and certifications for organic farming
To get at a glance meaning and consequences of the regulations and policies on organic
farming and related certification
To know economic relevance and consistence of organic farming
in EU
36
MODULE 3 Organic crops
To satisfy the background needs for sustainable agriculture and organic farming
To understand and manage relationships soil/crops and related
organic farming procedures
To understand and manage relationships nutrition/plant and related organic farming techniques
37
MODULE 1.3 Organic crops
1.3.1 ORGANIC FARMING AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
One of the basic differences between conventional and organic agriculture lies in the differing views of how plants
are supplied with minerals. The so called principle of input-output was explained by Liebig in one of his most
important works, “The Application of the chemistry in Agriculture and Physiology": “If a farmer wants to be sure of a
long-term high yield he must make sure to replace the nutrients which are lacking in stable manure from other
sources, as the amount of these substances contained in the fields is very limited … if the farmer does not ensure
their replacement the time will inevitably come when any field is no longer able to produce crops" (Liebig 1865).
In organic farming the crops are sustained by the soil, from which they extract the nutrients, making the soil, together
with the climate, the two conditions which must be taken into consideration. In such a system the soil is considered a
fragile element that must be cared for and protected to assure its long-term productivity and stability. Soil fertility is a
general concept expressing soil capacity to allow growth and production of plants. This concept in organic farming,
since the EEC Regulation 2092/91 as well as in Regulations EC 834/2007 and 889/2008, means that soil fertility has
to be maintained by bringing organic substances, instead of synthetic chemical fertilizers. This entails that in order to
maintain and improve the productivity of the soil the following agricultural practices should be carried out:
 Reduction of tilling
 Adequate management of watering in order to reduce the erosion and the resulting loss of soil through drag.
 Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil to diminish the erosion processes.
 Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops (i.e. leguminous plants).
Table 2 shows the relationship between the processes of degradation of the soil and the beneficial effects of the
preservation practices. The vital component in the dynamic balance, shown in the figure, is the organic material of
the soil, which must be maintained and replaced by means of regularly adding organic residues. It is for this reason
that in ecological agriculture the correct use of organic correctors is the key to maintaining the fertility and
productivity of the soil minimising the erosion caused by water and wind and preventing the loss of nutrients through
run-off and being washed away.
38
Table 2: The relationship between the processes of degradation and the practices for preserving the soil (from Parr et al., 1990)
PROCESSES OF SOIL PRACTICES FOR

DEGRADATION PRESERVING THE SOIL
 Erosion  Tilling
 Run-off of  Crop rotation
Soil
nutrients  Improved draining
Productivity
 Flooding - +  Managing residues
 Turning into  Water preservation
desert  Terracing the land
 Acidification  Cultivating in strips
 Compacting of land
 The formation of a  Chemical fertiliser
crust  Organic fertiliser
 Loss of organic  Improve the cycle of
material the nutrients
 Salinity  Suitability of the
 Depletion of soil, the climate and
nutrients due to the varieties
being washed
away
 Accumulation of
foods
39
Given that in organic farming it is possible to choose the place of the production, it is important to consider factors
such as the type and depth of the soil, the history of previous crops, the climate and the topography, and so on. All
this allows the inputs to be reduced and for a sustainable productive system to be established. The choice of crops
and/or varieties that are tolerant to the pedological and adverse climatic conditions (for example tolerance to
drought) also contribute to this aim, as do resistance to disease and plagues or, failing this, adapting the cycles so
that they are minimally affected (bringing forward the date of sowing, etc.) as well as the rotation of alternative crops.
(Table 3).
Table 3: Concept of sustainable agriculture (From Parr et al., 1990)
Objectives SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (VISION AND FUNCTION)

Productive Preserves the resources Increases food health and
and profitable and protects the security
environment
METHODS OF LOW INPUT AND RATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Means Non-use of Preservation practices of Crop rotation
synthetic soil and water
chemicals
Biological Mechanised cultivation Diversification of crops
control of and livestock
plagues
Use of organic Increase of soil fertility Use of animals and green
residues manure
Foster natural Use of useful insects Protection and recovery of

processes against parasites biodiversity
40
Diversification (crop rotation) allows for biological and economic flexibility. The production of a variety of crops allows
the farmer to distribute the economic risks and to be less sensitive to fluctuations in prices. From an agronomic and
biological point of view the practice of the rotation of annual crops contributes to the control of diseases, plagues and
weeds. In the same way, the use of vegetable covering, above all with woody crops, can give stability to the system
through the soil retention of nutrients, the retention of humidity in the soil and an increment in the infiltration rate and
in the capacity for water retention. In addition the vegetable covering could contribute to the health of the crops by
incrementing the population of friendly arthropods, thus reducing the need for pesticides. Organic farming implies a
time dimension and the capacity of the agricultural system to remain and last indefinitely and therefore without the
degradation of the environment due to minimising the inputs. It fosters ecologically viable increase in agricultural
production, being technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable and desirable.
1.3.2 FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF CROPS

Soil is the most important resource for the ecological farmer. By managing it efficiently it can remain in an adequate
state from a productive point of view as well as from the viewpoint of the fertility of the soil. In 6 you can see the
main factors that affect the fertility of the soil.
Given that in ecological production synthetic fertilisers may not be used, the maintenance of the fertility in organic
production systems is based on:
 Crop rotation.
 Burying cover crops and straw.
 Composting vegetable and animal residues.
 Maximum recycling of nutrients.
 Maintenance of the soil structure.
 Use of crops that fix nitrogen.
Figure 4: Factors that affect the fertility of the soil
41
Even though it is not the aim of this paragraph, it is of interest to note that water is at present, and will be even more
so in the future, the main limiting factor in agricultural production, therefore its correct use and preservation is
fundamental for organic production and for agricultural sustainability. The management of water in this context must
consider the following actions:
 Improving the means of its preservation
 The use of species and varieties that are tolerant of drought
 The use of watering systems of reduced volume
 A correct manipulation of the crops and their watering in order to reduce the loss of water through
evaporation and run-off
General principles for choosing crops

When one chooses a type of ecological production it is important to take the following points into consideration:
 The destiny of highly specialised quality markets
 To choose varieties capable of competing favourably with the weeds
 To choose varieties which have a good resistance to common diseases
 To choose early varieties in areas where the production is late to allow the reduction of the number of
phytosanitary treatments
 To cultivate a determined amount of varieties sequentially in order to get successive staggered harvests To
optimise the use of labour and a longer period of time on the market
 To take into account the effect of both the crops that came before and those that will come after when
deciding on the rotation
Factors determining the choice of crop
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The factors which should be considered and condition type of crop to choose are:
 The situation of the farm and its proximity to the destination markets
 The demands of the market
 The type of soil
 The farm specific characteristics
A correct crop rotation is a strong point for an efficient organic agriculture.
Rotation
Crop rotation, as a basis of organic crops and vegetable production, allows biodiversity to be introduced throughout
the duration of the rotation. It is indispensable to maintain the fertility of the soil and to avoid phytosanitary problems
derived from the reiterative cultivation of just one species. It also allows:
 To re-establish the fertility of the soil.
 The use of crops with different root structures that allow the soil to maintain its structure while exploring
different layers.
 To introduce alternatively crops that fix the nitrogen (clover, alfalfa) with others that require it (cereals).
 To prevent damage due to erosion (on and under the surface) by maintaining the soil covered with a
vegetable covering for as long as possible throughout the year. This also includes green manure and the
sowing of cover crops.
 To provide a wide range of possibilities for weed control. To include the so-called cleaning crops, such as
those which are grown for their roots, meaning that weed control can be easily carried out.
 To minimise the effect of plagues and diseases.
 To include species from different families with the aim of preventing plagues and diseases that are resident
in the soil.
 To diminish the effect of operations on the crops by carrying them out with tools and at different times of the
year for the different crops.
 To reduce the risks associated with the deficient behaviour of a determined crop.
 To provide a better use of investments in machinery and equipment.
The distribution of different rotation of crops
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Organic rotations, especially in humid climates, are based, at least for 3 or 4 years, on vegetable cover of
herbaceous/clover meadows. From time to time and for short periods the rotation includes grazing crops.
The cover crops include pulses, which synthesise nitrogen and provide food for animals whose excrements are
recycled.
This also offers the chance to reduce weeds, plagues and diseases. In organic production livestock is the ideal
complement to agricultural crops, due to the permanent recycling of nutrients and organic matter.
The majority of organic rotations include 1/3rd to 2/3rds of meadows, as in the rotation examples of Table 4.
Table 4: Examples of long-term rotation based on meadows
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rotation1 Meadow Meadow Meadow Cereal Cereal Meadow Meadow Cereal

Rotation2 Meadow Meadow Meadow Cereal Root Cereal Meadow Cereal
crop
Rotation3 Meadow Meadow Cereal Root Cereal Meadow Root Cereal
crop crop
When establishing the rotations the following points should be considered:

 Their economic viability
 The pedological-climatic adaptation of the different crops
 The level of technical knowledge
 The availability of suitable machinery
Factors to take into consideration in the crop model

 Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases
 The reaction of the crops to the residual fertility (from previous crops)
 The requirements of the crops in manure (organic material)
 The economic viability of the rotations
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 The climatic adaptation of the different crops
 The availability of experts in organic production and of machinery
The species used should preferably belong to different families, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Some important botanical families and main crops
Chenopodiaceous Alliaceous Compound

Chard Garlic Artichoke
Spinach Onion "Cardo"
Beetroot Shallot Endive
Asparagus Curly lettuce
Lettuce
Gramines Solanaceous Cucurbitaceous
Cereals Aubergine Courgette
Sweet corn Pepper Melon
Tomato Cucumber
Water melon
Cruciferous Pulse Umbelliferous
Cabbage Pea Celery
Brussels Sprouts Broad bean Parsnip
Cauliflower Green bean Fennel
Kohlrabi Parsley
Turnip Carrot
Radish
Rosaceous …………… ……………
Strawberry …………… ……………
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The majority of the species are characterised by having root systems which differ in as far as their growing habits
and the capacity to explore the layers of the soil are concerned, there being species with root systems that are
superficial, moderately deep and deep, as shown in example in Table 6.
This aspect must be taken into consideration when designing the rotation in organic production, as a correct rotation
will allow the fertility of different layers of the soil to be taken advantage of and will prevent problems of soil fatigue.
Table 6: Type of roots for different species

Superficial (<60 cm) Moderately deep Deep(>120 cm)
(60 a 120 cm)
Garlic Pea Artichoke
Celery Bean Aubergine
Onion Melon Asparagus
Cabbage Turnip Water melon
Endive Cucumber Tomato
Spinach Pepper
Lettuce Beetroot
Sweet corn Carrot
Potato
Leek
Radish
Cultivation potential
The main aspects to be considered when planning crops are the following:
 Satisfaction of the nutritional requirements
You should choose the adequate place for each species in the rotation, bearing in mind that the fertility of the soil is
high after a meadow crop (grass-clover) which will give a good result for crops such as cereals or potatoes,
therefore different vegetable crops should come after meadow crops. The use of organic correctors is essential
given that they provide nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, but in different quantities and in different ratios. In
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addition they improve the structure of the soil, increase the capacity for retaining nutrients by means of the humic
compound, as well as water.
Correctors or green manure (roots or forage) should be applied to the crops that extract high quantities of nutrients.
The residual fertility of the forage is best taken advantage of when it is used as a cover or green manure as a
previous crop. Some crops, as for example leaves of cruciferous plants, have high nutritional needs.
 Micro-elements
There are a determined amount of other nutrients that are required by crops in small quantities (kg or g per ha)
which are known as microelements and include, amongst others things, iron, sodium, chlorine, selenium, cobalt,
manganese, copper, zinc, boron, iodine, silicon and molybdenum. The majority of these are available for the plants
in organic production, but under some circumstances there can be deficiencies, such as, for example, when the pH
of the soil is high. They are heavy metals and in excessive quantities they can be phytotoxic.
 Important nutrients
These are required in hundreds of kg per ha. Three of them (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) can be found in the
atmosphere, three more (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) must be added to the crops and the three remaining
ones (magnesium, calcium and sulphur) are usually found in sufficient amounts in the soil.
The availability of the different nutrients in the soil depends largely on the pH of the soil, as can be seen in figure 5 .
A pH of between 5.7 and 6.2 is normally acceptable for grazing land, depending on the species that make it up and
the arable crops introduced in the rotation. On the other hand alfalfa needs, for its optimum development, lightly
basic soil.
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Figure 5: Availability of nutrients according to the pH level
1.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING
The nutrition of crops which are produced ecologically should be based on a system that is as close as possible to
sustainability from the point of view of the nutrients, in other words the largest possible amount of mineral elements
extracted from the soil return to it. As is logical, crops are extractions that are not revertible so the recycling is not
total but it is more efficient than in the case of conventional farming. In order to compensate the balance of nutrients
in the soil at least two nutrients must be specifically applied, these are phosphorus and potassium as will be
explained forthwith. In order to programme the nutrition of the crops it must be born in mind that each crop has its
own nutritional needs, hence the interest in establishing crop rotations. As a starting point the soil should be tested
for its phosphorus, potassium and pH level, and if necessary the levels should be optimised before establishing the
first crop of organic production.
In organic farming, in the same way as in other parts of the production process, (phytosanitary defence, elimination
of weeds etc.) there is a tendency to optimise the efficiency of fertilisers by means of Integrated Systems of Plant
Nutrition (SINP). SINP tries to achieve maximum efficiency when bringing nutritive elements to crops by means of a
better association of the agricultural and non-agricultural sources of nutrients, trying to achieve a sustainable
agricultural production based on a better productive capacity of the soil. With these systems the need for mineral
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fertilisers can be considerably reduced as they bring timely and sufficient supplies of plant nutrients and reduce the
loss of these nutrients in the cultivation systems as much as possible. The adoption of SINP includes the potential to
increase the profitability of the use of fertilisers (FAO, 1993).
Recycling nutrients in organic farming

The recycling of nutrients aims at achieving maximum self-sufficiency from a nutritional point of view. In the same
way and so as to achieve that objective the losses due to the following must be minimised:
 Environmental reasons
 Economic reasons
 Problems with supply
The recycling of nutrients must be considered at two different levels:
 That of the farm producing ecologically. The nutrients are transferred by livestock and crops (animal manure,
straw, forage) and also between the different stages of rotation.
 That of the soil. In the plant/soil system the nutrients are absorbed from the soil by the plant and later
returned to it when the plant dies. Micro-organisms and the fauna in the soil, water and gas also intervene in
this cycle. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium circulate in the soil and in animals in different ways due to
their chemical properties. This affects the way in which the different nutrients should be managed to obtain
maximum recycling and retention.
Options for managing the fertility

A fertile soil is that which is capable of maintaining a crop with optimum production. The most fertile soils are deep,
well drained and loose, with an adequate content of nutrients and organic material and with a correct structure.
These soils have an intense activity of microbial and invertebrate organisms, assuring an optimal liberation of
nutrients for the growth of the crop. The best soils are the same as in conventional farming, except that in organic
production the use of synthetic fertilisers is not permitted. It is for this reason that, in order to provide the nutritive
necessities of the crops, the choice of a correct crop rotation is fundamental.
 Cultivation systems:
  Crop rotation
  Covering with leguminous species
  Green manure
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  Covering crops
 Supply of manure and fertilisers
 Produced in the same farm (solids and liquids)
 The purchase of organic manure or fertilisers
 Crops
 that it is not permitted to use synthetic fertilisers it is vitally important to achieve a natural availability of
Given
nutrients according to the needs of the crop.
Nitrogen in the soil

Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis. In organic production it
habitually occurs in organic ways and needs to be converted into ammonia or nitrate in order to be absorbed into the
plant. The most interesting aspects, with reference to its availability in function of the form in which it is found, are
shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Forms of nitrogen in the soil and conversion by micro-organisms
Form in the soil Nitrogen in the Ammoniacal Nitrate (NO3-)

organic material nitrogen (NH4+)
Conversion by the micro-organisms in the soil
Availability for the No Scarcely Yes
plant
Lost in the No As ammonia gas Nitrogen and nitrous
atmosphere oxide gas
Lost through No No Yes
draining away
Nitrogen supply
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In dung, as well as in compost or other forms, nitrogen is found mainly in organic forms and needs to be converted
into an ammoniac or nitric form so that it can be used by the plants.
Some plants, as for example leguminous ones (clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc.) are able to absorb atmospheric
nitrogen, therefore the inclusion of clover or other leguminous crops in the rotation allows adequate nitrogen levels in
the soil without the need for fertilisers.
This process is due to bacteria, known as Rhizobium, which are found in the nodules of leguminous crops. During
the symbiosis the bacteria bring nitrogen to the plant and the plant gives them the necessary nutrients.
By introducing the following crop into the rotation the nitrogen present in the nodules will be available over the next
two years as not all the nitrogen is liberated immediately.
A mixed cover with clover can fix about 160 kg of nitrogen per hectare, although this quantity can vary according to
the age of the leguminous plants, climatic conditions etc.
The quantities of humus contributed by different crops vary in function of the part of the plant considered, as in the
species in example (Table 8).
Table 8: Quantity of humus in function of the part of the plant used.
Quantity of humus in function of the kg of humus per ha of

part of the plant used. crop
Wheat stalks and roots 300-600
Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200
Barley stalks and roots 200-500
Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000
Corn roots and stalks 400-800
Corn roots and buried leaves 800-1200
Beetroot leaves and necks 500-800
Green manure 300-700
With regard to the nitrogen, it is important to remember some points in order to optimise the advantages and avoid
losses:
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 It is soluble and can be lost in gas form.
 The extractions by the crop and losses may be replaced thanks to the absorption of leguminous plants.
 These crops liberate nitrogen making it available for the plant or losing it.
 When the soil is barren in winter large quantities of nitrogen can be lost (for example due to water seepage).
 The problem is not usually the total quantities required, so much as the extractions not being in harmony with
what is supplied.
 Nitrogen is less difficult to replace than phosphorus and potassium.
The diagram in 6 shows the nitrogen cycle in a grass and clover meadow.
You can see that one of the most important fluxes is the direct fixing of nitrogen by Rhizobium bacteria in the roots of
the clover.
Another aspect worth mentioning is the action of bacteria in the soil on the organic matter (in the form of compost)
providing nitrogen available for the plants, this being the main way of supplying nitrogen to non-leguminous plants.
The possibility of leaching can mean important losses of nitrogen, depending on the rainfall and/or watering.
Figure 6: The cycle of nitrogen in a grass/clover meadow (Source: Simpson, 1987)
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Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)
Phosphorus in the soil is assimilated by plants only in the form of phosphate (P2O5). Phosphates are needed so that
seeds can germinate and so that the roots can grow. More than 90% of the phosphate in the soil is not available in a
form that plants can assimilate, as it forms part of the different mineral compounds (tricalcium phosphate, iron and
aluminium compounds, etc.) and the organic material. Phosphate levels can be maintained by the residues of the
crops and by the addition of phosphoric rock. This constitutes the only contribution of phosphorus in organic
production, apart from phosphate, that is usually allowed. In spite of the fact that phosphoric rock is accepted in the
usual techniques of standard production it can take months or years until the phosphate can be assimilated by the
plants. The availability of phosphate is greater when the pH level is between 5.5 and 6.6, which is not the case for
the majority of soils i.e. in the Mediterranean basin, which usually have pH levels of higher than 8 and contents of
active limestone greater than 7%. Ion phosphate is much less mobile than nitrogen and needs to be found within the
root system or nearby. The Mycorrhiza Fungi that live in the roots of the plants are very useful as their hyphae can
colonise a volume of soil much greater than that which the plants’ own roots can.
Important aspects which should be known about phosphorus:
 The availability of phosphate, short-term, can become an important problem given that phosphoric correctors
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(phosphoric rock, etc.) are for long-term use.
 Phosphate does not suffer losses due to seepage or in gas form, but it can be lost through erosion,
particularly when the correctors have been heaped up.
 Standard soil analysis only shows the phosphorus available for the plant but not the existing reserves.
Potassium (K2O)
Potassium is used to control the balance of water in the plant and helps to maintain its defences. It is required for the
synthesis of hydrocarbons, whether these be in the form of starch or sugars. It favours a natural resistance against
attacks by plagues and diseases. Potassium is probably the most difficult nutrient to manage in organic production.
 Clay soils are no particular handicap, as they allow for a balanced crop rotation of species and have
adequate levels for the majority of crops.
 The most important problems are found in sandy soils, in which there is usually a deficiency of potassium.
Straw has a considerable potassium content and its recycling as manure is essential in ecological
production.
Certain compounds such as potatoes and leafy vegetables need important quantities, straw can also extract a lot of
potassium. If these crops are sold a great deal of attention must be paid to replacing losses. Like phosphorus,
potassium is not very mobile in the soil, although more so than phosphorus, therefore crops with a good root system
are the best ones for extracting the available potassium from the soil. The following must be considered:
 To replace the potassium in the same place as the losses are produced.
 Important quantities of potassium can be lost through leaching in the mounds where potassium correctors
are stored.
 Potassium rock constitutes a long-term supply of potassium.
Extraction of nutrients for crops

The extractions depend on the kind of crop, as here below in example (Table 9) and quantifying must be carried out
to plan their supply with compost or manure.
Table 9: Extractions by weight and by hectare corresponding to different crops.
Kg of nutrient per ton of fresh matter Production Kg of nutrient extracted
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per ha.
N P2O5 K2O per ha N P2O5 K2O
Barley grain 17 7.8 5.6 5 85 39 28
Parley straw 5 1.5 12.6 3 15 5 38
Wheat grain 19 7.8 5.6 7 130 55 39
Wheat straw 5 1.3 9.3 4 20 5 37
Oats 17 8.0 6.0
Potato tuber 3 1.0 5.0 36 126 32 180
Grass 1.4 4.8 30 160 42 144
ensilage
Grass hay 4.8 16.0 7.5 90 36 120
Pea grain 8.8 10.0 4 144 35 44
Carrot 2 1 4
Green manure
Green manure or cover crops are often confused, both are cultivated for different reasons but they have some
advantages in common. Cover crops are grown throughout the winter period, when the soil would be barren were it
not for these crops, mainly to prevent the loss of nitrates through leaching. They provide a residual supply of
nitrogen for the next crop.
Green manure is the use of a green crop, normally a leguminous one, which is grown mainly so that it can be buried
to provide nutrients. Green manure can be used several times for its forage benefits or for selling. It is usually grown
for 12 months or longer.
Amongst the many advantages of green manure the following are noteworthy:
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 It provides organic material
 If they are leguminous crops they allow the nitrogen in the air to be available to the plants
 It increases the availability of nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, etc.)
 It improves the structure of the soil
 It reduces the leaching of nitrates
 It eliminates weeds
 It reduces the problems brought about by plagues and diseases by providing a break in the normal sequence
of the crops
Possible crops that can be considered green manure: clover, red clover, peas. Possible cover crops: ray-grass,
forage rape, mustard (it can die off in the winter) and forage radish. The residues of the crops also provide important
quantities of humus when they decompose. (Table 10).
Table 10: Quantities of humus provided by different crop residues
Type of crop residue Kg of humus per ha. of crop

Wheat stalks and roots 300-600
Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200
Barley stalks and roots 200-500
Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000
Corn stalks and roots 400-800
Corn roots and buried leaves and stems 800-1200
Beetroot leaves and necks 500-800
Green manure 300-700
Sowing/planting
In certain plots of land transplanting may have advantages such as:
 Less time required from the time of planting to the time of harvesting
 An earlier harvest
 The land is occupied for less time thus allowing two crops per year
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 The crop is better assured as problems of germination and shoots have been eliminated
 Weeds are controlled more effectively, by growing the crop and colonising the area more quickly than the
weeds can
The main disadvantage of this system is the higher cost per plant, which is why it is usually used for vegetable
production. In larger areas the transplant operation needs to be mechanised meaning an investment in buying or
hiring machinery, which is not always possible. The best time for sowing and/or transplanting of different species
and varieties depends on latitude with relevant climate, specific climatic conditions and hydric state of the soil. The
dates shown in Table 11 are just examples to understand the importance of choosing the right period for sowing.
Table 11: Sowing dates corresponding to different crops.
Crop Suggested Too soon Too late
dates for
sowing
Spring oats March/April Weeds/Few plants Low production
Winter October Diseases / Weeds Few plants, low
wheat production
Potatoes April/May Low shoots, affected Low production,
by frosts diseases
Carrot May Weakness,deficient Low production, deficient
establishment establishment in dry soil
Leeks April Deficient Low production
establishment
Density of sowing and distances for planting (transplanting)
The density of sowing and transplanting are vitally important, given that the results are related to this variable, in
spite of the fact that other factors such as the species, variety, soil preparation, soil temperature and environmental
conditions influence the number of plants per m² and therefore the results. Therefore the following should be taken
into consideration:
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 Loss of production may be caused by too many or too few plants.
 Denser crops make it harder for weeds to low grow.
 Crops with large seeds (corn, etc.) should be planted deeper in the soil than those which have small seeds
(grass seed, common bentgrass, fescue grass, alfalfa, clover). This is due to the fact that the reserves of the
smaller seeds are much more limited, and if they were planted deeper, when they germinated they would not
reach the surface, therefore they must be planted near the surface in a springy soil.
 Very early or very late seeds or those sown in soil with bad conditions need to be sown more densely than in
optimum condition soil, due to the lower percentage of shoots.
 In heavy soils with insufficient structure and with low organic content crusts may be formed which lead to
important decreases in the percentage of shoots if the soil is not turned over.
 In certain species of edible vegetables (onions, lettuce, etc.) the variation in the density when planting allows
different sizes to be obtained, the greater the density the smaller the size.
The density and thus the amount of seeds sown vary according to species due to the differences in the size of the
seeds.
For the majority of crops the ideal situation is that in which there is the same distance between the plants in the
same row as in the next row (a squared framework). This allows the plants an optimum spatial growth even though it
allows room for small weeds to grow.
For practical sowing and transplanting reasons this framework is not often applicable. However the decrease in the
distance between the rows, for example in the case of cereals of 18 cm instead of 13 cm can be advantageous. In
many vegetable and cereal crops cultivation between the rows (mechanical weeding) is habitual for weed control,
therefore the distance between the rows must be adequate to allow this operation. The distance between plants in
the same row will be used to obtain the size or calibre required. In Table 12 you can see an example for the amount
of seeds and densities when planting for some crops.
Table 12: Amount of seeds and density of planting for some crops
Crop Amount of seed Plants/m2 Distance

(kg/ha) (cm)
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Spring oats 200-300 400-500 18x1.2 -
Spring barley 200-300 350-450 12x2
Winter wheat 250-300 250-400 18x1.5 -
Potatoes 1000-1500 4-10 12x2
Harvesting
Harvesting is a process that takes on special importance in the case of some crops that can be damaged if they are
not harvested correctly, such as certain fruits and vegetables (apples, peaches, grapes, tomatoes, etc.). In the case
of others the harvesting does not take on such importance as the crops are easily handled (potatoes, melons,
carrots, beans, artichokes, etc..) In addition, apart from the physical process of harvesting the best moment to do it
must be taken into consideration, depending on:
 The species and the variety
 The destination of the product and the requirements of the market-consumer
 The means of transport
 The packaging system used
Due to the important differences in harvesting processes, the different crops may de divided into:
Cereals
Cereals are ready to be harvested when the grain has hardened. However, in certain crops and in damp climates it
is difficult to achieve degrees of humidity that allow for adequate preservation, so they will have to be artificially dried
in dryers (corn, sunflowers, etc.).
Root crops and vegetables
Tubers must be harvested as soon as the skin has formed. The earliness with which they are harvested is
influenced by:
 The presence of certain diseases of the foliage (bacteria, fungi) that could reach the tuber and cause
important damage whether it be in the field or later when stored.
 The variety of the crop. Early varieties are better suited to organic production, as they are harvested, i.e.
before potato bacteriosis becomes a problem.
 The market. Early varieties usually command higher prices, despite the fact that the production and taste
may be inferior to later varieties.
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Preservation and storage
The possibility of preserving the products correctly is not only limited by the choice of technical harvesting conditions
but it also depends on factors that have occurred throughout the growth of the product to be preserved. In many
cases these factors condition the duration of the preservation. Amongst these factors the following are worthy of a
mention:
 The climate: temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, light, wind, etc.
 The nutritional state
 Watering
 Attacks by plagues and diseases
 The state of maturity when harvesting
In the case of fruit and vegetables as well as cereals the following points should be considered:
 Hygienic measures when handling the food products
 Ventilation in the store
 A suitable temperature in the store
 Enough space
 The amount of time in storage
 Available resources for the exploitation
 Planning of the market needs
In the same way that there are different methods of harvesting according to the different kind of crop and in the part
that is eaten, they may be divided into two main groups:
Root crops
These should be stored when, having been pulled from the ground, they have dried. The store must be cool, free
from frosts and well ventilated to prevent disease. The potato is the tuber that throughout history has been the most
important crop, providing the basis of the diet in many countries, especially after war conflicts.
Vegetables
These may be stored for:
 A short period of time ( a few days) before being commercialised, to avoid excess offer or to lengthen the
period in periods of scarcity.
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 Long-term (several months) to extend the period of commercialisation.
Vegetables harvested must be put into cold-storage as quickly as possible. The length of the storage depends on
the part of the leaf that is to be used. For example, in leafy vegetables (lettuce, curly lettuce, chard, etc.) the storage
time is limited, whilst for other crops such as marrow, radishes or carrots the length is much greater. The ones that
are in between are those crops in which the fruit is the edible part (tomatoes, peppers, cucumber, aubergine or
courgettes). Granaries: if the floors are ventilated or in bulb containers (onions).
Potatoes as an example
As an example here are some of the most important characteristics for preserving potatoes. The preservation of
potatoes is generally easy, but it basically depends on the temperature and the relative humidity of the store. The
mid-season or late varieties may be kept for up to 10 months. In order to do this they must be free from damage or
alterations in the pulp and they must not be green. The greater the specific weight and content of dry matter the
better they will preserve. During the first fortnight they must be at a temperature of 15ºC and well ventilated, with a
high relative humidity to help any "wounds" to heal over. After this the temperature depends on the variety and their
destination. If the destination is for direct consumption the best temperature is 4º-5ºC, but if they are for industrial
use they should be stored at between 7º and 10ºC. The relative humidity should be kept at around 85% so as to
avoid excessive loss due to excess weight. They should be well ventilated and not exposed to light as this can
cause them to go green. (Gorini, 1979).
Marketing
This is the most important aspect as the profitability of the exploitation will depend on the prices obtained. The
requirements of the market will determine the system of production and the crop rotation. You must be aware of
what the market will require and what the producer must require of the market. This should be based on:
 Volume, product and delivery dates
 Packaging
 Price margin, system and guarantee of payment
 Specification of the market requirements
 Stability of the market for the different products
The production costs may be slightly higher than those for conventional farming, depending largely on the results
obtained. In addition the farmer is exposed to more risks in the productive process (attacks by plagues and
61
diseases) making the constancy and regularity of supply the market less secure. Added to this is the fact that
volumes to be commercialised are smaller, that implies greater margins than in the case of conventionally farmed
products and consequently the selling prices are higher (10% up to 50% higher). As an advantage, the consumers
are specific ones with a high degree of faithfulness to organic products making them unlikely to change their supplier
and an important percentage of organic products is commercialised by specialised channels, agents and shops. A
largest analysis of marketing for organic farming and food is provided at Module 6.
In Figure 7 the main factors to be considered in organic farming are summarized:
Figure 7 - Main factors to be integrated in organic farming
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Module 3 Summary
 Theoretical and practical crop farming
 NURSERY AND GARDENING
To satisfy the background needs for sustainable agriculture and organic farming
To understand and manage relationships soil/crops and related
organic farming procedures
To understand and manage relationships nutrition/plant and related organic farming techniques
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What kind of farming technique is not allowed by organic method?
 Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil
 Use of synthetic chemical fertilizers to increase nitrogen availability on the soil
 Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops
Which of the following farming practices is not useful to preserve the soil from degradation?
 Crop rotation
 Managing vegetable residues for manure
 Use of chemical herbicidal
Which of the following sentences is not right?

 Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases is not to be considered in organic farming
 Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis
 In organic farming the largest possible amount of mineral elements extracted from the soil return to it
Which bacteria located in the nodules of leguminous crops are able to absorb atmospheric nitrogen?
 Botrytis
 Rhizobium
 Oidium
What is the main economic advantage of crop rotation?

