Troilus and Cressida

Troilus and
Cressida
Study Guide by Course Hero
Calchas, a Trojan priest who defects to the Greek side of the

What's Inside war.
j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1
d In Context ..................................................................................................... 1
d In Context
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 3
h Characters .................................................................................................. 4 Trojan War

k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 8 The Greek poet Homer's The Iliad (c. 750–650 BCE), the first
Western epic poem, details the conflict of the Trojan War,
c Scene Summaries .................................................................................. 14 which also serves as the setting for William Shakespeare's
Troilus and Cressida. The Iliad begins late in the war at Troy.
g Quotes ........................................................................................................ 28
The Greeks have gone to war to win back Helen, King
l Symbols ..................................................................................................... 30 Menelaus's wife. Paris, a prince of Troy and son of King Priam,
stole Helen while on a visit to Menelaus's city of Sparta.
m Themes ....................................................................................................... 31
According to legend, Helen was reputed to be the most
e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 33 beautiful woman in the world, and all of the Greek kings had
sought her hand in marriage. Before a husband was chosen,
the assembled suitors agreed they would not wage war on the
man chosen to wed her. Instead, they promised to abide by the
j Book Basics decision and defend her should she ever be taken from her
chosen husband. Menelaus, king of Sparta, succeeded in
AUTHOR winning Helen as his wife.
William Shakespeare
Paris, meanwhile, had been chosen to judge which goddess
YEARS WRITTEN was more beautiful: Hera, Aphrodite, or Athena. The three
1601–02 powerful goddesses made offers to him to influence his
decision. Paris finally chose Aphrodite, who promised him the
GENRE love of the most beautiful woman in the world. Thus, Paris
Tragedy earned Aphrodite's favor, but he also earned Athena and
Hera's enmity. While visiting Sparta, Paris saw Helen and asked
ABOUT THE TITLE
Aphrodite for her. Helen and Paris fled to Troy. When
Troilus and Cressida is named after two lovers during the
Menelaus discovered the betrayal, he called in the oaths made
Trojan War. In Greek mythology the Greeks attack Troy after
by all of the other kings, and the Greek army set sail for Troy.
Prince Paris of Troy takes Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of
Sparta. Priam is the king of Troy and the father of Paris. Troilus As The Iliad begins, the Greeks have been fighting the Trojans
is another of Priam's many sons. Cressida is the daughter of
Troilus and Cressida Study Guide In Context 2
for almost 10 years. Agamemnon is in command of the Greek likely took his romance from English poet Geoffrey Chaucer's
forces, and Achilles is the most powerful fighter among the 14th-century poem, Troilus and Criseyde, which in turn
Greeks. The story begins in the Greek camp as Achilles and stemmed from Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio's poem, Il
Agamemnon argue over the return of Chryseis, a captive of Filostrato (1337). It is widely believed Shakespeare consulted
Agamemnon, to her father Chryses, who is a Trojan priest. English monk John Lydgate's The Hystorye, Sege and
Agamemnon relents and gives Chryseis back to her father, but Dystruccyon of Troye or Caxton's The Recuyell of the
to compensate himself, Agamemnon takes Achilles's female Historyes of Troye (1474) to build the political plot of the play.
captive, Briseis, for himself. Though strongly tempted, Achilles
refuses to fight Agamemnon, and in his rage he refuses to join While Shakespeare likely used Chaucer as a source, he did not
the Greeks in their battles. Without Achilles's help, the tide of rely on his characterizations. Shakespeare's Cressida bears
war swings toward the Trojans. When the Trojans threaten the little resemblance to Chaucer's character Criseyde whose
Greek ships, Patroclus (who is Achilles's close friend and motivations and feelings are laid bare. Shakespeare leaves
possibly a romantic interest) dons Achilles's armor and leads audiences to wonder what is going on inside Cressida's head.
the Myrmidons (Achilles's forces) into battle to defend the There is a noted lack of meaningful discussions between
ships. When he pursues the Trojans back to the walls, characters that reveal inner lives. For example, Cressida is
Patroclus is killed by Hector, the Trojans' best warrior. A never surrounded by other women to whom she might reveal
grieving and enraged Achilles dons his armor, seeks Hector, the inner workings of her heart. Instead, in his rush to condemn
and kills him. He then dishonors Hector's body by dragging it her as the faithless woman, Shakespeare reduces her to a
behind his chariot as he circles the city of Troy. Hector's father, type—a lesser Helen.
King Priam, begs for the return of his son's body, and Achilles
Likewise, Achilles in Homer's Iliad is fairly honorable; it is only
returns Hector's body so Troy can mourn. The Iliad ends with
when blinded by rage and grief that he acts poorly.
the funeral for Hector during a 12-day truce between the two
Shakespeare alters his source material to better fit his themes
armies.
in the writing of Troilus and Cressida. Because Shakespeare
The death of Achilles and the fall of Troy are not detailed in does not create a typically heroic retelling of the Trojan War,
The Iliad, though they are mentioned in other epics such as his characters lack heroic virtues. He illustrates the horrors of
Homer's The Odyssey (c. 725–675 BCE) and Roman poet war and of the men who fight it. Achilles in Shakespeare is a
Virgil's The Aeneid (c. 29–19 BCE) as well as other sources. cowardly bully, only able to kill Hector with the help of his
Achilles is killed when Paris shoots a poisoned arrow at his Myrmidons when Hector is unarmed rather than in single
heel, the only vulnerable spot on Achilles's body. The war ends combat as in Homer. Shakespeare's portrayals of the other
with the Trojan horse gambit. The Greeks built a large, hollow Greek generals also show their lack of honor, as they set
horse and hide their soldiers inside, then they pretend to sail Achilles and Ajax against each other and mock both of these
away. The Trojans take the horse inside the unbreachable champions, undercutting their prowess, which the audience
walls and begin to celebrate their perceived victory. That night, never gets to see.
the Greeks slip out of the horse, kill the guards, open the gates
Where Homer creates a heroic epic, full of the glorious deeds
for the awaiting army, and proceed to sack the city of Troy.
of his heroes, Shakespeare creates a senseless bloodbath,
where neither opponent is in the right. Thersites functions as
his commentator, pointing out the hypocrisy of a war fought
Shakespeare's Sources over a faithless woman and the honorless men who wage it.
Instead of being the pinnacle of the Greek army, Achilles—in
Homer's poem likely supplied the epic background for Shakespeare—is a cowardly braggart, interested only in his
Shakespeare's play as there were a number of translations own aggrandizement. There is little heroism to be found in
available to him, most notably the one by George Chapman, Troilus and Cressida. In Shakespeare's version, Hector is the
which was published in 1598. However, there was no mention only one of the major players to approach the heroism of the
of a love story between Troilus and Cressida in Homer's tale. source material, and even he is less heroic than in Homer, as
Moreover, Troilus is not mentioned, though a character named he is easily swayed by talk of glory rather than arguing for
Chryseis may be an early version of Cressida. Shakespeare Helen's return to stem the tide of blood.
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Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Author Biography 3
there is little to mark it as a classical romance. Pandarus treats

