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JOURNAL OF ENDODONTICS
Copyright © 1992 by The American Association of Endodontists
A Three-Dimensional Study of Canal Curvatures in the
Mesial Roots of Mandibular Molars
Cary J. Cunningham, DDS, and E. Steve Senia, DDS, MS, BS, FACD
The degree and configuration of canal curvature was
studied in the mesial roots of 100 randomly selected
mandibular first and second molars. The teeth were
radiographed in buccolingual (clinical) and mesio-
distal (proximal) directions with # 8 K files in place.
One hundred percent of the specimens demon-
strated curvature in both views. No correlation in
degree of curvature was found to exist between the
clinical and proximal views. Secondary curvature, in
a direction opposite to that of the principle curve,
was seen more frequently in the proximal view. In
the proximal view, canals exhibited greater mean
curvature than in the clinical view 38% of the time.
Weine type II morphology (two canals, one foramen)
demonstrated the greatest range in canal curvature
when viewed from the proximal. Coronal flaring with
Canal Master rotary instruments to a level just cor-
onal to the curve significantly reduced the severity
of curvatures in both views for most cases.
To enhance clinical success, dental practitioners must be
aware of root canal morphology, including the configuration
and degree of canal curvatures. This information is necessary
not only in a mesial to distal direction, as seen in a clinical
view radiograph, but also in a buccal to lingual direction
(proximal view radiograph). Although canal curvature in the
proximal view is unseen by the clinician with routine radio-
graphic techniques, it can play a significant role in the cleaning
and shaping process. How often the dentist will encounter
this unseen curvature, its configuration, and amount of cur-
vature has not been well documented.
The morphology of human mandibular molars has been
widely studied since the 1870's. Hess and Zurcher (1), in
1925, forced rubber into the pulp chambers and canals of
teeth, vulcanized the rubber, then decalcified the specimens.
Mueller (2) further reported on the subject in 1936. He
described five vulcanite models of mandibular molars from
the work of Hess and Zurcher of 1925. "They are grotesque
looking figures, which represent decidedly irregular canals,
irregular as to the fact that they are not conical nor straight."
They aptly described them as the "most complicated of all
canals."
294
Printed in U.S.A.
VOL. 18, NO. 6, JUNE 1992
Green (3) described the mesial root of the mandibular first
molar as: "two canals invariably present--one buccal and one
lingual. The two canals usually diverge and then converge
slightly and end in two apical foramina. The apical third of
the root curves slightly distally." Green stated that in the
proximal view, root canals exhibited the largest number of
variations.
Few studies have actually measured the degree of curvature
in root canals. Schneider (4) was one of the first to describe a
reliable method of determining canal curvatures from clinical
view radiographs. He did not investigate curvatures seen from
the proximal view. Pineda and Kuttler (5) used a roentgeno-
graphic method for evaluating root canals from both clinical
and proximal views. No discussion was included regarding
the degree of curvature or if one could predict proximal curves
from the curvatures seen in the clinical view radiograph.
Vertucci (6) cleared 2000 permanent teeth, 100 of which
were mandibular first molars and 100 second molars. He
examined canal number, classification, apical foramina loca-
tions, and frequency of apical deltas. The classification, num-
ber of foramina, and percentages of canals per root that he
found agreed with the findings of Okumura (7) and Pineda
and Kuttler (5). The transparent specimens gave an excellent
three-dimensional view of the pulp cavity. Vertucci's study
(6) did not report on the degree or configuration of the
curvatures or if they related to the type of canal classification.
Fisher et al. (8) fabricated three-dimensional, morphologi-
cally accurate reproductions of human pulpal canal anatomy
by injecting colored resin into pulp chambers and then
embedding each tooth in transparent resin blocks. Skidmore
and Bjorndal (9) created plastic casts to reproduce the root
canal anatomy of human mandibular molars. These repro-
ductions provided an excellent elucidation of canal anatomy,
frequency of separate or joined foramina, and presence of
anastomoses. No description or measurement of actual canal
curvature was given, however.
Slowey (10) described the mesiolingual canal of the man-
dibular first molar as usually straighter than the mesiobuccal
canal. The mesiobuccal canal usually had a greater curvature
toward the buccal in the coronal half of the root as seen from
a proximal view radiograph. He felt that many endodontic
failures were related to the presence of undetected canal
configurations and totally missed canals. He emphasized the
necessity of taking angled radiographs in multirooted teeth,
Vol. 18, No. 6, June 1992 Three-Dimensional Canal Curvature 295