 It provides nitrogen for soil fertility
 It allows the farmer to distribute the economic risks and to be less sensitive to fluctuations in price
 It provides subsidies from agro-environmental measures
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2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
Organic farming aims at maintaining the fertility and productivity of the soil
Prevention of erosion and loss of nutrients are not concerned in organic farming
Phosphorus in the soil is assimilated by plants only in the form of phosphate
Use of agricultural machinery is the same in conventional and in organic farming
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium must be added to the crops for farming
Cereals have a low nitrogen need
Clover, alfalfa and other leguminous crops fix the nitrogen to the soil
Nitrogen can not be lost from the soil because of water seepage
The best harvesting moment depends of species and location (latitude)
Loss of production may be caused by too many or too few plants
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

CHOICE CROPS FOR ORGANIC FARMING (SOIL, MACHINERY, MARKET).
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MODULE 4 Organic animal production
Theoretical and practical organic animal production
To understand and manage organic livestock production
To understand and manage organic and small portion of conventional feed for organic livestock
To understand principles and manage health and welfare of organic livestock
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MODULE 1.4 Organic animal production
Chapter 1.4.1 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
General approach to organic management of animals

Organic animal husbandry is defined as a system of livestock production that promotes the use of organic and
biodegradable inputs from the ecosystem in terms of animal nutrition, animal’s health, animal housing and breeding.
It deliberately avoids use of synthetic inputs such as drugs, feed additives and genetically engineered breeding
inputs (GMO). Organic animal husbandry implies keeping animals in a natural way and promoting their welfare and
health. This does not mean that animals need to be kept in an entirely natural environment, but that they are offered
enough opportunities to perform their natural behaviour and way of living. All animal species have certain
specialized organs, which give them special abilities and features and a distinct way of living. This distinction is
intrinsic and cannot be changed, and must be respected. This means that farmers, and more specifically those
devoted to sustainable agriculture and organic farming, should promote species-specific features and abilities by
providing favourable environments. For example, ruminants have a very special digestive system enabling them to
feed on and metabolize great amounts of roughage. They can get sick when they do not have enough roughage in
their diet. Their limbs are as well quite specialized for long walks. These animals typically suffer if they are not given
the opportunity to walk outside and exercise their legs. The same is true for horses and donkeys, whose limbs are
even more specialized. It is, therefore, very important to know the animals’ intrinsic features very well and handle
them accordingly, by keeping them in the appropriate environment. In organic farming this concept is common with
all animals, including poultry. In free-range systems, as recommended in organic farming, for example with poultry,
the animals are left to look for their own food during the day and housed only during the night. Cattle, goats and
sheep are also kept under free-range grazing on confined extensive pieces of land during the day, during the night,
however, they are often confined into fences. Exploit the natural behaviour of animals in their production systems to
reduce stress e.g. chicken like perching at night and perching rails should be provided for this purpose. They should
also be raised in deep litter system that allows them to scratch for ants and worms and dust bathe. Dark secluded
nest should be provided as the like laying in dark secluded places.
Goats being browsers in nature like having their forage suspended high enough so that they can attain an upright
posture etc.
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Use of low external input which lessen the cost of production and allow for a sustainable system of production since
most materials can be recycled in the farm and also locally available
Bridging of nutrients gap in soil, crops and animals i.e. animals feed on crops and cultivated crops by products. The
nitrogen rich manure from the animals is used to increase vegetable production (cycle). The animal’s waste in form
of farmyard manure is composted and taken back to the soil to replenish the lost soil nutrients through cultivation.
This ensures the completion of nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.
They provide food to human in forms of meat, milk and honey.
They utilize lands that are not suitable for cultivation to produce animas product foods of high value e.g. arid and
semiarid areas, rocky and hilly topographies. Ruminants are able to convert waste crop by-products in high value
human food.
They can be used to generate income when their surplus products are sold for cash. They also play the role of
insurance in families where they are sold in case of emergencies like sickness and other eventualities that require
immediate funds that may not have been planned for.
They play a social cultural role in terms of wealth expression, prestige, payment of dowry and other social
obligations like worship.
They provide energy through draft power and domestic fuel e.g. dry cow dung and biogas.
They play an essential role in closing the carbon and nitrogen cycle in the ecosystems by provided in manure used
for fertilizing the soil. The ash obtained by burning dung is incorporated in compost manure to provide nutrient for
crops.
Managing animals organically implies keeping animals in good health and under good living conditions by carefully
selecting locally adapted animal species and breeds, using adequate organic materials for feeding, providing good
animal care and housing and protecting them against parasites and diseases without depending on the use of
chemical drugs and antibiotics. Organic farmers have a distinctively different approach to animal management from
traditional and intensive farmers. Organic farmers aim at having good animal productivity by applying the following
principles:
 They show care and respect towards the animals by protecting their wellbeing and avoiding harmful and
stressful conditions. The farmers provide spacious housing that allows the animals to express their natural
behaviour such as moving freely and having social interactions. They feed the animals properly to enable
natural growth and good health.
 Through the use of strong and locally adapted breeds and providing appropriate feeding and housing,
organic farmers strive to prevent infections with diseases and parasites rather than focusing on treatment.
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 Organic farmers further ensure that suitable types of livestock and appropriate numbers are kept depending
on the size of the farm, type and amount of feed available, availability of labour and the market for the
surplus animal products. Availability of labour is very important because it is required for preparing feed and
for feeding, periodic cleaning of the animal house, collection of the products and regular observation of the
animals. In the beginning, considerable labour is also needed for building the animal house and clearing of
the grazing paddocks.
 Organic farmers strive to properly integrate animal production with other enterprises on the farm to ensure
that the different enterprises complement each other. For example a farmer may decide to combine poultry
and aquaculture. The poultry manure can be used to fertilize the pond so that the growth of algae is
enhanced, which serves as food for the fish. Vegetables can be grown along the banks of the pond to feed
the poultry. After harvesting the fish, the fish bones can be roasted and mixed into the poultry feed.
 Organic farmers avoid pollution of the environment by ensuring appropriate collection and storage of animal
manures and other waste products. Manures are prepared into compost and efficiently used to fertilize the
crops.
 Organic farmers make new born animals get used to being handled and touched by humans, as this will
tame the animals and make handling easier.
Organic animal selection and breeding

Good selection is based on accurate and good assessment of the differences in performance of individual animals
and on the possibility to pass those features to the offspring. Good characteristics can be seen by looking at the
individual animal, its relatives and the whole family line. The farmer can only succeed in breeding, if he knows what
characteristics he or she wants, focuses on them and keeps proper records to monitor the whole process. The
appearance of an animal (phenotype) is influenced by the genetic potential of the animal (genotype) and the
environmental factors such as health and nutrition, which contribute 60 to 80% to the phenotype. Qualitative
characteristics can be influenced through appropriate management like nutrition or housing. Good comparisons of
animals can only be made when the animals are of the same age, sex and are managed in the same environment.
Some characteristics (qualitative) can be passed on from the mother to the offspring. These characteristics, for
example skin colour, will be present or absent in an individual animal, while other quantitative characteristics such as
growth rate, body weight or level of production are inherited to an extent of 10 to 30 % and are largely influenced by
management conditions.
Organic breeding builds on four main principles:
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1. Species-specific breeding > The breeding goals must be adequate for the species. They should promote the
special features of the animal species.
2. Site-related breeding > Selection for production traits should fit well with the environment. For example,
selection for high production is only possible in a very good environment with adequate, good feed.
3. Disease resistance-related breeding > The breeding goals should include health traits like easy births, proper
legs, low somatic cell counts or little requirement for veterinary treatments.
4. Flexibility-related breeding > The breeding goals should also include flexibility traits, which show that animals
can cope with unstable environments such as low supply of feed.
See also here below main summarized general criteria for selection of animal breeds (Figure 8)
Figure 8 – General criteria for selection of animal breeds for organic farming
Recommendations on proper selection of animals for organic breeding

Select livestock breeds that are easily adaptable to local conditions in terms of feeding, diseases and other
infections. This will incur fewer expenses to manage them and result in fewer diseases and deaths. Put strong
emphasis on functional traits such as longevity, ease of births, strong legs and on the quality of animal products
such as somatic cell counts, fat and protein content in milk. Allow animals to breed and reproduce under natural
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conditions as far as possible. Artificial insemination should only be used as an occasional, rather than a routine,
practise. Cooperate with other farmers to exchange (male) animals from time to time to prevent inbreeding. To
prevent inbreeding, castrate young male animals if they are not to be used as breeding animals.
Recommendations for appropriate and safe animal housing

Animal housing should aim to create an environment that offers protection from predators, if any, heat, rain and
theft, be easy to manage and have as much free movement as possible. For example, animals can spend the day
freely feeding in an enclosed area and then be housed during the night. If livestock is partially kept in an animal
house, this makes it easier for the farmer to monitor the amount of feed and water consumed by the animals, as well
as to collect dung, droppings and urine. Part-housing also gives the opportunity to carry out health treatments such
as de-worming and external parasite control and to closely observe the animals’ behaviour. Appropriate housing on
organic farms aims at ensuring that animals have:
 Adequate space for the size and number of animals to allow for free movement, lying and resting. Animals
need to express their natural behaviours, for example, pecking or digging in the ground, climbing or
scratching.
 Sufficient fresh air and natural daylight, which helps prevent breathing problems and spread of infections.
 Protection against harsh weather conditions, for example, excessive sunlight, heat, rain and wind. Such
unfavourable weather conditions facilitate the development and spread of infections and may stress the
animals rendering them more susceptible to infections.
 Natural bedding material where animals are kept clean by avoiding direct contact with the wet ground or
floor. The bedding will also absorb urine and faecal material, making it easy to collect.
 Permanent provision of clean water and routinely cleaned feeding troughs to provide clean feed.
 Security against predators without compromising the ventilation requirements and free-range housing.
 Protection from any spiky or dangerous elements to avoid injuries to the animals and the farmer.
For easy management, housing should allow for easy removal of bedding material and excrement as well as easy
access to cleaning the walls and floor. This requirement strongly depends on the nature of the floor and walls, the
space and the number of exits and entrances provided.
Construction of animal housing

Animal houses should be constructed in a simple way using locally available materials as much as possible to save
on costs (see Figure 9).
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Figure 9 – Samples of suitable housing structures
The following examples provide some valuable information for specific livestock housing designs based on the
species’ natural behaviours:
 Poultry, especially chicken, enjoy perching at night and, therefore, perching rails should be provided for this
purpose. Chickens enjoy playing in dust baths to clean their bodies. Dark, secluded nests should be provided
for layers, as they prefer laying in such places. For flying exercises, the housing should have a provision to
suspend green vegetables about 0.5 m off the ground. Poultry also like to scratch for ants and worms, as this
is their natural way of looking for food. Thus they should be given access to open ground in proximity to the
poultry house.
 Pigs naturally prefer separate spaces for resting, feeding and for relieving themselves, thus their housing
should provide such separate spaces. They also like to have access to a wet and muddy area for cooling
their bodies, especially in hot summertime environments. They furthermore enjoy brushing against the walls,
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so the wall should be stable and not too rough so as to cause bruising or other injuries. Pigs should be given
natural materials to play with such as wood logs, twigs or straw.
 Sheep and goats have similar kind of stables but different living attitudes. Whilst sheep enjoy feeding from
ground, goats love to get suspended forage, high enough so that they can attain an upright posture while
feeding. They also like to climb, thus parts of their bedding can to be raised off the ground so they can use
different layers. Sheep are used to stand and lie assembled together in the stables, whilst goats need
different individual places and corners where low and high ranking animals can feed separately.
 Cows are big animals, sometimes with big horns and enjoy lying down while chewing cud (ruminating). They,
therefore, need enough space to stand, turn, go past each other and lie down. If they get fed in the cow
shed/kraal, every animal needs to have enough space to feed without being disturbed. A gently sloping floor
is necessary to allow easy drainage of large amounts of urine through a drainage channel to a paved
drainage pit outside the cattle kraal.
A special kind of breeding for organic farmer is beekeeping, because of the essential role of bees for natural
pollination. A hive, the bee housing, should be settled in a green natural blooming area, have an inside water
resource and abundant air supply. The hive must be leak-proof, conserve the heat of the nest and serve as a good
covering in winter ensuring comfortable living for bees.
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Chapter 1.4.2 ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL FEED
General approach to organic as different from conventional feed
Farm animals require good diet for efficient production of the intended products, growth and maintenance. Organic
Farming systems aims at growing and producing most of the animal feeds in the farm to enable sustainable
production and minimize the risk of contamination of these feeds by chemicals which may be in use at other sources
where such where such feeds may be procured. Farm production of animal’s feeds also promotes the achieving of
the basic objective of organic farming which is use of low external inputs. The daily ration for all farm animals should
contain an average of 70% carbohydrates, 25% proteins and 5% vitamins, minerals and oils. Organic farmers aim to
grow and produce most animal feed on their farms. They ensure that there is enough land for the animals to graze
and enough space to grow extra feed, including feed for the dry season. Storing feed for the dry season reduces the
cost of buying feed from other sources and ensures appropriate feeding during low seasons. Different livestock
species have different feeding requirements. The higher the expected productivity of the animals is, the higher the
feeding requirements are. Commercial high yielding dairy animals for example require more high quality feed than
non-dairy or low producing animals. Farmers should, therefore, select the species and breeds of animals that will do
well in their farm without major purchase of feed. In case of organic certification, purchased feed must be obtained
from organic or proven natural sources. Growth promoters and hormones are not allowed as feeding supplements
for organic animals. Like human beings, animals depend on different types of foods to grow and produce well.
Different animal species need different feeds. The daily ration for any farm animal should contain an average
composition of 7 parts carbohydrates, 2 and half parts proteins and half a part of vitamins, minerals and oils.
 Carbohydrates provide animals with energy for their exercises, production, grazing and doing work for
human beings. For example, a donkey needs energy to carry goods. Roughage feeders, like cattle, goats,
sheep and donkeys are able to obtain their basic carbohydrate requirements from pastures. Non-roughage
feeders such as pigs and poultry obtain their carbohydrates mainly from cereal grains such as maize,
sorghum, and their industrial by products like maize bran. Tubers such as cassava and sweet potatoes are
also used as a source of energy for those animals. Feeding of grains and tubers in ruminants should be
restricted to high producing animals (for example, at the beginning of lactation) and to an average of 1 to 2
kg per day for big animals like cows and 100 to 200 grams for small ruminants like sheep and goats, to avoid
excessive production of acids in their rumens during digestion. Such animals naturally do not depend on
such feed. Grains should be reserved for human consumption as much as possible.
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 Protein is needed in the animal’s body for growth and repair of tissues. Lack of protein in the diet leads to
poor growth rates, reduced yield of animal products, loss of weight and late maturity for growing animals.
Leguminous fodder is a good source of protein for most animals. Free-range chickens are able to obtain their
proteins by picking ticks, insects and worms from the environment. Earthworms for feeding chickens can be
multiplied by mixing a small amount of the soil containing earthworms with fresh cow dung and dry leaves in
half a drum, which is kept moist by covering with a sisal sack. The worms multiply quickly and after about two
to three weeks they can be harvested and fed to the chickens. Pigs can be fed with human leftovers, which
may contain protein from human diets.
 Vitamins are only needed in small amounts in animals, mainly for boosting their immunity. They are plentiful
in young green pasture or fodder, kales, young amaranth that have not yet seeded, and in fruit peels from the
kitchen.
 Minerals are essential in the animal body for different functions. For example calcium and phosphorus are
necessary for eggshell formation, bone formation, muscle contractions, synthesis of hormones and enzymes.
Their deficiency results in reduced growth, soft brittle bones that fracture easily, difficult births, low egg and
milk production, retained afterbirth, etc. When animals lack some of these minerals, they develop the ‘Pica’
habit, which leads to eating strange things such as cloths, rags, bones, soap and metal sheets. Minerals are
available from some plants like amaranth (pigweed), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), black night shade
(Solanum nigrum) and pumpkin leaves (Curcubitae spp.). Mixing equal parts of dry leaves from these plants
and grinding them to a smooth powder will provide for most minerals in animals when placed in a mineral box
 Fats and oils provide a layer of insulation below the skin for protection against the cold. They also facilitate
the absorption of vitamins in the body. Sunflower seeds provide a good source of fat for (cattle), pigs, poultry
and rabbits. Cottonseed, sunflower, sesame or peanut cakes, after extraction of oil, are also good sources of
fat. Ruminants can build fat from roughage.
 While water may not be treated as a true nutrient, it is essential for providing a medium through which other
nutrients are absorbed and assimilated in the body. It is also responsible for giving shape and turgidity to
most tissues of the body. Clean water, which is free from contamination with chemicals and disease causing
agents, should be provided to the animals all the time. Salty water with a lot of natural minerals is not suitable
for livestock as it limits water intake.
Figure 10 shows a summary on nutritional sources for livestock species
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Figure 10 – Nutritional sources for livestock species
Main animal feeding systems in organic farming