Problem Plays Cressida as a wartime bargaining chip, regardless of the fact
she is his niece and relies on him for protection because her
Troilus and Cressida is one of three plays commonly referred father is a traitor who has left Troy. Troilus, on the other hand,
to as "problem plays." Measure for Measure (1603–04) and All's is little more than an amalgam of courtly romance tropes. The
Well That Ends Well (1601–05) are the other two. Written alleged defining romance falls flat when set against a backdrop
between 1601 and 1605, these plays are ambiguous in tone, of lechery, further magnified by Cressida's own muddy
vacillating between broad, bawdy comedy and darker, characterization.
psychological drama. The term problem play was first used by
literary critic F. S. Boas in his 1896 work, Shakespeare and his As for the tragic hero, the closest is Hector, but he isn't one of
Predecessors. He considered them problems because of their the title characters. More importantly, his death doesn't solve
nontraditional attempts to explore social issues and morality anything except to cement the eventual fall of Troy. There is
through the actions of the main characters. no happy ending for anyone, which is made all the more clear
by the numerous speeches from both sides of the war about
Shakespeare's plays are traditionally classified into three the ridiculousness of a war fought over a fallen woman and a
types: comedies, tragedies, and histories. The history plays are cuckold's pride. Shakespeare seems to comment on the futility
those dealing with British historical figures: Henry IV, Part 1 of war, but without a clearly heroic arc.
(1596–97), Richard III (1592–94), and Henry V (1599), for
example. Comedies include Much Ado About Nothing
a Author Biography
(1598–99) and A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595–96). The
tragedies include some of Shakespeare's best-known works:
Hamlet (1599–1601), Othello (1603–04), King Lear (1605–06),
and Macbeth (c. 1606–07). The plots of comedies tend to
center around misunderstandings or situational ignorance, but Childhood and Family Life
everything is resolved happily. Likewise, tragedies, though
containing a higher mortality rate, also end definitively, usually The childhood of William Shakespeare is a murky area for
with a restoration of social or moral order. scholars because few records of his early activities exist. Very
little is known about his birth, education, or upbringing.
In Troilus and Cressida the tone shifts wildly between the
However, according to church records, he was baptized on
bawdy comedy that occurs when the character of Pandarus
April 26, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, which leads
inserts himself into his niece's love life and the unsatisfying
scholars to the conclusion he was born on April 23 of that year.
murder of another of King Priam's heroic sons Hector by the
Birth records were not usually kept during Shakespeare's time,
cowardly Greek hero Achilles. It is not purely comedy or
although church records—baptisms, weddings, burials—were
tragedy; it contains elements of both. The first half of the play
fastidiously kept by clergy.
reads like a comedy, with Pandarus and his antics and the
machinations of the Greek generals as they pit the heroes Ajax Shakespeare's family was solidly middle class, and he would
and Achilles and their overweening pride against each other. have had a typical education for an English boy of his time at a
The latter half of the play contains tragic elements: the public school endowed by Elizabeth I, which would have
separation of the lovers and the death of the hero of Troy. included studying the Latin language and Roman and Greek
However, the play does not have a true ending, as Troilus classical literature. At age 18 Shakespeare married Anne
resolves to keep fighting the war. There is no cathartic Hathaway, a woman eight years his elder who was already
outcome or restoration of order and no resolution to any of the pregnant with their daughter Susanna. Anne gave birth to
plotlines. For this reason it is often referred to as a tragi- twins—Judith and Hamnet—a few years later. Church records
comedy, but even that is an awkward fit. reveal Hamnet died in childhood.
Beyond tone, the play lacks a true tragic hero or a central