or any time unusual anatomy was suspected, to aid in detect-
ing these anomalies.
Painstaking efforts are described in the literature in at-
tempts to teach students of endodontics the subtleties of root
canal morphology (1-10). With advances in computer imag-
ing, radiographic analysis with a video image processing pro-
gram has been used to obtain three-dimensional anatomy of
root canals, volume, cross-sectional views, and line drawings
(11, 12). Tang and Stock (13) described pre- and postoperative
instrumentation anatomy of root canals via enlarged photo-
graphic prints obtained from radiographs. Davis et al. (14)
made models from the injection of silicone impression ma-
terial. Photographs of the models demonstrated the clinical
and proximal view canal curvatures, but no attempt at de-
scription or quantification was made.
Weine et al. (15) categorized the most common canal
configurations of 75 extracted mandibular second molars
using radiographs from two directions with files in place at
the working length. This method was chosen to provide a
clinically oriented investigation. Review of the literature did
not reveal a similar clinically oriented investigation to deter-
mine the frequency and degree of canal curvatures in man-
dibular molars.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency,
degree of curvature, and the configuration of mesiobuccal
(MB) and mesiolingual (ML) root canals of mandibular mo-
lars. The effect of coronal flaring on canal curvatures in both
dimensions was then investigated. A radiographic approach
was used to evaluate clinical view (CV) as well as proximal
view (PV) curvatures.
axis of the root perpendicular to the central X-ray beam. A
line between the MB and ML canal orifices was aligned
perpendicular to the X-ray film. Exposures were made (S. S.
White Pennwalt Marksman I, Holmdel, N J) from a buccal to
lingual direction with a constant source to object distance at
70 kVp, 15 mA, and 14 impulses. The same procedure was
followed for the ML canal on the other half of the film. It was
then developed, fixed, washed, and dried in an automatic
processor according to the manufacturer's directions.
Next, the teeth were cut through the furcation with an
Isomet saw, separating the two roots. A line between the MB
and ML canal orifices was aligned parallel to the film and the
PV radiograph was exposed from a mesial to distal direction
with #8 K files in both canals as previously described. Figures
1 and 2 demonstrate representative radiographs.
Determination of Curvature
All radiographs were mounted in 2 x 2 plastic slide mounts
and projected onto a built-in screen of a Bell & Howell Ring
Master II projector (Bell & Howell, Laguna Miguel, CA) at a
magnification of x7.8. The root outlines were traced onto a
piece of white paper secured to the screen. The canal curva-
tures were calculated for both views using the technique
described by Schneider (4). Point a was marked with a 0.3-
mm lead pencil on the white paper at the middle of the file
at the level of the canal orifice (Fig. 3). A line was drawn with
a straight edge aligned parallel to the file image from point a
to a point where the instrument deviated from the straight
edge, point b. A third point (c) was made at the apical foramen

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimen Selection

Random selection of 100 mandibular first and second

molars was performed from a pool of several thousand teeth
representing a completely mixed age and race population.
This number was chosen to reduce variation to a negligible
level through stratified randomization. Selection criteria elim-
inated teeth with incompletely formed apices, third molars,
previous endodontic therapy, and teeth with gross decay or
large restorations that would make identification impossible.
All molars had been previously fixed in 10% formalin. The FIG 1. Weine type II configuration. A, CV of MB canal. B, CV of ML
root surfaces were debrided with hand scalers, washed, and canal. C, PV of MB and ML canals.
stored in individually numbered vials containing distilled
water.
The crowns were removed just below the roof of the pulp
chamber with an Isomet low-speed saw (Buehler Ltd., Evans-
ton, IL) in preparation for radiographic evaluation. f!