Stall feeding
This is also sometimes called the ‘cut and carry’ system where animals are provided with feed either throughout their
entire growing period, stage of growth or season of the year. However, since animal welfare is given a high priority in
organic agriculture, combined systems or free range systems are preferred so that the animals have the opportunity
to move around and to socially interact. Animals should be provided with a wide variety of easily accessible feed (for
ruminants, pasture is preferred) and water to encourage intake and to meet their nutrient needs. Supplementary
feeding with feed rich in minerals, for example mineral leaks, and vitamins is often necessary to protect the animals
from diseases and also to ensure proper functioning of bodily functions. But the intake of concentrates for ruminants
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should be limited to a very small amount, otherwise they can develop metabolic disorders like acidosis or maw
displacement. Integrating fodder production within the cropping system Fodder production involves growing different
types of grasses, trees and shrubs and cutting them when they attain a certain maturity to feed the animals. Fodder
crops can be grown alone or intercropped or rotated with other crops. Fodder can be produced from planted or sown
grass or from leguminous plants that are grown as cover crops within perennial crops or on soil erosion control
bands, from planted hedges of suitable shrubs, shade and support trees along crop garden boundaries (fodder
hedges). Crop residues are an additional source of fodder.
Pasture grazing
In pasture grazing, animals are allowed to graze directly on the growing pasture in a fenced paddock or open
grazing lands. Grazing of animals is especially recommended in the following situations:
 Steep land that is very susceptible to erosion, thus unsuitable for annual soil cultivation, but can be
maintained as permanent pasture.
 Land that is covered with many stones.
 Land that is seeded with pasture and used as grazing land within a crop rotation for a season or more.
Growing pasture crops in a rotation, furthermore, interrupts the life cycles of annual weeds and crop pests.
 Animals can also be brought into a crop field to graze on the crop residues and remains from the previous
crop.
However, grazing must be controlled if the pasture is expected to grow again. Controlled and rotational grazing
ensures that diverse, dense and useful pastures are maintained, which will also extend the grazing season. For
some farm animals, such as cattle, proper pasture management also helps to reduce pressure with pasture-borne
internal parasites. In order to ensure controlled grazing, pastures are usually subdivided into paddocks. Animals are
allowed to graze in one paddock for a short period of time. When the plants are grazed, they are transferred to
another paddock with grown grass. The animals do not return to a paddock until the plants have recovered and
grown again to a desired height for grazing. As a result, the plants have time to recover and the animals always
have high quality pasture. Overgrazing as well as under-grazing can lead to reduced pasture growth, reduced quality
and quantity. Typically, grazing animals are moved quickly through paddocks during periods of rapid plant growth
(rainy season) and moved slowly during the dry season. But even in the dry season, quite a rapid movement with a
high density of grazing animals can make sense. Rapid movement also helps to prevent parasite invasions and
illnesses. If managed well, controlled grazing produces enough pasture and the animals always have access to
tender, high quality plants over an extended period of time. The most efficient and ecological way to use dry
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pastures is to let different animal species graze together. Grass grazing species (like cattle) and species feeding on
shrubs and bushes in addition to grass (like goats and sheep) use the pastures on different levels and complement
each other in terms of their feeding behaviour. Permanent and mobile fencing can help for grazing rational use, as
shown here below (Figure 11)
Figure 11 – Permanent and mobile fences for grazing rational use
Recommendations to organic farmers on good grazing practises

 The pasture should not be grazed before it has reached appropriate maturity (i.e. shortly before blooming).
 An appropriate number of animals should be allowed to graze in a given area, also called stocking rate, to
avoid destroying the environment through overgrazing. Overgrazing weakens the pasture plants and will
result in poor new growth and sparse plant cover. This will result in soil erosion risks and growth of unwanted
shrubs and weeds.
 The pasture should not be undergrazed either, since the fodder gets too old, leading to quality losses and
bad growth of new grass shoots.
 The recovering/regeneration time given to pasture plants to grow again should not be too short or too long,
such that the plants are always in the right stage to be fed. The regeneration time is also important
concerning the control of parasites. Decisions about when to move animals from one paddock to another
should be based on the seasonal availability of pasture, the number and size of paddocks in relation to the
number and type of grazing animals. Pasture regeneration through burning should be avoided because it
results require. It also destroys a lot of necessary organisms on and in the ground.
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 Good pasture plants that animals like should be encouraged in order to achieve better utilization of pasture.
Sometimes replanting or reseeding is necessary to maintain pasture quality.
 Young animals should graze ahead of older animals in order to benefit from the fresh pastures and to
minimise transfer of parasites from older to younger animals.
 Rapid movement of big herds including different species is recommended.
How to improve grazing pastures

If grazing land no longer produces good pasture, it can either be replanted or improved by replacing old pasture
plants. Replanting a new pasture offers the opportunity to use a diverse mixture of plants with differing maturities,
which provide high-quality pasture and a longer grazing season. However, there is a high cost involved in terms of
land preparation, planting/sowing and weed control, and normally, the farmer must keep the animals off the newly
planted pasture land until the new plants have developed well. Therefore, improving an existing pasture is usually a
preferable and more suitable option for small-scale farmers. This can be done by reseeding and changing grazing
management. Grass seeds should be sown when the animals are on the paddock, as they can then press the seeds
into the ground using their hoofs. Whether planting a new pasture or improving existing pastures, selection of
appropriate plant species that are adapted to local climate and soil conditions is essential. Integrating legume plants
in a pasture improves the overall pasture quality. It increases protein intake by the grazing animals and helps to
extend the grazing season. Seeds should be broadcast out in the rainy season during the last few days of grazing
on a paddock, so the animals will step on them and press them to the ground. Only open or sparsely covered spots
should be sown again. Examples of grass plants and leguminous pasture plants include Desmodium (Desmodium
spp.), Centro (Centrosema pubescens), Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Lucerne or
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis).
Preservation of fodder
The dry season can be very tough on all kinds of animals, but especially on the larger ruminants such as cattle,
sheep and goats. Animals may lose weight and have reduced growth rates because they do not get enough
balanced feed. This implies that they will take much longer to attain fertility or market size, hence the farmer loses
both time and money. With better planning and adoption of the following measures, these problems can be
minimised. Harvesting and storing excess fodder available during periods of surplus ensures that animals have
sufficient fodder throughout the year. Preserved fodder with high fibre content like crop residues and by-products are
only suitable for feeding to ruminants, and limited amounts for pigs, though not to poultry. Leguminous fodder plants
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should be harvested at the flowering stage or when flower buds start to grow, while grasses should be harvested
before flowering when the plants have maximum nutrients and green matter. The rate of digestion of the preserved
fibrous fodder can be increased by supplying a protein supplement. Locally available protein sources, include
legume residues, pods, green fodder and oilseed residues (i.e. from oil extraction).
Hay production
Fodder preserved by drying in the sun is called hay. It is leafy dry fodder and greenish in colour. Hay making is the
oldest and most important way of preserving fodder. Hay can be tied up in bales or with simple from different plants,
especially those with thin stems and more leaves are better suited because they dry fast. More leaves than stems
are cut and laid out well in the field in thin layers and turned regularly for quick drying. The fodder should be
harvested when it is less moist during sunny days to prevent development of moulds, which are extremely harmful to
animals, as well as to human beings. The grass should not be over-dried, but rather cured. For example, it should
not be left to turn brown in colour. If labour is available, then the dried grass should be chopped and then tied up
tightly in bundles or commonly baled by a reaper-binder. Storage of hay can be done using a simple granary-like
structure built with supporting poles. The floor is raised above the ground and made of slatted frames to provide air
circulation and prevents the hay from becoming wet from below. The cured hay bundles are then stacked inside this
structure. The outer surface is then ’thatched’ or covered with a plastic sheet to keep the rain off. The hay can be
also chopped and ensilaged for better compressing the volume.
Crops and grasses which are appropriate for hay include various kind of grass, sorghum, maize and leguminous
fodder crops. Crop residues, such as from carrots and apple skins and fallen leaves can be included in the hay to
increase the quantity and quality of hay feed available. This material can also be fed to laying hens for yellow-
coloured egg yolks.
Silage production
Silage is the product of controlled green fodder fermentation retaining a high moisture content. The fresh fodder
material is harvested, chopped and filled in pits (silos) under anaerobic conditions while still fresh. The anaerobic
environment is created by lining the pit with a plastic sheet on the sides and bottom. After filling and trampling over
the material to press out most of the air, the top is then also lined with plastic and covered with soil. The material is
again trampled over to make sure the covering is soil, air and water proof. The material will remain preserved as
long as it remains air-tight. The quality of the ensiled product will depend on the quality of the material ensiled and
on the fermentation process.
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Chapter 1.4.3 ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE MANAGEMENT
Proper management of animal health in organic husbandry
A healthy animal is in a much better position to cope with disease and parasite infections and will grow and produce
at a normal rate. However, the health and well-being of animals is also strongly affected by housing conditions,
feeding, handling by human beings and direct exposure to parasites and disease pathogens.
There are different possible causes for poor health in animals:
 Poor feeding, both in terms of quality and quantity, affects animal health and performance as well as the
ability to resist disease infections. It further causes metabolic disorders like acidosis, milk fever, acetonaemia
and pasture bloat in cattle caused by nutritional imbalances of minerals, vitamins, protein and energy supply
from feed.
 Poor hygienic conditions of the animal housing provide good breeding grounds for a number of parasites and
other disease causing organisms. Feeding troughs contaminated with animal faecal material is a very
common source of infections.
 Endo-parasites like nematodes and other worms, and ecto-parasites such as lice, ticks and mites cause
infections, which reduce feed intake, and the rate at which the food is broken down inside the body for its
different functions. This again affects body weight gain, production and reproductive performance of the
animals.
 Injury to the animal due to poor handling or exposure to dangerous physical materials such as glass and
metal can result in infections that weaken the animals.
 Disease causing organisms (pathogens) and parasites that are transmitted when infected animals, human
beings and equipment or materials are moved from one flock or farm to another.
Multiple tools for animal health management

Organic animal health management can be seen as a three-step approach with multiple tools:
 The first step consists of preventing the introduction and multiplication of infections.
 The second step involves providing good growing conditions for animals to enhance their natural immunity
and resistance to infections.
 The third step involves application of direct control measures (treatments) to kill the parasites and disease
causing organisms.
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The aim is to optimize the steps 1 and 2 that minimise introduction and spread of infections, and promote natural
immunity and strong healthy animals. This will minimise the direct control measures/treatments in step 3. With
proper and efficient application of steps 1 and 2, direct intervention is usually minimised. This approach saves on
costs and prevents negative impacts of some direct control measures on the animals and nature.
Preventive measures in animal health management

Organic management of animals primarily focuses on precautionary and preventive
measures, which include:
 Proper selection of suitable animal breeds
The breed of the animal is the starting point in successful organic animal health management. Only breeds adapted
to local conditions in terms of feed requirements, weather, common parasites and disease tolerance should be
chosen. This will minimise the cost of management as well as the risk of losses due to deaths.
 Quarantine measures
Any new animals introduced in the farm should first be well treated and isolated for a while to allow for closer
monitoring of their health status. Movement of any materials including manure, and equipment should be restricted
from areas and farms unless the healthy status of such farms is ascertained to be safe. Visitors to the farm should
also sanitise their feet before moving into the animal houses or grazing areas to minimise transfer of infections.
 Regular monitoring of animals
Close observation of animals is important to identify and treat infections before they worsen or infect other animals.
Thus organic farmers keep daily or frequent records to assist in assessing possible signs and causes of the
diseases or injuries. Signs of illness may include reduced appetite resulting in reduced feed and water intake,
reduced productivity or, for example, a drop in milk or egg production, apathy observable as a lack of vitality, head
down or abnormal movement, abnormal discharge from bodily orifices, difficulty in breathing observable as fast,
laboured, coughing, and gasping, inflammation of mucus membranes in the mouth, conjunctiva and vulva lips,
where the membrane may be pale or dry in cattle, rise or drop in body temperature, excreta material may become
different from normal, either too hard, too watery or covered with mucus or blood. Heavily infested animals can be
separated from others or, as a final measure, be slaughtered so that they do not infect others. The meat should only
be eaten if the animal’s body temperature is normal and there is no abnormality, otherwise it should be buried away.
 Vaccination
Vaccination is recommended especially for diseases that are difficult or impossible to cure and which cause great
losses by causing high mortality rates. Examples of such diseases include foot and mouth disease, anthrax,
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pneumonia, African swine fever and avian influenza. For certification, organic standards classify the use of vaccines
as restricted. This means that their routine use is discouraged and is only permitted when it can be demonstrated by
the organic farmer that a specific disease is endemic in the region or on the organic farm, or where their use is
required by law or if a veterinarian recommends it. Organic certifiers will, therefore, require written verification from a
veterinarian to confirm the presence or threat of disease infection. In addition, the vaccines must not contain
genetically modified ingredients or by-products. The use of vaccines under these circumstances will not prejudice
certification and does not require quarantine procedures, but full records of treatments must be kept.
Provision of favourable growing conditions

Organic management of animals also focuses on providing appropriate and favourable growing conditions to
enhance the animal’s natural immunity and resistance to infections. These include provision of balanced animal
feed, appropriate housing and animal-friendly handling practises. Although animals have varying degrees of natural
ability to resist or withstand infections, farmers can enhance this ability. Young animals derive this ability by suckling
of colostrum, especially within the first 6 hours of birth as it contains antibodies. Routine and preventive application
of antibiotics is not recommended for organic animals as it interferes with the animal’s ability to develop natural
resistance to infections. The disease pathogens, in the long run, tend to develop resistance to these drugs.
 Proper nutrition
The feeding of animals should ensure balanced diets and right proportions, high quality and fresh forage, low levels
of concentrates for ruminants and mineral supplementation to avoid deficiencies. Potentially poisonous feeds like
thorn apple weed (Datura stramonium), mouldy feed or use of poultry droppings, dung or other manures as feed,
should be avoided. Grazing pastures should also be managed well with adequate rotations to avoid build up of
pasture borne internal parasites such as gastrointestinal nematodes.
 Proper housing and sanitation
Regular cleaning of the animal housing units, feeding and watering troughs and the surrounding environment helps
reduce health risks. All animal manure should be regularly composted while all the non-compostable material has to
be properly collected and incinerated or disposed of to avoid creating potential sources of injury to the animals.
 Avoiding stressful conditions
Organic farmers aim to minimise physical and psychological stress in animals in order to promote well-being and
normal growth. Stressful conditions weaken the bodies of animals rendering them susceptible to infections. They
also sometimes inflict direct injury to their organs. Stress can also be caused by weather conditions such as
excessive heat, sunlight, rain, wind or confinement such that the animals cannot meet their behavioural needs like
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walking, running, flying or resting. Harsh handling of animals includes physical beating, inflexible tethering and
deprivation of sufficient access to food and water are other conditions that can cause stress. Gentle handling leads
to tame, calm and healthy animals.
Direct control and treatment of infections

While organic animal management emphasizes good care and preventive practises as the preferred method of
maintaining livestock health, it also recognizes that sometimes these measures may be insufficient to protect against
disease and illness. In such cases, treatment with chemical drugs and antibiotics may be applied. However, when
such treatments are administered, appropriate withdraw measures should be followed, especially for certified
organic animal husbandry. The use of such treatments does not result in the loss of certification status, but does
require the treated animals to be withheld from sale or killing for a period two times the legal withholding period for
the substance in question. Also products of such treated animals may not be sold as organic for a certain time. On
the other hand, there are natural herbal remedies and traditional treatments used in animal treatments. These
remedies are easily available and cheap.
They include:
 Dietary additives like vitamins and minerals.
 Botanical dewormers such as garlic, pumpkin seed and worm wood (Artemisia spp.) that can be added in
animal feed to manage gastrointestinal nematodes, and lung and liver parasites.
 Neem seed oil, tephrosia or pyrethrum to control ticks.
However, farmers need to consider that when the organic treatment is not effective, conventional treatment must be
applied to ensure the welfare of the animal.
Management of ticks and other external parasites

Besides lice and mites, ticks are very dangerous external parasites, attacking nearly all types of animals including
poultry. They suck blood from animals causing discomfort and in extreme cases causing anaemia thus affecting
growth. They also can transmit diseases and damage animal skin. There are mainly two major types of ticks: soft
and hard ticks. Soft ticks, the argasids, are distinguished by their soft bodies and by having mouthparts that are on
the underside of the tick body. They are fast feeders and blow up like a balloon when engorged with blood. Hard
ticks, the ixodids, have a hard plate on the upper surface and have terminal mouthparts, which they use to pierce
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and attach themselves to the host. They are slow feeders and take several days to finish their meal. Other external
parasites like fleas cause a lot of discomfort to animals and can transmit diseases.
Understanding the life cycle of ticks