defining romance. Based on the title, it seems that Troilus and
Cressida are supposed to be the focus of the play. However,

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Characters 4
Shakespeare most likely died on April 23, 1616, leading to the

Theatrical Life romantic notion he was born and died on the same date,
although there are no records of the exact date of either event.
Shakespeare moved to London to pursue a career as an actor He was 52 at his death and was buried on April 25 at Holy
and playwright, and over time he achieved success. He Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon. Over 400 years after
became a shareholder in the open-air Globe Theatre and had his death, Shakespeare is still regarded as the greatest
widespread fame as a playwright whose works included playwright of the English-speaking world.
romantic and classically inspired comedies, histories, and
tragedies. He is credited with writing at least 37 plays and over
h Characters
150 sonnets.
Throughout his career Shakespeare and his fellow actors were

supported by the patronage of the nation's monarchs—first by
Elizabeth I (1533–1603), under whose reign Shakespeare's
company was known as The Lord Chamberlain's Men. When
Troilus
James I (1566–1625) assumed the throne in 1603, the company
As the play begins, Troilus is deeply in love—or
was renamed The King's Men. Although many of
infatuated—with Cressida. He is a capable warrior, often
Shakespeare's plays were written for performance at the
compared to his older brother, Hector, who is the hero of Troy.
Globe, the King's Men also performed at the nearby Blackfriars
Throughout the play he is the idealistic lover, trying to believe
Theatre, a smaller indoor space, after 1608.
the best of Cressida but constantly worried she will betray him
Shakespeare worked on Troilus and Cressida between 1601 with another man. His name is synonymous with faithfulness in
and 1602, shortly after finishing Hamlet. George Chapman's literature.
translation of The Iliad and John Lydgate's Hystorye, Sege and
Dystruccyon of Troye functioned as source material, as did
Geoffrey Chaucer's poem, Troilus and Criseyde. The first Cressida
recorded performance of this play was in February of 1603,
though even that date remains clouded in confusion because Cressida is the daughter of Calchas, a Trojan priest who joined
of contradictory accounts. Its inclusion in the First Folio was the Greek side of the Trojan War, becoming a traitor to his
also problematic; most Shakespearean scholars believe it was country. She was left behind in Troy until she was sent to the
a late addition to the Folio and was therefore shoved between Greeks in a prisoner exchange for Antenor. Cressida is
the histories and the tragedies without inclusion in the table of concerned that Troilus's feelings for her are not true, and
contents or given page numbers. This instance is one more therefore, she hides her own true feelings from him until her
example of how Troilus and Cressida falls into the category of uncle, Pandarus, finally brings them together. Once she arrives
a problem play, allowing for intense critical debate among in the Greek camp, she gives herself to the Greek warrior
modern scholars. Diomedes instead of remaining loyal to Troilus.
Retirement and Legacy Pandarus

In 1610 or 1611 Shakespeare retired, moving back to Stratford- Pandarus is an older man who becomes Cressida's guardian
upon-Avon. Despite his retirement from London life, the after her father defects to the Greek side. He uses his
playwright continued to do some writing, contributing to Henry connection to her to help facilitate a relationship between
VIII and Two Noble Kinsmen as well as to another play, Troilus and Cressida. His behavior toward his niece is
Cardenio, now lost. Scholars believe these final works to be questionable and, at times, nearly lecherous. He delivers
collaborations with John Fletcher (1579–1625), another messages between the two lovers, seeming to push his niece
playwright. in Troilus's direction. His name is a derivative of pander, which
means "to act as a procurer or pimp."