Radiographic Technique

Radiographs were made in the following manner. For the

CV, a #8 K file was introduced into the MB canal orifice and
gently advanced until visible at the apical foramen. The
specimen was attached to one-half of a Kodak 02 D speed
film, DF-58 (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, NY) with soft
wax, then mounted onto a Plexiglas jig for alignment with FIG 2. Weine type III configuration. A, CV of MB canal. B, CV of ML
the X-ray tube. A small tri-square was used to align the long canal. C, PV of MB and ML canals.
296 Cunningham and Senia
M D
FiG 3. Technique used for determining primary root canal curvature
in the clinical view. Points a to b, long axis of root canal to point of
canal deviation from long axis. Point c, apical foramen. Angle is
measured at the intersection of lines a and b and b and c. Vector 1
is the direction of transport during instrumentation.
and a line was drawn from this point to point b. The angle
formed by the intersection of the two lines was measured as
the canal curvature.
The first curve encountered in a canal was the primary
curve. A secondary curve was one that deviated in a direction
opposite to the primary curve. When more than one curve
was present in the canal, the primary curve was measured as
previously described to its most apical extent (point c) prior
to the deviation away from the central axis of the tooth. The
secondary curvature was then measured from point c to the
apical foramen (d) (Fig. 4). This separation of curvatures was
made because if they had been combined, an apparent
straightening of the curve would have resulted. Figure 2C
demonstrates a secondary curvature as seen in a proximal
view radiograph.
The distance from the level of the canal orifice (point a) to
the initiation of the curve (point b) was measured in milli-
meters for each canal from both views.
Twenty percent of the specimens were then randomly
chosen by an independent investigator to verify the method
of curvature determination.
A stereomicroscope (Zeiss, Oberkochen, FRG) was used to
examine apical foramina in cases where it was difficult to
discern, either visually or radiographically, the number of
apical foramina and the Weine type classification.
Journal of Endodontics
Coronal Flaring
Twenty randomly selected teeth were chosen for coronal
flaring with Canal Master rotary (CMR) instruments (Bras-
seler USA, Savannah, GA). This was done to determine the
effects coronal flaring had on the original curvature as seen
in both views. A custom matrix (3M Express HP Putty
Impression Material, St. Paul, MN) was fabricated for each
root then secured to an X-ray film packet so that the roots
could be radiographed in the same orientation before and
after CMR instrumentation. Preoperative radiographs were
made using the previous settings. Rotary length was deter-
mined by measuring from a coronal reference point to the
level of the primary curve (point b) in the CV radiographs.
Following filing with #8 through #15 K files to rotary length
(point b), rotary instrumentation was initiated with a CMR
#50 and completed with a CMR #80 to the predetermined
rotary length or until the instrument would no longer move
apically using a gentle force (Fig. 5). In no instance was the
CMR taken past the predetermined length. Irrigation was
performed with 3 ml of 5.25% NaOC1 after each rotary
instrument. Postoperative radiographs were made as before
and the degree of curvature was recalculated for both views.
Pre- and postrotary curvatures were compared (Fig. 5).
RESULTS
Frequency of Curvature
All canals in both views had some curvature. Mean degrees
of primary canal curvature are summarized in Tables 1 to 3.
The greatest curvature was observed in the CV of the MB
canal. The total sample of 100 teeth contained 48 right and
52 left molars; 53% were a Weine type II and 47% type III.
Differences in canal curvature means (in degrees) obtained
for Weine type II (Table 2) and III (Table 3) configurations
were analyzed with Student's t-tests. In Weine type II canals,
the CV of the MB canal curvature was significantly greater (p
< 0.01) than the CV of the MB canal for the Weine type III
molars. None of the other curvatures from any view were
significantly different; however, all type II canal curvature
means were greater than type III means.
To determine if the degree of curvature of a canal seen in
a CV correlated with its degree of curvature in a PV, Pearson
correlation coefficients were calculated. The calculations were
determined for all 100 roots, then for Weine type II (n = 53)
and type III (n = 47). No statistically significant correlation
was noted (p > 0.15). Clinically, one cannot estimate the
degree of proximal curvature in either the MB or ML canal
by examining the CV radiograph.
Pearson correlation coefficients were then calculated for
the CV of the MB canal compared with the CV of the ML
canal for each tooth. As anticipated, the entire sample was
significantly correlated (r = 0.81, p < 0.001), as was the
correlation for Weine type II (r = 0.85, p < 0.001) and Weine
type III (r = 0.68, p < 0.001). The correlation demonstrated
the direct relationship in degree of curvature between the MB
and ML canals when viewed from a clinical radiograph.
Correlation coefficients were also calculated for the PV of
the MB canal compared with the PV of the ML canal. The
total sample of 100 teeth was significantly correlated (r =
Vol. 18, No. 6, June 1992 Three-Dimensional Canal Curvature 297