Ticks can be one-, two-, or three-host feeders. In one-host species, all stages live and moult on the same host, then
eggs are laid on the ground. In two-host species, larvae and nymphs share the same host, but the adult stage
reproduces on a separate host. In three-host species, all three stages target different hosts; eggs are laid on the
ground. The majority of ticks are 3-host feeders and the hosts may or may not be of the same species (Figure 12).
Figure 12 – Three-host tick lifecycle
The sheep tick (Ixodes ricinus) usually feeds once per stage, on different hosts from a wide range of species during
its life cycle. This makes it one of the most common ticks to infect livestock, domestic pets and human beings. Other
host species include: mice, rats, squirrels, reptiles, cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats and humans. The life cycle
of ticks involves 4 stages; egg, larva, nymph and adult. When the eggs hatch, the larva seeks a host, feeds and then
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drops off to moult to the nymphal stage. The nymph then seeks another host, feeds, drops off and moults to the
adult stage. The adults (male and female) seek another host, feed, drop, mate and then lay eggs on the ground.
Ticks are different depending on how long this cycle takes and the number of hosts involved in the cycle.
Recommendations to farmers regarding proper management of ticks and other ecto-parasites

Ticks and other external parasites can be sustainably managed applying a range of practises.
 Selection of animals with reduced susceptibility to ticks, for example, locally adapted breeds.
 Close observation and monitoring of animals to ensure that infections are identified at an early stage for
quick intervention.
 Trapping of the parasites using strategically placed traps around the grazing paddocks or the animal resting
areas.
 Applying biological control measures, for example, by keeping and allowing local chicken to forage around
the animal enclosures picking and eating ticks.
 Applying organic treatments exist mainly as repellents. Examples are lime sulphur, neem and eucalyptus oil
(E. globulus) and the use of natural pyrethrum. Natural botanicals such as Tephrosia, Lantana camara,
Tagetes minuta, Urtica dioica and Azadirachta indica preparations can be used to control ticks. Eucalyptus
leaves mixed in the animal beddings also repel ticks and other parasites. There are many local medicinal
plants used for treating animals, on which experiences can be shared with other animal farmers and local
extension agents.
 Double fencing, particularly from neighbouring farms, can help to prevent spread of ticks and lice from
neighbouring infested animals.
 Proper pasture and grazing management with appropriate withdraw periods exceeding 3 months for old
animals to 6 months for young animals for infested pastures will break the lifecycles of most external
parasites and reduce pest pressure. Changing paddocks frequently, even between different species, also
helps to further reduce parasite pressure.
Brief remarks on internal parasites

Internal parasites, commonly called worms, affect most animals and can seriously influence production and health of
grazing animals. Especially young animals with weak immune system are at higher risk. Most worm parasites are
pasture borne, meaning that animals get infected while grazing. Once established, worm parasites produce eggs
which are passed with animal faeces. Eggs develop into infectious parasite larvae which are taken up by the animal
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while grazing. High stocking rates and insufficient pasture rest periods contribute to high incidence of infestations.
Most farmers have always relied heavily on anti-parasitic drugs (dewormers), called ‘anthelmintics’ to control internal
parasites in their animals. But the long-term use and in some cases misuse of these drugs has resulted in parasites
that have become increasingly resistant. Therefore, organic farmers should not routinely use dewormers, but only on
a need basis, depending on the severity of the infestation and if the permitted substances or practises are not
sufficient to treat the animals. Examples of common internal parasites of cattle are hairworms (stomach/intestinal
worms), lung worms, liver flukes and coccidia. In sheep and goats gastrointestinal worms (round worms, nematodes,
stomach worms), tape worms, liver flukes and coccidian are common. In pigs, large round worms (ascarids), nodular
worms, whipworms, lung worms, stomach worms, thread worms and kidney worms are frequent.
General recommendations to farmers regarding proper management of internal parasites

Generally, organic control of internal parasites relies on maintaining good management practises and reducing the
risk of infection by ensuring good nutrition and minimum stress. Application of the following specific practises proves
helpful:
 Good pasture management practises to disrupt the life cycles of the parasites. Animals should be moved to a
clean pasture especially after the rains, when these parasites are actively multiplying. The old pastures can
then be dug/ploughed to expose the eggs and larvae to sunlight and heat, and used for crop production or for
other animal species.
 Good feeding of animals helps to keep animals strong and tolerant to internal parasites.
 Proper grazing planning is very important in managing parasites, for example through rotational grazing
paddock system. Older, less susceptible animals should graze behind the younger animals in the rotation.
Fewer numbers of animals on a given grazing area combined with good rotations also reduces parasite
populations to a great extent.
 Some fodder plants like for example Sericea lespedeza have shown very good vermifugal properties.
Feeding Sericea to sheep or goat substantially reduced internal parasites like gastrointestinal nematodes.
Deworming with fodder plants is very advantageous because the animals are properly fed and treated at the
same time.
 Organic treatments like drenches made from natural products such as garlic, molasses, vegetable oil, Aloe
vera products and many other natural botanicals have been used by some farmers. Copper sulphate
(CuSO4) in very dilute doses is also allowed for use by organic farmers. However, there are other
substances listed as permissible according to different organic standards.
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Other husbandry recommendations and requirements on animal production
Pain inflicted by mutilation practises such as castrating, marking, dehorning, debeaking, de-tailing must be kept to a
minimum. In some organic standards dehorning, debeaking and de-tailing are prohibited. A good relationship
between animals and humans is important: Frequent, gentle handling and talking to the animals leads to tame and
calm animals which can be treated, driven and handled without stress, noise and injuries. All tools and technical
equipment used for animal management such as racks, fences, wells and tools for mutilations have to be kept in
proper and clean condition or else animals can be hurt by non-functioning tools.
Local organic standards exist in some countries, which may have specific requirements for animal production. The
following general requirements are, however, common to all:
 Proper choice of breeds
 Animals that were bred using cloning techniques or embryonic transfer are not allowed
 Use of feed only from natural or organically certified sources
 Limited use of concentrate feeds fed to ruminants
 Chemical treatments and therapies not allowed, except for therapies described by a veterinarian to avoid
dangerous infections not solvable by natural methods and products
 Permanent tethering of animals is not allowed
The last animal welfare rules in the EU Member States have extended these recommendations and requirements to
animal production in general.
Proper handling, slaughtering and preparation of animal products

With the appearance of diseases like mad cow disease, avian flu and health problems caused by bacteria like
Salmonella and Escherichia coli, there is increasing public awareness of animal health and human safety. Animal
products are highly perishable and provide a good medium for the development of many disease pathogens. If not
well managed, they can be a serious source of infection to the consumers of these animal products. The obligation
in the conversion of animals into edible products and useful by-products is to slaughter the animal in a humane
manner and to process the carcass in a hygienic and efficient way. At the time of slaughter, animals have to be
healthy and physiologically normal. In preparation for slaughter, animals should be adequately rested, particularly if
they have travelled over long distances. However, pigs and poultry are usually slaughtered on arrival as time and
distances travelled are relatively short and holding them in stalls is stressful for them. Animals should be given water
during holding and can be fed, if required. The holding period allows for injured and sick animals to be identified.
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Organic certification and marketing of animal products
Animal products are commonly targeted for the local market in the producing countries whereby local demand
normally surpasses the supply. In such situations, there is still room to increase production to meet the ever
increasing demand. However, in some cases, consumers even within domestic markets are demanding sustainably
produced animal products such as eggs, milk and meat. There is, therefore, an opportunity for marketing sustainably
produced or organic products which can fetch premium prices. But the decision to certify animal production should
be based on the availability of the market or the willingness of retailers to promote sustainably produced or organic
animal products. There are many methods of slaughtering animals but whatever method is used, should ensure
minimum pain and stress to the animals by managing them calmly and without a lot of noise and by leaving the ones
that know each other together. The carcass has to be prevented from contamination and waste materials have to be
collected and disposed safely.
General recommendations to farmers for proper handling of animal products

 Slaughter only healthy animals for human consumption.
 Observe the withdraw periods for conventionally treated animals before slaughtering the animals and selling
their products as organic.
 Appropriate sanitary procedures have to be applied to maintain personal and food hygiene and minimise
contamination of the environment.
 The carcass has to be cooled down during the first day after slaughter.
 Specific organic market standards should be observed in the whole process of slaughtering to ensure that
the products are fit for the organic markets.
 Adequate preservation either by cooking, boiling, drying, salting or freezing/cooling is necessary.
 Minimising the environmental pollution through proper and safe waste water and solid waste disposal after
slaughtering.
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Module 4 Summary
 Theoretical and practical organic animal production
 ANIMAL PRODUCTION
To understand and manage organic livestock production
To understand and manage organic and small portion of conventional feed for organic livestock
To understand principles and manage health and welfare of organic livestock
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What kind of breeding technique is not allowed in organic cattle husbandry?
 Choice of locally adapted animal species and breeds
 Use of synthetic inputs such as hormones, feed additives and GMO
 Harvesting of fodder for hay production
What kind of housing is not convenient for organic poultry breeding?

 Hen house with large courtyard, perching rails and dark secluded nests
 Flat cement floor and long lasting strong electric lighting from the ceiling
 Natural bedding material where animals are kept clean by avoiding direct contact with the wet ground

 Artificial insemination is commonly and preferably used in organic animal husbandry
 Lack of protein in the diet leads to poor growth rates
 The animal’s waste
How to improve grazing pastures?

 The animal’s waste in form of farmyard manure is composted and taken back to the soil
 Use of chemical fertilizers and frequent cutting
 Let pasture be undergrazed for a long time
What kind of practice is to be avoided as preventive measures in animal health management?

 Some fodder plants (i.e. Sericea lespedeza) can be used as vermifuges
 Treatment with antibiotics can be performed without limits
 Copper sulphate (CuSO4) in very dilute doses for internal parasites
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2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
Hormones, synthetic additives and GMO are not allowed for organic production
Roughage is not necessary in diet for organic animal production
Organic farming advises against perching rails for chicken, as they are dangerous
Carbohydrates are fundamental in diet, since they provide animals with energy
In pasture grazing, animals are allowed to graze directly on the growing pasture
Organic farming advises against fences for grazing rational use
Vaccination for diseases difficult to cure is not allowed in organic animal breeding
Dietary additives like vitamins and minerals are not allowed in organic husbandry
Some natural botanicals preparations can be useful to control ticks
Specific organic standards should be observed in the process of slaughtering
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

CHOICE SPECIES FOR ORGANIC FARMING (ADAPTABLE BREEDS, MARKET,..).
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MODULE 5 Organic food processing
Theoretical and practical organic food processing
To understand and manage organic food processing
To understand and manage organic food processing prescriptions
To understand and manage organic food packaging and labeling
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CONTENT OF THE MODULE
MODULE 1.5 Organic food processing

Chapter 1.5.1 ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING (GENERAL)
Organic farming as an holistic production method
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management method which promotes and enhances agricultural and
ecologic health system, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. Human is inscribed in the
circle of a planet, a very small part of the Universe, in harmony with it, source of life to be maintained, as it was in
Leonardo’s Vitruvian man concept (Figure 13).
Figure 13 - Holistic approach: Leonardo’s Vitruvian man
This holistic approach emphasizes the use of in-farm and local management practices in preference to the use of
off-farm inputs. This is accomplished by using, where possible, cultural, biological and mechanical methods, as
opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system.
Agricultural product or product of agricultural origin is defined any product or commodity, raw or processed, that is
marketed for human consumption (excluding water, salt and additives) or animal feed.
Processed agricultural crop and livestock products intended for human consumption are to be derived from organic
raw materials; only few ingredients not available as organic and comprised in a list of those admitted for organic
certification can be added.
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References to organic production
The labeling and claims of a product may refer to organic production methods only where:
 such indication show clearly that they relate to an organic method of agricultural production and are linked
with the name of the agricultural product in question;
 all the ingredients of agricultural origin of the product are, or are derived from, products obtained in
accordance with the requirements of organic production method;
 the product can not contain any ingredient of non-agricultural origin not listed as allowed;
 the same ingredients shall not be derived both from an organic and non-organic origin;
 the product or its ingredients have not been subjected during preparation to treatments involving the use of
ionizing radiation or substances not listed as allowed
 the product was prepared or imported by an operator subject to the regular inspection system as set out in
European regulations and Codex Alimentarius;
 the labelling refers to the name and/or the code number of the official or officially recognized certification
body or authority to which the operator who has carried out the most recent preparation operation is subject.
A derogation to the previous described provisions is foreseen if:
 certain ingredients of agricultural origin not satisfying the requirement in that paragraph may be used, within
the limit of maximum level of 5% of the total ingredients excluding salt and water in the final product
 where such ingredients of agricultural origin are not available, or in sufficient quantity.
The references based on Reg. CE 834/07 for labeled organic products follow three different forms:
 References to organic production method;
 References to certification;
 Logos for organic products (private, national and EU).
The references to organic production method can be written, with different manners, on the labels of the following
food categories:
 Organic raw crop or livestock;
 Organic processed products;
 Products with organic and non organic ingredients in variable proportions;
 Products from hunting and fishing;
 Products from wine-making from organic grapes or under conversion to organic farming;
 Products under conversion to organic farming;
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 Organic products imported from third countries;
 Organic products from aquaculture.
The non processed crop or animal products for human food can quote on label and publicity references to organic
method only if:
 The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 834/07;
 The product have been imported from a body subjected to the controls foreseen by the EC Reg. 834/07;
 All the supply chain, from production to distribution, has to be controlled by an authorized Certification
Control Body;
 The product and its ingredients are not obtained without GMO and GMO by-products;
 The product and its ingredients are not treated with ionizing radiations
Specific regulation is going to be adopted for wine-making products. Yeasts and yeast based products go under EC
Reg. 1254/08.
The processed food products eligible to set on label references to organic production have to respect the provisions
written on art. 19 of the EC Reg. 834/07 and artt. 26, 27 and 28 of the EC Reg. 889/08. Besides the requirements
foreseen for non processed organic crop and animal products the following provisions are to be respected:
 Organic processed food products are prepared separately in tine and space from non organic ones ;
 The product is “mainly constituted of ingredients from agriculture”, that means with a percentage higher than
50% of the total, salt and water excluded;
 A non organic product is not join included in the product composition contemporarily with an organic
ingredient;
 Technical substances to restore lost properties because of processing or stocking mistakes are not used;
 Only the following substances are used:
 additives included in Annex VII of the EC Reg. 889/08;
 substances based on microorganism and enzymes normally used in food processing and listed in Annex 7 of
the EC Reg. 889/08;
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 natural flavouring essences as defined in Art. 2 paragraphs 8 and 9 of the Directive 88/388/EEC, labeled as
natural flavouring substances in the same Directive, Art.9 paragraphs 1 and 2;
 food dyes to used to stamp meat and egg shells, as in Directive 94/36/EC, Art. 2 paragraphs 8 and 9;
 water and mineral salts (based on sodium chloride and potassium chloride) normally used in food
processing;
 mineral substances, vitamins, amino acids and other micronutrients only authorized if their use is “foreseen
down by law in food processing”
Chapter 1.5.2 ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING (PRESCRIPTIONS)