Hector
Hector is heir to the throne of Troy and the Trojans' greatest
warrior. He is the most noble and honorable of all of the
warriors—Greek or Trojan—in the play, espousing more heroic
values that match up with his portrayal in the source material.
He functions as the voice of reason in his family's arguments
over whether or not to return Helen, and he treats his
adversaries with respect and honor. He, too, wants glory and
fame like most of the other characters, but he comes the
closest to upholding heroic ideals.
Achilles
The greatest warrior in the Greek army, Achilles refuses to
fight against the Trojans at the beginning of the play for
unknown reasons. Despite his heroic reputation, Achilles is
actually prideful, spoiled, and unpleasant. His lack of discipline
and refusal to follow the orders of his commanders has a
negative effect on the army's morale. He behaves sneakily and
without honor, and functions as Shakespeare's illustration of
what an epic hero is not.

Character Map
Cressida
Trojan noblewoman;
capricious lover
Uncle
Lovers
Achilles Enemies Troilus Pandarus

Greek hero; arrogant, Brave, loyal Trojan prince; Loquacious, bawdy
prideful warrior deeply in love Trojan noble
Brothers
Rivals
Hector
Trojan prince; heroic warrior
Main Character
Other Major Character
Minor Character

Full Character List Calchas

Calchas is a Trojan priest who
defects to the Greek side of the war.
He is Cressida's father.
Character Description
The daughter of King Priam and
sister to Hector and Troilus,
Troilus is the youngest son of King
Cassandra is a princess of Troy. She
Troilus Priam, brother to Hector, and a Cassandra
is also a prophetess whose warnings
prince of Troy.
and predictions are doomed never to
be believed.
Cressida is a young Trojan woman
and the lover of Troilus. She is traded
Cressida Deiphobus is another son of King
to the Greeks in exchange for the Deiphobus
Priam of Troy.
warrior Antenor.
Diomedes is a general in the Greek

Pandarus is Cressida's uncle and the Diomedes
Pandarus army.
go-between for Troilus and Cressida.
Diomedes's Diomedes's servingman is an

Hector is the son of King Priam and a
servingman unnamed servant to Diomedes.
Hector prince of Troy. A fearless and noble
warrior, he is Troy's greatest hero.
Helen is the Greek wife of Menelaus
Helen who was abducted by Paris, causing
The Greek army's greatest hero,
the Trojan War.
Achilles is prideful and difficult to
Achilles
deal with. At the beginning of the
play, he refuses to fight. Helenus is another son of King Priam
Helenus
of Troy.
Aeneas is a Trojan general and a
Aeneas
great warrior. Menelaus is a Greek warrior, the
Menelaus husband of Helen, the king of Sparta,
and Agamemnon's brother.
Agamemnon is the commander of
Agamemnon the Greek army and the brother of
Menelaus. The Myrmidons are Achilles's
Myrmidons
soldiers.
Half Greek, half Trojan warrior, and
Ajax cousin to Hector, Ajax fights on the Nestor is a wise, older Greek
Greek side. Nestor
commander.
Alexander Alexander is Cressida's servant. Paris is a son of King Priam of Troy

and the man who stole Helen from
Paris
Menelaus, thus starting the Trojan
Andromache Andromache is the wife of Hector.
War.
Antenor is a Trojan warrior who was

Paris's Paris's servingman is the unnamed
captured by the Greeks. He is traded
Antenor servingman servant of the Trojan prince.
back to the Trojans in exchange for
Cressida.
Patroclus is a Greek warrior and
Patroclus Achilles's close friend and
The bastard is the illegitimate son of
Bastard companion.
King Priam of Troy.
Priam Priam is the king of Troy.

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Plot Summary 8
Ulysses says Hector obviously means to fight Achilles. He

Thersites Thersites is Ajax's fool or jester.
suggests that instead of allowing Achilles to fight, they fix the
lottery so Ajax is the one chosen. He believes this outcome will
Troilus's boy is a young boy in the
Troilus's boy force Achilles to fall in line because his pride will not allow
service of Troilus.
anyone to outshine him. Nestor approves.
Troilus's man Troilus's man is Troilus's servant.
Ulysses is the king of Ithaca and one Act 2