LI /. / /B

12 °

dfPrimary
0.75mm ' curve
t
d FiG 5. Comparison of canal curvature before and after the Canal
Master rotary instrument was used in the coronal portion of the canal.
Secondary y 2 A, Preoperative clinical view (/eft), CMR at rotary length (center), and
curve postoperative view (right) with a reduction in curvature of 13 degrees.
ML instrument was removed view for clarity. B, Preoperative proximal
view (/eft), CMR at rotary length (center), and postoperative view
FIG 4. Technique used for determining secondary root canal curvature (right) with a reduction in curvature of 17 degrees (MB) and 6 degrees
in the proximal view. Angle is measured at the intersection of lines b (ML). Notch is on the buccal surface.
and c and c and d. Vector 2 is the direction of transport during
instrumentation. Note shorter ML root (average, 0.75 mm).
TABLE 1. Mean primary canal curvatures: clinical and proximal
views of 100 roots
0.26, p < 0.01), as was the correlation for Weine type II canals
Canal Mean SD Range
(r = 0.34, p < 0.015). A strong relationship in mean degree (view) (degrees) (degrees)
of curvature between the MB and ML canals was demon-
MB (clinical) 28.7 6.4 17-43.5
strated in the PV. However, the Weine type III correlation
ML (clinical) 27.2 6.9 10-45
coefficient was not statistically significant (r = 0.1 l, p > 0.4). MB (proximal) 21.0 7.6 6-40
The primary PV curves were equal to or greater than CV ML (proximal) 19.7 8.0 7.5-48
curves in 25% of the specimens. When secondary curvatures
were included, 38 % of the PV curves equaled or exceeded the
clinical. Sixteen percent were a Weine type II and 22% Weine
TABLE 2. Mean primary canal curvatures: clinical and proximal
type III classification.
views (Weine type II, 53 roots)
The number and type of canals exhibiting secondary cur-
vature in a plane opposite that o f the direction o f the primary Canal Mean SD Range
curve are shown in Table 4. In a PV radiograph, this curvature (view) (degrees) (degrees)
was always away from the central axis of the root (Fig. 2C). MB (clinical) 30.3 7.3 18.5-43.5
The highest mean curvature was in the MB canal. The PV ML (clinical) 28.4 7.7 10-45
curvatures demonstrated the greatest range and number of MB (proximal) 22.1 8.0 6.5-40
secondary curves. Examination revealed 60 of 200 canals ML (proximal) 20.8 8.4 7.5-48
(30%) seen in the PV contained secondary curves, while only
5 o f 200 (2.5%) of the CV had them.
Figure 6 demonstrates the range and means of the distance extent of the tip of the file. This was normally within 2 m m
from the level of the canal orifice (point a) to the initiation of of the foramen.
the curve (point b) for each canal from both views. The level Twenty-one percent of the MB canals were longer than the
of the secondary curve was measured from the foramen to its ML canals by an average of 0.75 m m (Fig. 4). None of the
point of deviation (point c) as seen in the PV. This distance ML canals were longer; the remaining 79% were approxi-
ranged from 0.9 to 3.8 m m with a mean of 2.2 ram. mately equal in length. The method o f curvature determina-
Of the 200 canals, 94% were patent to a #8 K file to the tion was verified by the independent investigator for 20% of
foramen. The remaining 6% were measured to the most apical the sample and found to be within +_ 2 degrees.
298 Cunningham and Senia
TABLE 3. Mean primary canal curvatures: clinical and proximal
views (Weine type III, 47 roots)
Canal Mean SD Range
(view) (degrees) (degrees)
MB (clinical) 26.9 4.5 17-35
ML (clinical) 25.8 5.5 15-38
MB (proximal) 19.7 7.1 6-38
ML (proximal) 18.4 7.5 7.5-35.5
Coronal Flaring
Reduction of the arc of curvature, both in CV and PV, was
achieved using Canal Master rotary instruments (Table 5).
Figure 5 illustrates before and after coronal flaring with rotary
instruments in a typical case.
DISCUSSION
The methodology used in this study followed that of Weine
et al. (15) who used files in canals to determine canal config-
uration of the mandibular second molar. Using a radiographic
technique with files to canal length inherently introduces
errors in measuring canal curvature. The file will approximate
the actual canal shape but may not conform exactly, especially
where a canal is large and the file does not remain centered.
The object of this study was not to measure exact curvatures,
but to measure the curve that the endodontic instrument
must negotiate to reach the apical foramen.
By combining first and second molars (100 teeth), the
Weine type classification correlated well with earlier studies
by Vertucci (6), Skidmore et al. (9), and Weine et al. (15)
when their results were also combined. Vertucci (6) and
Skidmore et al. (9) found 40% of the mesial roots of mandib-
ular first molars were a Weine type II, 60% type III. Weine et
al. (15) found in 75 mandibular second molars that the mesial
root consisted of 52% type II and 40% type III canals. When