Organic food processing and HACCP
Organic food processing is submitted, as it is also for conventional food products, to HACCP (Hazard Animal Critical
Control Point) prescriptions. HACCP provides continual measures of quality that can uncover problems and
fluctuations since they occur and before the product is shipped. Therefore HACCP is a more immediate and
consistent way to control quality and risks associated to food processing than off-the-shelf testing. HACCP
prescriptions set all measures necessary to ensure the safety and wholesomeness of foodstuffs. The HACCP
measures cover all stages after primary production, during preparation, processing, manufacturing, packaging,
storing, transportation, distribution, handling, and offering for sale or supply to the consumers.
All main prescriptions concerning hygiene are included:
 Biological hazard, due to pollution from any biological agent (moulds or toxins from raw materials, equipment,
etc.) ;
 Chemical hazard, due to pollution from any chemical agent (heavy metals, pesticide residues, traces of
reagents, cleansers, etc.) ;
 Physical hazard, due to pollution from any physical agent (fragments of wood, plastic, metal or glass deriving
from raw materials or equipment).
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The HACCP procedures are based on Critical Control Points, a step at which control can be applied and is essential
to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level, in correspondence of critical points,
that are manufacturing phases (or areas) where some kind of risk is expected or was highlighted by a specific
monitoring activity. Preventive or corrective measures can be set in order to protect safety and healthiness of
products. The principles of HACCP from Codex Alimentarius are based on seven principles:
 Principle 1: conduct a hazard analysis ;
 Principle 2: determine the CCPs (Critical Control Points) ;
 Principle 3: establish critical limits
 Principle 4: state a system to monitor the CCPs ;
 Principle 5: establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring indicates that a specific CCP is not
under control ;
 Principle 6: fix procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is correctly working ;
 Principle 7: set documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to guarantee HACCP
principles and their application.
Even if the HACCP Manual will be provided by an external expert, it is very important to choose the right persons for
internal control, responsible for specific critical points and the person in charge of the general control procedures. All
those persons have to be trained before they are in charge of the correspondent control level. The HACCP manual
will be specifically released by the expert for the specific farm or company with a step-by-step description of all
processing procedures, from the raw materials to the food products.
The product are to be described according to specific characteristics concerning:
 Packaging description ;
 Durability (Best before..) ;
 Composition ;
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 Physical/chemical structure ;
 Processing treatments ;
 Nutritional facts ;
 Storage conditions ;
 Method of distribution.
Also intended use is to be provided, such as expected use by consumers (i.e. for organic consumers residues must
be absent) and recommendations for vulnerable groups of population (i.e. suitable for babies or people intolerant to
lactose or celiac persons). A flow-diagram is included in the HACCP Manual to identify the Critical Control Points
during the different phases. (Figure 14)
Figure 14 - HACCP flow diagram
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On this basis a monitoring procedure for each CCP is established as follows:
 Collected data are evaluated by a designated person in charge of carrying out corrective actions ;
 Must be possible to take corrective actions can be taken as soon as possible ;
 All records must be signed by the persons doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official.
The HACCP Plan is to be regularly verified and reviewed by mean of :
 formal internal auditing plan ;
 certification ;
 analyzing clients’ complaints ;
 record keeping.
It will include :
 Description of the farm/factory with:
 name, address, business number registration and kind of activities ;
 owner related personal data ;
 description of activities, such as processing and/or selling, staff organization and work description.
 Processing area description:
 factory lay-out with processing steps in relation to divisions;
 cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);
 maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from utilities;
 pest control.
 General requirements for the processing areas:
 easy cleaning and disinfection of walls and floors;
 appropriate lighting and airing;
 regularly performed pest monitoring and controlling measures;
 separate room for lavatories and cleaning products.
 Processing equipment description:
 equipment description with processing steps in relation to divisions;
 cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);
 maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from equipment;
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 pest control.
 Equipment and tools cleaning:
 detailed scheduled plan of ordinary cleaning activities,
 detailed description of the cleaning procedures for extraordinary cleaning in case of long work interruption;
 tools to be used for each operation.
 Staff management:
 personal hygiene
 training on HACCP procedures.
Derogation for traditional foods in the European Union

The European Union recognise the traditional foodstuffs as a valuable and irreplaceable heritage of the Member
States and, as a consequence, also heritage of the European Union. That is why the Hygiene Regulations provide
flexibility especially for production of this type of products on condition that the product is safe.
Foods with traditional characteristics are foods traditionally manufactured in Member States which are:
 recognised historically as traditional products, or
 manufactured according to registered technical references to the traditional process, or according to
traditional production methods, or
 protected as traditional food products (PDO, PGI, TSG) by EU, national, regional or local law.
For this type of foods the EU legislation enables Member States to grant derogations from:
 general hygiene requirements on premises where such products are exposed to an environment necessary
for the development of their characteristics (in particular walls, ceilings and doors that are not smooth,
impervious, non-absorbent or of corrosion-resistant material and natural geological walls, ceilings and floors);
 the cleaning and disinfecting measures for such premises and the frequency with which they are carried out
in order to take into account a specific ambient flora;
 requirements on materials of which the instruments and the equipment used specifically for the preparation,
packaging and wrapping of these products are made.
Instruments and equipment must be maintained at all times in a satisfactory state of hygiene and be regularly
cleaned and disinfected.
See also http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/hygienelegislation/guide_en.htm
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Organic farming and traceability
Under EU law, “traceability” means the ability to track any food, feed, food-producing animal or substance that will
be used for consumption, through all stages of production, processing and distribution. Traceability is a way of
responding to potential risks that can arise in food and feed, to ensure that all food products in the EU are safe for
European citizens to eat. It is vital that when national authorities or food businesses identify a risk they can trace it
back to its source in order to swiftly isolate the problem and prevent contaminated products from reaching
consumers. In addition, traceability allows targeted withdrawals and the provision of accurate information to the
public, thereby minimising disruption to trade. Since the internal market means that food and feed products circulate
freely between EU countries, traceability can only be effective if common requirements are met across all Member
States. The EU’s General Food Law entered into force in 2002 and makes traceability compulsory for all food and
feed businesses. It requires that all food and feed operators implement special traceability systems. They must be
able to identify where their products have come from and where they are going and to rapidly provide this
information to the competent authorities. The EU has published guidelines (available on the European Commission
website) which require business operators to document the names and addresses of the supplier and customer in
each case, as well as the nature of the product and date of delivery. Operators are also encouraged to keep
information on the volume or quantity of a product, the batch number if there is one, and a more detailed description
of the product, such as whether it is raw or processed. In addition to the general requirements, sector-specific
legislation applies to certain categories of food products (fruit and vegetables, beef, fish, honey, olive oil) so that
consumers can identify their origin and authenticity. There are also special traceability rules for genetically modified
organisms (GMOs), which ensure that the GM content of a product can be traced and require accurate labelling so
that consumers can make an informed choice. In the case of animals, producers must now “tag” every one with
details of their origin and, when animals are taken for slaughter, stamp them with the traceability code of the abattoir.
The tools used (ear tags, passports, bar codes) may vary from one country to another but must carry the same
information. http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/foodlaw/index_en.htm
Chapter 1.5.3 ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING (PACKAGING AND LABELING)

Based on the general rules previously described in Chapter 1.5.1, food can be labelled as “organic” if it is constituted
by at least 95% ingredients in weight from organic farming. Additives from non organic farming can be added only if
listed in Annex IX of the EC Reg. 889/2008 or temporarily authorized by the Member State.
In Figure 15 you see a sample of label including all required information:
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company name and relevant address, product name, ingredients, EU organic logo (a private or national logo can be
optionally associated, see Figure 15)
Figure 15 - Sample of organic product label
Food products in conversion to organic farming can also be labeled with the relevant reference, with exclusion of
animal production (eggs, milk, meat,..) that can not be labeled as in conversion. The conversion period is different
depending of kind of product:
 vegetables can be commercialized as organic after a 24 months conversion period, before seeding;
 permanent pastures can be used as organic fodder after a 24 months conversion period;
 permanent cultivations different of pastures can give organic products after a 3 years conversion period since
the first harvest.
The Figure 16 shows a label sample for products in conversion to organic farming
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Figure 16 - Sample product label in conversion to organic farming
The EC Reg. 834/07 includes (Art. 23, paragraph 4,a) the mandatory provision to use the organic
logo of the European Union on label of the pre-packed organic food made in EU. This use is optional for labels of
non pre-packed products made in EU or imported from third countries. The technical provisions to reproduce the EU
organic logo are described in the CE Reg. 271/2010, Annex XI, in all the EU languages (see
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/logo_en ).
According to the EC Reg. 834/07 also national and/or private logo can be associated on label with the EU official
one. The most known in the world, for their large use, are in Europe:
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”Agricolture Biologique” (AB-France), is property of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fishery and Rural
Development and is very popular in France, so it can be convenient to associate it to the EU logo. It obliges to
respect also the French organic regulation that includes some differences for the animal production. For organic
wines it is obligatory to add “Vin d e s raisins biologiques”. Information on www.agencebio.org .
”BIOSIEGEL” is the official food for organic farming in Germany. It is optional and complementary to the
EU logo. It is necessary to send a written request to the BioSiegel certification centre to be authorized to use the
logo. See also www.bio-siegel.de .
Out of Europe the most popular logos are:
(Swiss Market) The certification BioSuisse is based on a private Swiss standard ownership of an organic
producers’ association. Special strict rules are requested to the producers, also involving environmental
sustainability, such as i.e. air freight not admitted for raw materials and for organic ingredients not available in
Switzerland the proximity criteria (the closest country where those ingredients are available) are to be followed.
Japanese Agricultural Standards (Japanese Market). This certification is obligatory to export to Japan
both organic vegetable raw materials and processed products; it is optional for products from animal production and
feedstuffs. The certification is not necessary if the Japanese importer is JAS certified.
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Canada Organic Regime (Canadian Market). COR started as a certification in July 2009 and it is
obligatory since July 2011 for organic products addressed to the Canadian Market. There are two categories:
 “organic” (at least 95% in weight organic);
 “contains X% organic ingredients” (between 70% and 95% organic ingredients).
All the organic supply chain has to be COR certified. From an Agreement between Canada and USA, the COR
certified products, with some added requirements, can be admitted to the USA organic market.
National Organic Program (USA Market). The NOP certification is obligatory for export of organic
products to USA. There are four categories:
 “100% organic”;
 “organic” (at least 95% organic ingredients);
 “made with organic ingredients” (at least 70% organic ingredients);
 “less than 70% organic” (products with less than 70% organic ingredients).
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Module 5 Summary
 Theoretical and practical organic food processing
 ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL PRODUCTION
 NURSERY AND GARDENING
prescriptions
To understand and manage organic food packaging and labeling
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Why organic farming and food process is defined as an holistic production method?
 Because it is based on economic global standards
 Because it develops agriculture as a human activity inscribed in the life of the planet
 Because it aims at developing farming and food systems at the highest level
What condition is not necessary to define “organic” a food product?

 All the ingredients of agricultural origin of the product are, or are derived from, products obtained in
accordance with the requirements of organic production method
 All the ingredients of agricultural origin or not have necessarily to be 100% organic
 An organic product can not contain any ingredient of non-agricultural origin not listed as allowed
What are the references for labeled organic products on which is based the Reg. CE 834/07?
 References to organic production method, certification and logos for organic products
 References to food safety and hazard analysis critical control points
 References safety at work in food supply chains
What product can be defined “organic”?

 The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 510/06
 The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 834/07
 The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EEC No 2078/92
Since HACCP provisions are obligatory also for organic food, there is a derogation in some cases?
 Derogation for traditional foods in the European Union as listed by Member States
 Derogation for agro-environmental measures included in the Rural Development Plans
 Derogation for use of non-organic ingredients from non-agricultural products
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2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
Organic agriculture is an holistic production management method

The same organic and non-organic ingredient are allowed in organic food
HACCP provisions are obligatory for organic as well as for conventional food
No derogation is allowed to HACCP provisions for organic food
Traceability provisions for conventional food are not obligatory for organic food
Food can be labelled as “organic” if it is constituted by at least 95% ingredients in
weight from organic farming
A private or national logo can not be associated to the EU organic logo
For the Swiss market “BioSuisse” engages producers to respect proximity criteria
The EU logo is enough to export organic processed products for Japanese market
The NOP certification is obligatory for export of organic products to USA
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

WRITE A DIALOGUE BETWEEN A FARMER AND A CUSTOMER: THE FIRST ONE HAS TO EXPLAIN TO THE
OTHER ONE HOW CAN BE CORRECTLY PRODUCED AND LABELLED ORGANIC FOOD AT FARM.
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MODULE 6 Marketing and commercialization of organic food
To understand and manage organic food marketing and
commercialization
To understand and manage organic food certification and controls
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CONTENT OF THE MODULE
MODULE 1.6 Marketing and commercialization of organic food
Chapter 6.1 ORGANIC FOOD MARKETING AND COMMERCIALIZATION

Marketing and organic farming and food
Marketing is a management tool of any business aiming to enhance sales and incomes. Marketing starts with
deciding what to produce based on the requirements of the market. The market, in this case, refers to the persons or
organisations who demand the products on offer for consumption, further selling or processing. Knowing the target
market or markets is an extremely important factor to successful marketing. Traditionally, farmers and their advisors
focus on increasing production on farms and then look for markets to sell what is produced, instead of producing
what the market wants. The adoption of a marketing strategy requires farmers to shift their focus from “producing for
the market” to “producing what the target customers want”. The decision to produce according to market
requirements is an important marketing step, as it involves a commitment to specific customer needs, such as type
of product, quality and quantity and sets some strategic aims:
 Understand the importance of marketing
 Understand where to find relevant information about market opportunities, prices and quality requirements
 Understand how to identify market expectations in terms of quality, standards and know how to cope with
these standards
 Recognize who is involved in organic marketing and know the steps on how to organise organic markets
 Learn how to assess the market potential of organic products
 Learn how to develop a marketing concept, define a marketing strategy and apply marketing techniques
 Understand how organic market development can be promoted beyond individual businesses
 Determine when organic certification is useful and know how to get access to it.
The marketing process starts with research to understand what the customers want and goes through the process of
developing and offering products that will meet and satisfy customer expectations. Some constraints are to be
overcome such as limited access to specific information, training, market support services and expertise on
marketing of organic products. Furthermore most farmers are small-scale and work independently, producing very
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limited quantities of any particular product. The cost of collecting and consolidating such small quantities into
marketable quantities is also limitation to a sound marketing approach. Farmers also deal often with a variety of
buyers of their produce including wholesalers, retailers, brokers or direct consumers, from whom they may receive
no feedback. In such cases, there are limited opportunities for improvement or adoption of a marketing strategy
development.
Marketing of organic products

Organic farmers who produce for the market are interested to know the market potential and how to get access to
organic markets. Giving best value to high quality organic products is a major concern of organic farmers and needs
specific techniques. Marketing products as organic also requires certification of the farm. No organic certification is
required, if the farm products are not sold as organic. The decision to certify the farm as organic should be linked to
the possibility of marketing a relevant share of the farm products as organic with a premium price. The premium
price should cover at least the certification costs. Application for certification can be made when the entire farm, or a
specific part of it appointed to organic farming, is managed organically. Depending on the organic standards there is
a defined transition or conversion period of one to three years. During this time, depending on the standards, the
farm products must either be marketed as non-organic, or they can be marketed as organic products originating
from a farm in conversion. Most customers in export markets, however, request organic products that originate from
farms that have already achieved the conversion period. Marketing organic products involves considerable personal
initiative. To access domestic and local markets, farmers need to communicate the value of their products to local
traders and customers. This may involve inviting them to the farm and explaining the principles of organic production
and showing them advantages of the organic approach for nature and the positive impact on product quality.
Traders and customers buy organic products based on a certificate from a nationally recognized organic certification
body. Local supermarkets may require registration as a member of an organic farming association as an additional
guarantee of the farmer’s commitment to organic agriculture. In case the farmers want to sell to export markets
through a trader, there may be specific regulations to comply with. Organic products are commonly targeted for the
local market in the producing countries whereby local demand normally surpasses the supply. In such situations,
there is still room to increase production to meet the ever increasing demand. However, in some cases, consumers
even within domestic markets are demanding sustainably produced animal products such as eggs, milk and meat.
There is, therefore, an opportunity for marketing sustainably produced or organic products which can fetch premium
prices. But the decision to certify organic production should be primarily based on the availability of the market or the
willingness of retailers to promote sustainably produced or organic animal products.
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Figure 17 shows a flow chart representing relationships from production to sales.
Figure 17 - Flow chart cycle production-sales
Market opportunities for organic production in the last years

Demand for organic products is growing since more than twenty years and offers a huge income potential for
producers, processors and trading companies all over the world. Certified organic products provide access to
attractive local and international markets, where higher prices and incomes are possible. Organic markets have
developed fast in the past decades, especially in richer countries. The reasons for this growth include:
 Increased consumer demand for healthy and sustainably produced food, which triggered important
investments from the side of retailers to boost the awareness for these products
 Enhanced public support for the organic sector, aiming to set in place a regulatory framework that benefits
both farmers and consumers and involving subsidies and control mechanisms to ensure consumer
protection.
The support for organic agriculture is particularly high in Europe and North America where consumers are well
informed about organic agriculture and the benefits of organic products. Therefore, North America, the European
Union, Switzerland and Japan are the largest markets for organic products, as also shown in the graphics and
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figures in Module 1.2; their respective regulations play an important role not only in these countries themselves but
also in the exporting countries with a favourable mix of domestic and export markets. The driving factor in the
domestic markets for organic products in the last years relate to the fast expansion of big retail chains. Targeting
upper class consumers in urban areas they increasingly try to respond to consumers’ interest for best quality,
including organic. As competition among different retail chains is increasing, specific retailers are more willing to get
involved in the promotion of organic as part of their strategy to attract consumers and generate a favourable image
compared to their main competitors. Since freshness is one major quality factor for consumers, especially for fresh
vegetables and fruit, street markets may also become important promoters of organic food, especially if well-located,
near upper-class consumers and are well-managed and ensure quality through hygiene and trustworthy sellers.
Demand for organic products