of the commanders of the Greek
Ulysses
army. He is the wisest and most Ajax, another Greek commander, trades insults with his fool,
cunning of the generals.
Thersites, physically beating him when his insults become too
much. Achilles and Patroclus join them and break up their
argument. Thersites leaves, cursing them all. Achilles tells Ajax
k Plot Summary of Hector's challenge. Ajax leaves to find out more about
Hector's challenge to see how he can win the right to fight
Hector.
Prologue and Act 1 Hector meets with his father and brothers to discuss the
Greek's latest demand: If the Trojans return Helen, the Greeks
The prologue explains the setting of the play to the audience. will leave. Hector wants to return Helen because the cost of
Prior to the action of the play, Greek forces gathered and keeping her is far too high in terms of Trojan lives. Troilus
sailed for Troy after Helen, Menelaus's wife, was taken by the argues against this idea, as does Paris, saying it will make Troy
Trojan prince, Paris. The Greeks are now camped on the look cowardly to return her. Although he believes Troilus and
shores of Troy, seven years into the war to retrieve Helen. Paris are acting foolishly, Hector agrees their argument has
merit and Troy's honor is at stake. He then tells them of his
Pandarus, Cressida's uncle, meets with Troilus, a prince of challenge to the Greeks.
Troy. Troilus does not want to fight because he is lovesick over
Cressida. Pandarus has been acting as a go-between for his Thersites stands near Achilles's tent with Achilles and
niece and the prince, wooing her on behalf of Troilus. After Patroclus, insulting the Greek commanders. As Agamemnon
Pandarus leaves, Aeneas, a Trojan general, arrives. He and the other commanders approach, Achilles goes into his
persuades Troilus to return to the fighting and tells him Paris tent, refusing to acknowledge any of them. Patroclus tells
was wounded in battle with Menelaus. Agamemnon Achilles is ill, but no one believes this excuse.
Ulysses eventually goes inside the tent to speak with Achilles;
Pandarus visits his niece, Cressida, and talks up Troilus's he returns with Achilles's answer he will not accept Hector's
virtues, comparing him to Hector, the hero of Troy. Pandarus challenge. Ajax begins to disparage Achilles for his pride.
and Cressida watch the Trojan troops pass by. Pandarus Agamemnon and the others comment on Ajax's growing pride
compliments Troilus, while Cressida pretends to be less than in asides to the audience while appearing to support him.
impressed. Pandarus leaves to meet with Troilus. Finally alone,
Cressida reveals she does have feelings for Troilus but
believes Troilus will lose interest in her if she gives in too easily. Act 3
Agamemnon, commander of the Greek forces, meets with his
Pandarus goes to speak with Paris on Troilus's behalf to ask
generals. Ulysses believes the reason they haven't defeated
that Paris make an excuse to King Priam for Troilus's absence
the Trojans after seven years of war is the Greek army lacks
at dinner. Paris guesses Troilus will be with Cressida. Pandarus
discipline. This problem is exacerbated by Achilles's continued
honors Helen's request for a song, and Paris agrees to convey
disregard for those of higher rank. They are interrupted by
Troilus's excuse. Pandarus leaves.
Aeneas, who brings a message from Hector. He offers a
challenge to any Greek willing to face him in single combat. Pandarus meets Troilus at Cressida's father's house and goes

inside to fetch her. Troilus swears his love to Cressida. is upset at the exchange, but he must go through with it. He
Pandarus speaks for Cressida, swearing likewise. Cressida assures her he will sneak into the Greek camp to see her as
then confesses her true feelings for Troilus. She has loved him often as he can and asks her to remain faithful to him. He
almost since she saw him, but was afraid he was only warns her against the wiles of the Greeks and tells her she
interested in her because she appeared unattainable. Troilus must be on her guard against them. She worries about his
swears he will be true, that his name will one day be used as an ability to remain faithful, but he reassures her.
example of faithfulness. Cressida goes on to swear if she
betrays Troilus, her name will be used as an example of the Diomedes compliments Cressida's beauty, angering Troilus. He
faithlessness of women. Pandarus witnesses their vows and orders Diomedes to treat her with respect. Diomedes
leaves them to their night together. deliberately misinterprets Troilus's warnings, causing more
angry words. Troilus accompanies Diomedes and Cressida to
Calchas, Cressida's father and a Trojan priest, defected to the the gate before relinquishing her into Greek custody. A
Greeks earlier in the war. He now speaks to Agamemnon, trumpet sounds, signifying the beginning of Hector's challenge.
requesting something for his defection and the information he Paris and Aeneas hurry to join Hector.
has provided: a prisoner exchange—Antenor, a captured
Trojan warrior, for Cressida. Agamemnon agrees. He sends The Greek generals gather to watch Ajax and Hector, when
Diomedes to conduct the exchange. In the Greek camp, Diomedes arrives with Cressida. They greet her with kisses
Ulysses implements a plan to rile Achilles. Agamemnon, Nestor, after which Diomedes escorts her to her father's tent. Hector,
and Ajax ignore the Greek hero. Achilles, upset at this Troilus, and the other Trojan warriors arrive. Hector decrees it
treatment, asks Ulysses why he's being treated thusly. Ulysses will not be a fight to the death, as Ajax is his cousin (Ajax's
answers a man's value is defined by the opinion of others, and mother is King Priam's sister). They fight, and it ends in a draw.
because of his behavior Achilles is seen as less valuable than The two camps agree to a banquet at the Greek camp where
Ajax, who is slated to fight Hector. By refusing to fight, Achilles Achilles boasts he will kill Hector. Hector says he will do the
has harmed his reputation. Achilles sends a letter to Ajax same to Achilles. They agree to meet in battle the next day.
asking him to arrange a meeting with Hector. Troilus asks for Ulysses's help in finding Calchas's tent to
check on Cressida.
Act 4
Act 5
Paris and Aeneas meet Diomedes and Antenor for the prisoner
exchange. Paris asks Aeneas to find Troilus at Cressida's Achilles shares his plan for Hector with Patroclus. He plans to
house and inform him of the exchange before they arrive. get Hector to overindulge so he is compromised during their
Diomedes then speaks harshly of Helen to Paris, offering his battle tomorrow. Achilles receives a letter from Queen Hecuba
negative opinion of her for her part in starting the war. on behalf of her daughter, his lover. It reminds him he has
promised not to fight against the Trojans. Achilles says he will
Troilus and Cressida prepare to part after their night together honor that vow.
when they are interrupted by Pandarus. They are interrupted
again by Aeneas, who asks to speak to Troilus. Troilus reveals Diomedes leaves to see Cressida. Troilus and Ulysses follow.
himself, and Aeneas tells him of that a deal has been made for Also following them is Thersites who thinks there will be
Cressida to join her father in the Greek camp in return for mischief. They all watch as Diomedes speaks with Cressida
Antenor's release. Troilus and Aeneas then set out to meet about a promise she made to him, and then asks for a love
Paris and Diomedes. Pandarus tells Cressida she is to join her token. She returns with Troilus's sleeve as a token of his love
father in the Greek camp, but she refuses. Pandarus argues before they parted. (The sleeve is detached from Troilus's shirt
with her, saying she has no choice but to do as the king and likely decorated.) Troilus is shocked and vows to kill
commands. Diomedes should he wear the sleeve into battle. Angered at