the results of all of these studies are combined for first and
second molars, an approximate 50:50 ratio of Weine type II
and III canals is seen which approximates the ratio seen in
this investigation (53:47).
The results of this study agreed with those reported by
Weine (16) in regard to the direction of the PV curvatures.
The MB canal initially progresses buccally from the orifice,
then lingually afte the curve, terminating at the foramen. The
ML canal initially progresses lingually then buccally after the
curve. Weine (16) did not mention secondary curvatures in
his textbook. However, the results of this study found that
30% of PV canals exhibited secondary curves (32% MB, 28%
ML).
These current findings disagree with Pineda and Kuttler
(5) who found only 68.1% of the mesial roots in first molars
and 58.3% in second molars with curvatures in both the CV
and PV. Curvatures were found in 100% of the canals ex-
amined in this study.
The results of this investigation agree with those of Green
(3) who also reported a greater variety of canal configurations
in the PV. Slowey's findings (10) that the ML canal was
generally straighter than the MB when viewed from the prox-
imal could not be confirmed. It was observed that the distance
from the ML canal orifice to the level of the curve as viewed
Journal of Endodontics
from the proximal was approximately 1 mm greater than the
MB canal. This could lead to an impression of a straighter
canal. No statistical difference in degree of curvature was
noted, but the MB mean curvature was greater than the ML
(Table l).
Secondary curves were seen in 30% of the PV radiographs
with a mean distance of 2.2 mm from the foramen. This
unseen curvature may account for loss of working length as
canals are progressively instrumented with larger files. The
larger instruments are unable to negotiate this additional
curve and loss of length in the apical 2 mm of the canal
Occurs.
Results of coronal flaring confirmed earlier reports by
Roane et al. (17) that canal curvature is decreased by altering
the entry angle of the instrument (Fig. 5). Coronal and middle
flaring with the Canal Master rotary significantly reduced the
magnitude of curvatures in both views. This was accomplished
in a conservative fashion with CMR #50 through #80. The
CMR #50 is approximately the size of a #1 Gates Glidden
drill and smaller than a #1 Peeso reamer. The CMR #80
corresponds to a #2 to #3 Gates Glidden or a # 1 to #2 Peeso
reamer. Preservation of the distal wall of the canal coronal to
the level of the curve was possible with conservative rotary
instrumentation. This avoided potential strip perforations in
dumbbell-shaped roots with deep distal concavities. Sharp
curves and secondary curves in the apical third were not
altered to a significant degree by coronal flaring. The CMR
was designed not to enter curves (18). Its rigid noncutting
pilot prevents the instrument from gaining access to an area
where breakage or strip perforations may occur.
Leseberg and Montgomery (19) studied canal transporta-
tion at the level of the curve and documented the distal and
axial (toward the midline) movement of the original canal.
This canal transportation is caused by a combination of forces
resulting from CV and PV curvatures which produce a vector
distally and axially (Fig. 7). From their study it would appear
that the greater the proximal curvature, the faster the trans-
portation would progress toward the distal concavity. This
could result in strip perforations. Further studies are needed
to corroborate this observation.
The presence of a dumbbell-shaped mesial root in mandib-
ular molars with severe distal concavities creates difficulties
in properly instrumenting in three dimensions. Evaluation of
instrumentation techniques in curved canals of molars must
include both clinical and proximal curvatures. Human teeth
used as their own controls appear to be the ideal model (19)
since the third dimension of curvature is built-in. Studies
using plastic blocks with only one curvature, or human teeth,
when the proximal curvatures are ignored, are not realistic
because they neglect the unseen curvature. Only by consid-
ering the three-dimensional nature of canal curvatures can
instruments and techniques be fairly evaluated and compared.
Successful endodontic treatment of mandibular molars
requires considerable knowledge of canal curvature if they are
to be debrided and obturated successfully. Even armed with
this knowledge, the irregularly shaped canals and additional
curvatures not apparent on radiographs make treatment dif-
ficult at best. No single method of instrumentation and ob-
turation can be adequately applied to all cases. The dental
practitioner must be able to anticipate canal morphology in
order to best select treatment modalities. Recent advances in
digitized, computer-enhanced radiographic techniques may,
Vol. 18, No. 6, June 1992 Three-Dimensional Canal Curvature 299