Demand for organic products is growing in nearly all countries of the world due to growing awareness and improved
availability for organic products. Consumers are increasingly buying organic for the following reasons:
 They want to buy guaranteed food which is produced without pesticides;
 They care for food that promotes sustainable agricultural production practices and especially biodiversity
(e.g. promoting rare plant and animal species, diversity of plants and animals);
 They care about the well-being of animals;
 They want food whose origin they know and how its production benefits producers and the environment;
 They prefer products that contribute to the mitigation or the effects of climate change.
Most consumers expect multiple benefits from organic products, which vary among different consumer groups within
and between countries. In any case, not all consumers are consistent in their perceptions and purchasing behaviour:
they expect to buy high quality organic products, but not paying adequate price premium for these products.
The organic market information needs to be validated every year. Therefore, farmers, processors, traders, NGO’s
and other stakeholders of the market chain need to know where to access relevant information for their context and
how to interpret such information:
 Certification bodies. Certification is a marketing tool: its role in the organic value chain is to guarantee that
the consumer gets organic quality where products are labelled as such. Certification bodies annually inspect
and certify organic farm production, processing and trade at all levels of the food chain. They play an
important role in building trust and guaranteeing product quality. In many cases, certifiers are also a
reference for the interpretation of standards and are an important source of information in the start-upof a
project.
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 National organic movements or associations included in four IFOAM regional groups based in Asia, the
Mediterranean (AgriBio Mediterraneo), Latin America, and the EU as a whole, plus two national groups in
Japan and France function to coordinate organic agriculture at the regional level. The national groups are
self-organized and operate autonomously on the particular tasks of research, standards and certification
development, and capacity building through the provision of services such as training. They also provide
services such as advisory services, market information and market coordination, organization of farmers,
farmers’ groups and multi-stakeholder groups. They provide addresses of individuals, institutions and
authorities involved in the organic sector and can coach farmers in the conversion process towards organic
farming.
 NGOs involved in local market developments are good addresses as well. NGOs can also assist in getting
first information on domestic and export markets.
 Websites. The most important of them, at international level are:
 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) http://www.ifoam.org
 Organic market http://www.organic-market.info
 Organic Monitor http://www.organicmonitor.com
 European Commission organic agriculture http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/home_en
Ministries of Agriculture in all the European Member States , as well as the Regions, provide many information also
including national laws and subsidy opportunities. For the local contexts producers, traders, local service providers
(NGOs and researchers) and retailers manage highly important information that goes beyond statistical information.
Quality requirements for organic products

Supply chain management is one of the key issues to the success of developing an organic market at local, regional,
national and international level. Efficiency and quality management are determining factors and need particular
attention. Key issue in quality development is the establishment of a quality assurance system throughout the supply
chain. This involves quality of raw materials, procurement control system, processing quality, packaging, and stock
management. Both the marketing organisations and the producers need to apply a Total Quality Management
(TQM) for their operation so that product quality can be continuously maintained.
Different markets have different requirements regarding the quality, certification and documentation of organic
products. Therefore, in the process of planning an organic business and corresponding marketing activities,
producers need to decide for which market they would like to produce. Part of this query relates to find out which
regulations are relevant for what countries and marketing opportunities.
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Consumers expect a specific quality from specific products. To know the quality expectations and to implement them
in the product design and marketing, therefore, are fundamental for the success of an organic business. At the same
time, producers have to make sure that they can guarantee this quality along the complete product chain.
Quality refers to multiple aspects that define as the marketability of a given product in terms of:
 Food safety: free of residues and contaminants
 Nutritional value of product, content of vitamins, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids etc.
 Free from additives and colorants
 Natural taste and smell
 External appearance: colour, healthy looking (free of blemishes, disease)
 Appropriate packaging; presentable and hygienic packaging for consumer markets
 Environmental benefits of a product towards natural resources and climate
 Consistency and continuity of supply
 Communication services such as labelling, informing about this quality
 Organic certification endorsing this quality.
Organic markets differences from other markets

 Company objectives. In addition to economic objectives like increase sales volume and income, aspects of
ecological and social responsibility are also to be considered. This means for example: save and recycling of
energy, a minimum fair salary for all employees of a farm or a trading company and a fair share of the
benefits to all business partners. These aspects are highly appreciated and increase the credibility for
customers.
 Transportation restrictions. Food miles and carbon emission in transport become increasingly important in
organic trade. Some privately controlled organic standards such as Soil Association (UK) and Bio Suisse
(Switzerland) do not allow import by air. Transported goods may only be sprayed with pesticides or cleansing
agents, which are specially permitted for use with organic products.
 Packaging and declaration. Packaging must be free from pesticides, colourings, solvents or cleansing
agents, which could contaminate the organic products. Organic products must be labelled in accordance with
the regulations laid down by the organic legislation of the country where the products are sold.
 Organic legislations and standards. In order to sell organic products on the market and labelling them as
organic, producers and traders have to comply with specific regulations. The main goal of organic standards
and regulations is to regulate organic production (on the farm), organic processing (food industry) and trade.
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 Private standards in organic agriculture were first set up by organic farmers’ associations on a private level,
as binding rules of production for their members. The first private organic standards and labels were Demeter
(international), Bioland and Naturland (Germany), Bio Suisse (Switzerland), Nature et Progrès (France) and
the Soil Association (UK).
 Since the nineties of the last millennium, more than 60 governments developed and put into force public
organic regulations or are on the way to it. On a governmental level, there are organic regulations in the EU,
in the USA (NOP), Japan (JAS), Switzerland and many other countries.
 At the international level the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) publishes the “Guidelines for
Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods” on which national
governments base their legal regulations. At the international private sector level, the IFOAM Norms include
a global organic standard approved by the representative of the organic movement. These standards provide
guidance on management principles for the production of agricultural products, handling, storage,
processing, packaging and transport of products as well as a list of permitted substances.
Market opportunities
In the process of identifying a market opportunity, most important is to clarify how a specific business idea might
generate tangible benefits to a specific group of consumers. In terms of ’marketing thinking’, this comes down to the
development of a sound ’marketing concept’, which relates the value that is perceived by a specific target group of
consumers with the costs that occur when providing a specific good. For producers it becomes interesting as soon
as the value consumers attribute to a specific good is considerably higher than the costs providing it. This is the
case for many organic producers, but of course needs to be analysed individually, for example in the process of
conversion to organic farming. In methodological terms, a marketing concept is defined by 5 P’s, which all relate to
how consumers perceive and value a specific good: Product, Packaging, Price, Place and Promotion:
 Product: an innovative, high quality product is the basis for success in an organic business.
 Place: the place where a product is sold is of great relevance to make sure that those consumers who are
targeted get to know the product and have access to it for purchasing. It is important to make sure that the
product is easily found in the store and shelf where it logically should be placed.
 Price: each product involves production and marketing costs. However, the product price is much more than
’just’ covering these costs: it is to visualize the value this product has for the consumer. Therefore, the price
is an important asset to help consumers understand the value of a product and should be determined based
on knowing how much consumers are willing to pay for this product.
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 Packaging: the packaging is many times the first thing a consumer notes about a product. The packaging
must not only be appealing but communicate in an optimal way what the product is offering, meeting
consumer’s wish. In this sense, the packaging with its label must establish a clear hierarchy of what
attributes are most important for the consumer and visualize these correspondingly.
 Promotion: there are so many products out there, that consumers don’t have the time to search for products
and get informed about them. That is why promotion is so important, to help present a product to the target
consumers in the right way: in the right time, in the right place and with the best way to make the consumer
understand the valuable attributes it is offering to him. It is important to come across clearly well positioned
and available messages that help consumers understand why this product is beneficial to them.
Since the main challenge for sound marketing concept development lies in a good understanding of potential
consumers and the market, marketing concept development must go hand in hand with qualitative research, which
help access and analyse relevant information. Doing a rapid market assessment for agricultural products is an
efficient way to obtain information about any sector and commodities that have market potential, for example organic
products. It aims to rapidly access information that is useful to identify and analyse market opportunities. The
sources of information that will be approached may vary, including the following potential sources:
 Available statistics
 Analysis of specialized websites
 Visits to outlets: supermarkets, street markets, small retail shops
 Face to face interaction with processors, traders, retailers, consumers
 Buying, testing and benchmarking of different products.
Implementation of market opportunities and business planning

Before starting a business, most actors went through a process of carefully thinking about taking a decision to move
ahead with the implementation of a market opportunity. In this sense, they already have developed some sort of a
business plan, at least in their head. When they think about the market or markets to sell, they have clear “target
markets” in mind that imply what has to be grown, when, and in what quantities, etc. In this sense, a clear idea
prevails about why and how a specific product is valuable to the group of consumers that is targeted. A business
plan presents all aspects of a new business in a simple, comprehensive way. When put onto paper, a business plan
is a strategic document that describes all aspects of the development of a market opportunity:
 It states a set of business goals and the plan how to reach them.
 It clearly defines all relevant business activities and how they relate to each other.
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 It specifies responsibilities among actors directly and indirectly involved in the business.
 It shows examples of how to make a business profitable by planning costs, income creation and marketing
for a business.
 It includes projections of how different scenarios might influence expected profitability.
 It shows the steps necessary to implement operations and define the roles partners should play.
A business plan can have different proposes:
 It serves as a planning and decision-making tool, providing a clear concept and proof to a business before
starting it.
 It serves to persuade new actors to get involved, particularly new financial partners.
 It serves to better manage unexpected situations that can be assumed but not exactly in details.
As a conclusion, when planning a new venture, such as an organic business, or when an existing business is to be
developed in an innovative way, business planning is essential.
Structure of a business plan for organic market

In order to prepare a company business plan for organic market, it is important to start from the company
description, products and potential market before setting up economic figures representing the various balance-
sheet items.
 Executive summary
This section summarizes concisely the general aspects of a business plan and gives information on the company,
such as brief historical description, main changes in the past and ongoing activities, the name of the products and
their brief description. It also explains which consumers will be targeted and why the products are valuable for them.
 Description of the commercial potential of the product
This section provides a detailed description of the market in which the products will be positioned and how they will
compete against its competitors. Prior qualitative or quantitative research on market competitors is used to indicate
why the products are suitable to satisfy chosen target consumers and to estimate the size of the potential market.
 Description of the production process and its advantages
This section describes all the stages of the production process up to consumption, as well as all the actors who will
participate in the business along the market chain. The information reveals how the process takes advantage of
synergies along the market chain and how the process is complemented by other activities that keep costs down. At
all points in this review the product must be compared with its competitors.
 Description of the advantages created for society and environment
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This section is not part of an ordinary business plan. However, it is included to make explicit the justification for
public sector support and relevant benefits for society and environment (for example, by tackling depopulation,
fostering rural development, conserving biodiversity, etc.).
 Description of actors involved and of their roles
This section presents the actors who will participate in the business (i.e. company human resources and business
partners), emphasizing the specific role of each one and the skills they have. It must also indicate how the actors will
work as a team, keeping interaction costs as low as possible.
 Evaluation of critical factors
This section, based on SWOT analysis, reflects on critical factors that may stimulate or jeopardize business
success. These factors may be internal (under the control of those involved in the business) or external (outside
their control). The reader must understand the degree of uncertainty associated with these factors, how they
interrelate and how the business partners might influence each one.
 Profitability estimates based on company economic resources, marketing, commercial organization and
different scenarios
This section considers the economic side of the business. When the exact size of the market is uncertain,
reasonable scenarios might be considered. If the business plan is simple, expected profitability levels can be derived
from income and cost estimates. If considerable initial investments are needed to start up the business, an expected
cash flow stream must be derived from estimated annual income and expenditures, making visible the capital needs
at the different stages of the business. Main balance-sheet items are clearly described with relevant figures.
 Investment plan and promotion strategy
This section tells financial capital requirements and specifies investment needs, including those for promotion. If
strategic partnerships are established as part of the marketing strategy, these will be described in detail here. If the
product creates benefits for the public this section must also explain how technical branches of the government,
academic institutions and professional associations will support the business and its promotion activities.
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Chapter 6.2 ORGANIC FOOD CERTIFICATION AND CONTROLS
As there are numerous ’eco-friendly’ campaigns, certification is one way consumers can rely on what is being said.
Organic certification is a marketing tool and is especially important if your products are exported as most of these
markets require it. It is a process that tests for fraudulent practices within farm systems and, therefore, ensures that
everyone in the organic supply chain adheres to the organic production principles and practices. Therefore, organic
certification will provide the confirmation that the organic supply chain is in compliance with organic standards and
hence can carry an organic label or seal. The organic seal confirms that the product is grown according to organic
standards and regulations. Organic certification thus protects organic farmers and organic production, by ensuring
that producers stick to the organic standards and prevents fraudulent traders, especially when the consumer is very
far away from the producer. Thus, a trust is developed between consumer and product that is otherwise difficult to
build. To be certified as organic, the farm must be inspected by a representative of a certifying organisation and
assessed against an organic standard or regulation. There are several labels that correspond to these various
standards and regulations and can be displayed on the products when they are certified accordingly. It is often
important to choose a certification that will grant the use of a logo or label that is well recognized by the ultimate
target consumers. The European Union has adopted a label, shown in Module 1.2 Figure2, for certificated
producers.
There are two main types of certification relevant to organic farmers:
 Participatory certification through a Participatory Guarantee System: this is mainly relevant for the local or
domestic market.
 Third party certification conducted by an independent (third party) organic certifier, also called certification
body. This is relevant for some domestic markets, but mostly export markets.
Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS)

IFOAM defines Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) as locally focused quality assurance systems which certify
producers based on active participation of stakeholders and are built on a foundation of trust, social networks and
knowledge exchange. Participatory Guarantee Systems are also sometimes referred to as “participatory
certification”.
PGS enable the direct participation of producers, consumers and other stakeholders in:
121
the choice and definition of the standards (which can be simpler versions of the national standard, but sometimes
also contain additional requirements decided by the group);
the development and implementation of verification procedures;
the certification decisions. Figure 18 shows a PGS scheme
Figure 18 - PGS Scheme
PGS have developed independently in various countries and continents and hence every PGS system is different
and locally adapted. Nevertheless, there are common key elements and features among all the PGS systems:
Key elements of PGS:
 Shared vision
A fundamental strength of the Participatory Guarantee System lies in the conscious shared vision that farmers and
consumers have in the core principles guiding the program. The vision can embrace organic production goals as
122
well as goals relating to fair trade, respect for ecosystems, the autonomy of local communities and cultural
differences.
 Participation
Participation is an essential and dynamic part of PGSs. Key stakeholders (producers, consumers, retailers and
traders and others such as NGOs) are engaged in the initial design and then the operation of the PGS. In the
operation of a PGS, stakeholders (including producers) are involved in decision making and essential decisions
about the operation of the PGS itself. In addition to being involved in the mechanics of the PGS, stakeholders,
particularly the producers are engaged in a structured ongoing learning process, which helps them improve what
they do.
 Transparency
Transparency is created by having all stakeholders, including farmers and consumers, aware of exactly how the
guarantee system works to include the standards, the organic guarantee process (norms) and how decisions are
made. This does not mean that every detail is known by everyone but rather they have at least a basic
understanding of how the system functions or have a way to find out.
 Trust (integrity based approach)
The integrity base upon which PGSs are built is rooted in the idea that producers can be trusted and that the organic
guarantee system can be an expression and verification of this trust. The foundation of this trust is built from the idea
that the key stakeholders collectively develop their shared vision and then collectively continue to shape and
reinforce their vision through the PGS.
 Learning process
The effective involvement of farmers, retailers and consumers on the elaboration and verification of the principles
and rules not only leads to the generation of credibility of the organic product, but also to a permanent process of
learning which develops capacities in the communities involved.
 Horizontality
Horizontality means power sharing. PGSs are intended to be non-hierarchical. The verification of the organic quality
of a product or process is not concentrated in the hands of a few. All involved in the process of participatory
certification have the same level of responsibility and capacity to establish the organic quality of a product or
process. A typical PGS involves organic farmers, consumers and possibly other stakeholders such as staff from
supporting NGOs, extension services staff, consultants, government representatives, university staff, etc. Farmers
are typically organised in local groups which are responsible for ensuring that all farmers of the group are following
the PGS standards and processes. Each farmer receives an annual farm visit by at least one other farmer of the
123
group, sometimes accompanied by another stakeholder (e.g. consumer). Results of the farm visits are documented
and serve as a basis for the farmer group to take decisions on the certification status of each group member.
Documentation summaries and certification decisions are typically communicated to a higher level, for example to
a regional council or national council representing the PGS stakeholders. This council sometimes endorses
certification decisions taken by the groups or more generally approves each local group and grants them the use of
the PGS logo if any. The higher level also decides on organic standards to be followed and represents the PGS
towards external actors such as the government and IFOAM. As compared to third party certification, PGS provide
the following benefits to small farmers:
 It provides a collective support that will help the farmer in his daily life. For example, the group can provide
support to its members for production, for marketing and for finances. They can be perfectly integrated in
self-help groups and farmer field school systems.
 It requires less paperwork and is usually cheaper than third party certification.
 It facilitates the creation of linkages with local consumers and hence helps to grow the local demand for
organic products.
However, PGS certification is not always acceptable to all buyers. Certain buyers such as supermarkets or exporters
will require third party certification to accept the products as organic. Moreover, PGS requires the farmers to be
actively involved in the group (i.e. participating in regular group meetings and the farm inspection of other farmers).
Third party certification