her betrayal, Troilus now considers Cressida the pinnacle of
Troilus returns to fetch Cressida, telling her there is no faithlessness. Thersites disgustedly observes the whole scene,
alternative but for her to join her father in the Greek camp. He saying Cressida has been playing the whore with Diomedes.

The next morning Hector's wife, Andromache, and his sister,

Cassandra, try to convince Hector not to fight that day. They
have both had ill omens and bad dreams. Even King Priam
attempts to stop him, but to no avail. Troilus backs Hector,
dismissing their concerns. Pandarus arrives with a letter from
Cressida, which Troilus tears up after reading. He leaves for
the battlefield.
Thersites watches the battle and calls out insults at the Greek
commanders, and he watches as Troilus and Diomedes fight.
Hector enters and challenges Thersites to fight him. Thersites
says he is a cowardly servant, and Hector leaves, believing him
a useless opponent. Diomedes then orders a servant to take
Troilus's horse to Cressida to show her he defeated Troilus.
Ajax joins the battle, having heard Troilus killed a friend of his,
and both he and Diomedes fight Troilus.
Meanwhile, Hector kills Patroclus, causing Achilles to finally

join the battle. Hector and Achilles fight, but seeing Achilles is
winded, Hector allows him a rest. Angry, Achilles vows to meet
Hector again. Hector and Troilus meet briefly before Hector
leaves in pursuit of a Greek wearing ornate armor.
Achilles orders his soldiers, the Myrmidons, to hold themselves

back in the battle and save their strength until they see Hector,
at which point they are to all attack him. Thersites is still
watching the battle as Menelaus and Paris fight. Soon,
Thersites is challenged by the bastard son of King Priam, but
he pleads his own cowardice and flees.
After killing the Greek with the ornate armor, Hector begins to
change into it. He is quickly surrounded by the Myrmidons who
kill him. Achilles orders Hector's body to be tied behind his
chariot. As news of Hector's death reaches the Greek camp,
Agamemnon orders Achilles to be sent to his tent. They believe
the fall of Troy will be soon and the war won.
Troilus brings news to the Trojans of Hector's death. He

exhorts them to keep fighting for vengeance against Achilles
and vows to continue fighting. Pandarus tries to speak to him,
but Troilus will not acknowledge him.

Plot Diagram
Climax
7
10 Falling Action
Rising Action
6
11
5
4 12
3 Resolution
2
1
Introduction
Introduction Climax
1. Neither side has won the advantage in seven years of war. 9. Achilles and his Myrmidons kill Hector.
Rising Action Falling Action
2. Pandarus passes messages between Troilus and Cressida. 10. Achilles drags Hector's body behind his horse.
3. The Greek generals discuss ways to get Achilles to fight. 11. The Trojans withdraw grieving from the field.
4. Troilus and Cressida spend the night together.
5. The Greeks exchange a Trojan prisoner for Cressida.

Resolution
6. Troilus witnesses Cressida betray him with Diomedes.
12. Troilus urges Troy to continue fighting.
7. Troilus vows revenge on Diomedes.
8. Patroclus is killed, rousing Achilles to join the fighting.