TABLE 4. Number of canals with secondary curvatures--mean secondary canal curvatures: clinical and proximal views (100 roots)
Canal Weine Type Weine Type Secondary Mean SD Range
(view) II III Curves (degrees) (degrees)
MB (clinical) 2 0 2 16.5 6.4 12-21
ML (clinical) 1 2 3 19.4 5.2 13.5-23.5
MB (proximal) 18 14 32 26.3 13.5 7-57
ML (proximal) 13 15 28 23.5 9.4 7-44
Total 34 31 65

CONCLUSIONS
Start of Curve (Measured from Canal Orifice)
16
1. One hundred percent of the specimens demonstrated

I
[ ] Mean curvatures in the MB and ML canals, both in clinical and
I = Range proximal view radiographs.
12
2. Clinical view curvatures of the MB and ML canals in
10 the same tooth were similar and directly correlated for all
specimens.
E 8 3. No correlation was found between clinical and proximal
E

24 -
6 5.1
view curvatures in the same tooth. Proximal view curvatures
cannot be predicted or estimated from examining a CV
radiograph.
4. Proximal view curvatures were equal to or greater than
those in the clinical view 38% of the time in either the MB
or ML canals.
0
MB ML MB ML 5. Weine type II morphology demonstrated a greater mean
(CV) (CV) (PV) (PV)
curvature with a wider range and a larger number of secondary
FIG 6. Range and means (in mm) of the distance from the level of the curves than Weine type III roots when viewed from the
canal orifice (point a) to the initiation of the curve (point b) for each proximal.
canal from both views.
6. Secondary canal curvatures were only seen in 2.5% of
the clinical view radiographs compared with 30% in the
TABLE 5. Reduction in degree of curvature after Canal Master proximal views.
rotary instruments (40 canals) 7. The mean distance from the level of the canal orifice
(point a) to the initiation of canal curvature (point b) was
Canal Average Range slightly greater with a slightly wider range in the proximal
(view) (degrees) (degrees)
view for both the MB and ML canals.
MB (clinical) 8.9 1-18 8. Twenty-one percent of the MB canals were longer than
ML (clinical) 5.9 1-9.5 the ML canals by an average of 0.75 mm.
MB (proximal) 9.8 1-16
9. The degree of canal curvature was significantly reduced
ML (proximal) 7.8 0-16
in both views after coronal flaring with Canal Master rotary
instruments.
This article is a work of the United States government and may be reprinted

D /
/•f•-Combinedvector
~ C a n a l
without permission. Dr. Cunningham is an employee of the United States Air
Force, Lackland Air Force Base, TX. Opinions expressed therein, unless
otherwise specifically indicated, are those of the authors. They do not purport
L ~ 1 ~ 2 ~ ~ B ranspOrtatiOn to express views of the Department of the Air Force or any other department
or agency of the United States government.

~ ' - , , ~ Original canal
M
FIG 7. Cross-sectional drawing of the mesial root at the level of the
primary clinical curve demonstrating the combined vector of trans-
portation from clinical and proximal curvatures. Vectors 1 and 2
correspond to the vectors shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
We would like to thank Mr. John Schoolfield for the statistical and computer
analysis and Dr. Steve Montgomery for his valuable assistance in preparing
this manuscript.
Dr. Cunningham is a resident, Department of Endodontics, University of
Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX and Wilford Hall
USAF Medical Center, Lackland Air Force Base, TX. Dr. Senia is professor and
director, Advanced Education Program in Endodontics, University of Texas
Health Science Center at San Antonio.

in the future, greatly aid in the visualization of three-dimen-

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T h e W a y It W a s

Bismarck, the German statesman, is known for his observation to the effect that "it is better that men do not
know how their laws or their sausages are made." Sausage figured in another, less publicized event in his life.

Virchow, the famous pathologist, was also a politician and served in the opposite party to Bismarck in the
Reichstag. Virchow proposed a law requiring inspection of slaughtered hogs for trichinosis parasites. Bismarck
opposed and, becoming enraged at Virchow's legislative tactics, challenged him to a duel. Knowing Bismarck
to be an accomplished swordsman, and having the choice of weapon, Virchow chose a duel consisting of
eating sausages, one of which would be identified as loaded with trichinosis ova. Since Bismarck would get
to choose first--and given his scorn of trichinosis--he would be forced to choose the infected one or be
ridiculed. Bismarck wisely withdrew his challenge. In 1878 a bill requiring meat inspection passed.

Frank Suis