Third party certification is a service usually provided by a certification body to its clients for a fee. The service
consists of an on-site review of farming practices and of the corresponding records and documentation kept by the
farmer, to verify compliance with the relevant organic standards. This inspection is done at least once a year and is
performed by an organic inspector hired by the certification body. There are two scenarios under which organic
producers can be third party certified:
 Individual third party certification, whereby the farmer alone signs a contract with the certification body and
will obtain his or her own organic certificate.
 Group certification, whereby a group of farmers (either organised in a cooperative way or organised by a
buyer) is managing an Internal Control System (ICS) and requests certification as a group.
Group certification consists of a system of combined internal and external control for the collective certification of a
group of small producers. It implies that:
124
 An Internal Control System (ICS) managed by the group ensures individual internal inspections of
each farmer annually and establishes one documentation system common to the whole group.
 An external certification body inspects the documentation and the good functioning of the ICS and
carries out sample re-inspections of farmers to evaluate the quality of the internal inspections.
The relationships established from third party certification for organic products is shown on Figure 19.
Figure 19 - Third party certification
The certification body delivers a collective organic certificate that is owned by the group and not by farmers
individually. The cost of group certification is shared among the group members (which lowers the cost significantly),
but the products certified can only be marketed as organic through the group.
The purpose of an ICS is to bring down the cost of organic certification for small-holders by establishing a group that
can do much of the monitoring itself. Then the certifier’s job is just to see that the group processes and data
125
collection are working well and to check a small number of the farms. The objective is not to provide ’easy’
certification; the same organic rules must still be followed. But by carefully setting up the group and its rules, the
regulations can be simplified to such an extent that even farmers with a low level of education are clear on the rules
they must follow and the data that must be kept and by whom. Group certification is typically used for groups of
small-holders producing one or few common commodities for export. What is required is that the groups are quite
homogenous: composed of farmers in geographical proximity, with similar production systems and with a joint
marketing channel for the produce they want to have certified as organic.
Self assessment for certification

Before applying for certification, the farmer or farmers group should attempt to conduct a self assessment as below:
 Full application of organic practices on the farm has been tried out for at least one year and good knowledge
and experiences have been developed;
 There is a target market which requires organic certification (which kind?) and offers enough return to
compensate for the time and cost of being certified;
 Under organic production, the farmer or group of farmers have the particular products required by the organic
market in sufficient quantities;
 The farmer or group of farmers has financial resources to pay for at least two years certification costs before
they can start marketing them as organic.
Conversion Period to organic farming

An important aspect of the process to become certified is that farmers who wish to engage in certified organic
production need to go through a conversion period. This refers to the time that a farm has to use full organic
production practices before it can be certified. The conversion period usually starts from the date that the farmers
registered and signed an agreement committing themselves to following organic standards. The conversion period
can be achieved in one to three years. When no agro-chemicals have been used in the last 3 years, conversion can
be achieved in just one year. In farms or places where external inputs have been intensively used, the conversion
period will be three years. The certifier sets out a conversion plan for each farm, which needs to be followed. It is,
therefore, important to make early contact with the certifier to know the actual approach towards conversion and
specific requirements. The conversion period is often costly for the producer because extra costs are made, mainly
for certification, while the produce cannot bear the certification label which would give them higher market value.
 The process of individual third party certification
126
If the desired market requires third party certification against a particular standard or regulation, the farmer(s)
should:
 Identify a certification body able to provide the required organic certification. It is highly advisable to choose a
local certification body so long as it is able to deliver the required certification. Local certifiers understand
local conditions better and probably are cheaper because they use local staff. The prices and services of
several certification bodies should ideally be compared before a choice is made.
 Make an initial application to the certification body and pay an application fee.
 Normally, the application will ask for a description of the cropping history of each field or fields, a conversion
plan for the farm and or a livestock management plan for each livestock enterprise.
 An inspection visit from an inspector is carried out on the farm and a report is prepared for certification
approval by the certification committee of the certification body.
 Records of inputs must be kept and each year the farmer (or the farmer group in case of group certification)
has to submit an annual report describing all activities of the year including all inputs and harvest/sales.
 Inspections are carried out annually and a certificate is granted for each inspection year. Farmers make an
annual payment to the certification body for this service.
 The process of group third party certification
If a group of farmers (for example, organised under a cooperative), would like to be certified as a group for one or
few crops which they sell jointly, they should:
 Approach the national organic agriculture movement (NOAM) in their country, if it exists, or otherwise contact
supporting NGOs or capacity building institutions working on organic agriculture, to start building up a
relationship and to obtain more literature on group certification. These organisations may recommend a
training organisation to assist you. The certification body is not allowed to do any training itself, as this is
considered a conflict of interest.
 Work first on ensuring that all the group members produce organically and in compliance with the appropriate
standard.
Then work on group and documentation processes. With the farmers, develop and record the methods that they
use. This must include the conversion rules, the rules for incorporating new farmers and their minimum requirements
(e.g. target crops). Develop the contract that each farmer will sign to enter into the group. Contact the certification
body to request the templates which the group needs to use and a complete list of their requirements:
127
 Elect or designate the relevant officers, who will do the internal inspections at least once a year. Sometimes
they can be extension officers who are also likely to be involved in ongoing training of the farmers. In that
case, they should never inspect farmers they have trained.
 Elect or designate an Internal ICS Management Committee, probably with some of the leaders of the
association.
 Apply for certification to the identified certification body and implement all the requirements requested by
them.
 Group certification may become complicated for the groups to handle if they are not well organised. Only
strong groups and well organised groups have the capacity to manage the Internal Control System and can
succeed to obtain organic certification in this way. They also need a considerable prefinancing capacity to
invest in setting-up the system and go through the conversion period before financial returns can be
obtained.
Inspection and certification

A number of steps are required to certify a farm, a processing company or a trading company. It starts with a
learning phase that includes investing time in getting familiar with the relevant organic regulations and implementing
the various farm methods that comply with these regulations. And ends with a certification agency issuing a
certificate verifying the farm’s or company’s compliance with the organic regulations. The following describes steps
to be taken that involve inspection and certification of a farm. For a processor, a trading company or a distributor,
specific issues need to be considered :
 Conversion planning
The first step is to get familiar with the organic regulations and standards, and learn what is and what is not allowed
for every activity in farming, food processing, labelling and trade. A farm may then, based on these requirements,
need to learn new technologies and correspondingly modify its farming methods. A typical example would be using
compost instead of synthetic fertilizers or using natural predators instead of chemical pest management. This is part
of the conversion planning that needs to be elaborated on together with the support of an experienced advisor at
least one year before the first organic inspection is to take place. The conversion plan should include the following
information:
 Which crops to grow organically
 How to manage crops and animals organically
128
 Organic inputs and where to get them
 How farm products will be harvested and stored
 How and where to sell your farm products
 Costs of certification
 Investments in equipment and tools
 Human and financial resources
 The decision to pursue organic certification.
The farmer’s family makes a decision on whether or not to certify the farm based on the conversion plan analysis. It
is important to discuss the results of your conversion plan and your decision with farmer colleagues and with
partners in the market chain, especially with potential customers, an advisor experienced in organic farming as well
as a certification body agent. Farmers need to especially consider income needs and personal interests of all family
members. As with all larger farm management decisions, the decision to convert to organic farming needs to be
considered carefully in order to safeguard the future of the farm.
 Application and agreement.
When the decision to certify is clear, the farmer/producer must submit an application to the chosen certification
agency. With this step, the farmer agrees:
 To produce according to organic regulations
 To establish proper recordkeeping
 To receive annual on-farm inspection visits
 To apply correct declaration and labelling when selling the product
 To pay for inspection and certification
 Recordkeeping.
Farmers have to keep day-to-day written records on:
 The surface of the farm (with a farm map)
 Planted crops the farm (list)
 Specific management applied on the crops (conversion plan)
 Application of inputs and purchase of inputs (e.g. for pest and disease management, fertilizers and seeds)
(list)
 Animals on the farm, purchased animals, forage (list)
 Sales records (list)
129
 Inspection
The contracted certification body will visit the farm at least once a year for on-farm inspection. The inspection
includes:
 A physical tour to the field, stables, storage and sales facilities
 Oral interviews
 An examination of the records
 An inspection report, to be signed by the farmer
In case of doubts or specific needs, an inspector can make additional, unannounced visits to the farm to check
specific issues such as application of pesticides, get additional documentation or visit the farm when the crops are
harvested.
 Certification
The inspector delivers the inspection report to the agency certifier. The certifier reviews the inspection report with all
annexes (map and records and conversion plan). The certifier determines whether the farm will be approved for
organic certification or not. If yes, the certifier issues a certificate, stating the list of products that may be sold as
organic. The farm may now sell its products as organic, using the labels agreed upon with the certification body. The
product labels must identify the certifier and information about the producer.
 Traceability
All operators of an organic product chain need to be certified organically: producers, processors, traders and
retailers. The regulations require all the stages of food production to be monitored in order to protect consumers
against fraud. Traceability systems are used to identify products, their origin and their location within a supply chain.
These systems also enable a company to recall products in case of any suspected fraud or a product’s
contamination. In the case of organic exports, certification bodies monitor each stage of the supply chain and have
to document the traceability in the transaction certificate, to be presented from the exporter to the importer.
130
Module 6 Summary
 Theoretical and practical marketing and commercialization of organic food
 NURSERY
 ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL PRODUCTION
To understand and manage organic food marketing and
commercialization
To understand and manage organic food controls
131
What kind of knowledge is to be considered strategic for a marketing oriented organic producer?
 Food quality based on local traditional products
 Benchmarking with similar conventional food
 To know the market potential and how to get access to organic markets
How can be labelled raw materials or food products from a farm in conversion to organic method?
 Product from partly organic farm
 Non-conventional product
 Product in conversion to organic farming

 The marketing concept 5Ps means Product, Packaging, Price, Place and Promotion
 How and how much to increase organic production is independent of target market criteria
 IFOAM is an international organisation group for organic food and farming
Why consumers are increasingly buying organic food in the most developed countries?
 Organic food is temporarily in fashion as it was for other products in the past
 Increasing interest for health food, environmental protection, energy saving and holistic vision
 It is just for one’s conscience’s sake from people living in countries responsible of planet pollution
What quality assurance system is not related to organic farming and food?
 Participatory Guarantee System (PGS)
 Third Party Certification
 Traditional Specialty Guaranteed (TSG)
132
2 TRUE OR FALSE ?
Small quantity can be a limitation to a sound marketing approach for organic food
Private standards in organic agriculture were first set up by farmers’ associations
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is not concerned in organic food
IFOAM is the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
Statistics are not important to get information on organic food market
Organic food must be free of residues and contaminants
There is no need of a business plan for organic farming producers
Certification can be only strictly individual and groups are not allowed to get it
A self-assessment test is not useful before applying for certification
The contracted certification body will inspect the farm at least once a year
3 ROLE PLAY GAME

THE TRAINEES ARE DIVIDED IN TWO GROUPS: EACH GROUP DRAW UP A BUSINESS PLAN FOR
ORGANIC FOOD MARKETING.
WHEN READY THE TWO GROUPS PRESENT THEIR BUSINESS PLAN.
A NOTE TAKER FOR EACH GROUP WILL DRAW UP A REPORT.
THE TRAINERS WILL MAKE THEIR OBJECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS.
AS A RESULT A PORTFOLIO OF EVIDENCE OF THE DISCUSSED PROPOSALS (POWER POINT
PRESENTATIONS, PICTURES, SAMPLES OF BALANCE SHEETS, FLOW CHARTS,..) WILL BE COLLECTED.
133
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generali del biologico. Rapporto INEA
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farming systems, European Journal of Agronomy
Cavinato G. (a cura di) , Guida Verde & Naturale 2005 (2004) Ulysse Network s.r.l.
Caccioni D., Colombo L. (a cura di) Il Manuale del biologico , Edagricole (2012)
Ernst & Young LLP (1997) Outline for a business plan. A proven approach for entrepreneurs only.
European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development (2010): An analysis of the EU
organic sector. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/markets/organic_2010_en.pdf
Ferrari M., Marcon E., Menta A. (2000) Lotta biologica. Edagricole Bologna
Guet G. (2001) Agricoltura biologica mediterranea. Edagricole, Bologna.
Hamilton L.H. (2007) Farming to create heaven on earth, Shumei international press, Shiga
Hovi M., Sundrum A., Thamsborg S.M. (2003) Animal heath and welfare in organic livestock production in Europe:
current state and future challenges. Livest. Prod. Sci. 80: 41-53
IFOAM (2002) Basic standards for organic production and processing. www.ifoam.org
Koopmans C.J., Bokhorst J. (2000) Optimizing organic farming systems: Nitrogen dynamics and long term soil
fertility in arable and vegetable production systems in the Netherlands. Proceedings 13th International IFOAM
Scientific conference, Bassel, Switzerland, 28-31 August 2000, 69-72.
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Reports on organisation and conduction of research programmes in 11 European countries. Bundesanstalt für
Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) / Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food BLE, Bonn, Germany.
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IFOAM EU Group, Brussels; Available at: http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/around_world/eu_group-
new/positions/Others_II/final-RD_study_7.1_web.pdf
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Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report.
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(2011): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011.
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N., Michelsen, J., Slabe, A., Stokkers, R.,
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ORGANIC FARMING AND FOOD

MODULE 1 Basic knowledge in organic farming

The purpose of this module is the following:

From the 70's to the 90’s

Basic principles and techniques

The zero-tillage system

The main findings of this module are :

 Differences between organic farming and conventional agriculture

which are interrelated with

 FARM MANAGEMENT MODULE

Related learning outcome/s or chapter/s :

What is biodynamic agriculture?

What is crop rotation?

TRUE OR FALSE TRUE FALSE

Organic farmers are allowed to use grow chemical pesticides

3 ROLE PLAY GAME

The purpose of this module is the following:

Crops to grow during conversion

The conversion process for organic certification

The procedure of inspection and certification

Organic seed requirements for certification

Arrangements in brief for control and inspection

Labelling of organically produced foodstuffs

Incentives to convert to organic farming

1.2.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN EUROPE

The European market for organic food and drink

Action plans for organic food and farming

What is the conversion process to organic farming?

What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 889/2008?

What are the organic action plans?

What is the largest national organic market in Europe?

TRUE OR FALSE TRUE FALSE

The EC 834/2007 is the ongoing Council Regulation for organic farming

3 ROLE PLAY GAME

The main findings of this module are :

 Specific regulations and certifications for organic farming

which are interrelated with

 FARM MANAGEMENT MODULE

Related learning outcome/s or chapter/s :

The purpose of this module is the following:

PROCESSES OF SOIL PRACTICES FOR

Table 3: Concept of sustainable agriculture (From Parr et al., 1990)

Objectives SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (VISION AND FUNCTION)

METHODS OF LOW INPUT AND RATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Foster natural Use of useful insects Protection and recovery of

1.3.2 FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF CROPS

General principles for choosing crops

Factors determining the choice of crop

The distribution of different rotation of crops

Rotation1 Meadow Meadow Meadow Cereal Cereal Meadow Meadow Cereal

When establishing the rotations the following points should be considered:

Factors to take into consideration in the crop model

Table 5: Some important botanical families and main crops

Chenopodiaceous Alliaceous Compound

Table 6: Type of roots for different species

1.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING

Recycling nutrients in organic farming