Timeline of Events
Seven years into war
Troilus is lovesick for Cressida. She loves him as well but

acts indifferent.
Meanwhile
The Greeks are discouraged. Achilles refuses to fight.
Soon after
The Trojan hero Hector challenges any Greek to single

combat.
Later the same day
Trying to wound Achilles's pride and get him into the

fight, Ulysses plans for Ajax to fight Hector.
Meanwhile
Priam and his Trojan generals debate the merits of

continuing the war.
Sometime later
Calchas asks Agamemnon to exchange a prisoner for

Cressida.
That night
Pandarus brings Troilus and Cressida together. The

lovers spend the night together.
The next morning
Cressida is exchanged for the Trojan prisoner Antenor.

Diomedes takes her to the Greek camp.
That same day
Trojan hero Hector battles the Greek hero Ajax. The

fight ends without a victor.
After the fight
Ajax invites the Trojans Hector, Aeneas, and Troilus to a

feast in the Greek camp.
Later that evening
Troilus observes Cressida give the sleeve he gave her as

a love token to Diomedes.
The next day
Hector kills Patroclus in battle. Achilles fights Hector but

withdraws when he is winded.
The same day
Angered by Cressida's disloyalty, Troilus fights but fails

to kill Diomedes.
Soon after
Achilles returns to the battlefield, finds Hector, and kills

the Trojan hero.
Immediately after
Achilles drags Hector's body behind his horse,

dishonoring him.
Immediately after
Discouraged and mourning Hector, the Trojans leave the

battlefield.

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Scene Summaries 14
c Scene Summaries Act 1, Scene 1
Prologue Summary
Troilus, a prince of Troy, states he cannot join the fighting
against the Greeks for he is sick with love of Cressida.
Summary Pandarus, Cressida's uncle and go-between for Troilus and his
niece, compares Cressida's beauty to Helen's, upsetting
In the prologue an actor dressed in armor appears and sets Troilus in the process. Angered, Troilus snaps at Pandarus,
the scene for the audience. The Greeks have come to Troy to who says he will no longer carry Troilus's messages to
take back Menelaus's queen, Helen, who was taken by Paris. Cressida. Before he leaves, he mentions that Cressida's father,
They have made camp outside the city. The Greeks and a priest named Calchas, has defected to the Greek side of the
Trojans have been battling one another for seven years, and conflict, leaving Cressida alone. Troilus does not like that he
still there is no end in sight. must rely on Pandarus to communicate with Cressida.
Alarms sound. Aeneas, one of the Trojan generals, arrives. He

Analysis reports Paris was injured in battle with Menelaus, Helen's
Greek husband. Troilus responds with, "Let Paris bleed. 'Tis but
The prologue offers a very brief account of the Trojan War so a scar to scorn; / Paris is gored with Menelaus' horn." Troilus
far, which serves two purposes: It gives a nod to the classical then leaves for the battlefield with Aeneas.
mythology that informs it, and prepares the audience for its
departure from a typical heroic epic like they might be
expecting based on the material presented. The brevity of the Analysis
prologue's summary of events thus far makes clear most
audience members would be familiar with the characters, the Troilus and Cressida is often described as one of
mythology, and the history behind the play. It doesn't belabor Shakespeare's "problem plays" because it doesn't fit neatly
the point; instead, offering the barest details of setting and into one of the traditional Shakespearean boxes as a tragedy,
past history, counting on people's knowledge of Helen of Troy comedy, or history play. For example, Troilus is almost a comic
and the Trojan War to fill in the rest. figure with his childish moping while in the middle of a war. His
exchange with Pandarus mimics other exchanges typically
However, Shakespeare takes liberty with the story of the found in Shakespeare's comedies. But the mood of the play is
Trojan War and twists the typical heroic story of the fall of Troy at odds with the subject matter, which again, his audience
to comment on the darker side of war. Based on events drawn would have been aware of.
from The Iliad, an epic poem of ancient Greece by Homer,
Troilus and Cressida is anything but heroic. The typical heroes Pandarus's name contains the root pander, which is a verb
are portrayed in a harsher light. The Greek hero Achilles describing someone who provides clients with sexual partners.
alternates between a spoiled child and a thuggish brute. Ajax is That is, he's someone who acts as a pimp. Pandarus, true to his
a muscle-bound fool. Troilus is a lovesick, callow youth. Even name, serves as a go-between for Troilus and Cressida. He
Hector, who still functions as the play's most heroic character, talks up his niece and her virtues to Troilus to maintain his
is less heroic than in the source material. Shakespeare makes interest in the face of her perceived disinterest, and expounds
the argument the waging of war stands at odds against a on Troilus's virtues to Cressida. Pandarus takes to the task
heroic nature, turning most soldiers into brutish men. Troilus with an almost unseemly relish. With her father gone, Pandarus
and Cressida is Shakespeare's antiheroic play, and the functions not just as a go-between for the two lovers, but as
prologue serves to warn the audience of what to expect. Cressida's caretaker, making his character and actions even
more suspect.

Shakespeare also uses Pandarus to introduce Cressida's decides to keep her feelings to herself for a bit longer.
father, a Trojan priest who has joined the Greeks and whose
later request of a prisoner exchange complicates things for the
two lovers. This brief mention is a bit of foreshadowing of the Analysis
political plot that takes place alongside the romantic one. Yet
this is also another way in which Troilus and Cressida is a The structuring of this scene veers sharply away from what is
problem play. Typically, Shakespeare has a deft touch when typical in Shakespearean romances. Cressida and Alexander
weaving his various plotlines together—A Midsummer Night's wax poetic over Hector and Ajax, almost leading the audience
Dream is a fine example of multiple plotlines converging and to believe Hector is where Cressida's true interest lies and
uniting. Troilus and Cressida deals with the conflicts of the further undercutting what should be an establishing scene.
Trojan War, a love story, and Troilus's own personal conflict of When Pandarus arrives, it is he, not Cressida, who sings
political requirements vying against personal desires, but the Troilus's praises as they watch him pass. Cressida appears
plotting feels haphazard and random. The romance, at times, unimpressed, calling into question Pandarus's attempts to push
reads as an afterthought, and Cressida's characterization her in Troilus's direction. Audiences wonder if Pandarus is
vacillates wildly when she moves from Troy to the Greek camp. overselling Troilus's virtues to his uninterested niece in an
What should be climactic scenes end with whimpers rather attempt for personal, political gain.
than bangs. The tone of the play is set with this scene and it
In addition, Cressida's observation of Troilus is anticlimactic
continues forward, as if the play is not quite sure what it wants
because she clearly has known him for some time. (How long
to be.
has Pandarus been pushing them together?) Instead of the
Finally, Troilus mentions Menelaus and his cuckolding. A fateful reveal similar to Romeo and Juliet when Romeo first
cuckold is a husband with an adulterous wife, often signified by catches a glimpse of Juliet, Cressida's observation of Troilus
the wearing of horns or references to them. Troilus's response gives audiences what amounts to a yawn-worthy reaction.
to news of Paris's wounding indicates Helen's infidelity. She What should be a significant moment is negated, and the
"horned" Menelaus and now he uses that same horn to injure dramatic build and tension of the scene is lost immediately.
Paris, the man she ran away with. Troilus seems to enjoy the This is just the first in a number of anticlimactic scenes that
divine retribution of the event. squander what little tension the play possesses.
Shakespeare does give the audience some insight into the
Act 1, Scene 2 workings of Cressida's mind when she confesses her true
feelings for Troilus. She has been playing a game of her own,
pretending to be less interested than she actually is, in case
Troilus is playing her. Here is a woman whose father has
Summary turned traitor to his homeland and left her alone. She needs
some protection and security, and Pandarus comes to her,
Cressida speaks with her servant, Alexander. He shares news offering a prince's love. Still, she has to wonder if Troilus is only
of the war, telling of the battle between the Greek hero Ajax interested in her to possess her, and she fears when he gets
and the Trojan prince Hector. Pandarus joins Cressida, and what he wants, he will discard her, leaving her in a more
together they watch the return of the Trojan warriors from the precarious position than before. In this scene she appears
battlefield. Cressida claims to be more interested in Hector, intelligent, wise, guarded, and—perhaps—even a bit mercenary.
while Pandarus talks up Troilus nonstop. Troilus sends word he Unfortunately, Cressida's characterization throughout the play
will meet Pandarus at his house, and Pandarus goes to meet is spotty at best, as she vacillates between flighty, flirty, self-
him. aware, and tragic, often from scene to scene.
Cressida reveals she knows her uncle is working on Troilus's

behalf, and admits she has feelings for the prince. Still, she
fears confessing her feelings for him because men often stop
wanting a woman when they think they have her. Instead, she

for devising the Trojan horse, which allowed the Greeks entry
Act 1, Scene 3 inside Troy's unbreachable walls. Typically known as the most
cunning of the Greek generals (often cited as "wily Odysseus"
in Homer), here Ulysses is the general who comes up with the
Summary plans for dealing with Ajax and Achilles and their ever-growing
egos. Ulysses is the one who pinpoints what the problem is
Agamemnon, commander of the Greek forces, meets with his with the Greek army and why they have failed to win the war
generals, Nestor and Ulysses, in his tent. While he urges his thus far. There has been a breakdown in the command
men not to be frustrated by Troy's continued resistance after structure of the army. Achilles has broken rank by failing to
seven years of war, he claims this is merely a test imposed on follow orders, which has had a negative effect on morale and
them by Jove (Zeus). Ulysses says the problem is not with Jove performance. The loss of order stems directly from Achilles's
but with the disruption and lack of discipline within their army. flouting of his superiors. This behavior has, in turn, trickled
He cites Achilles and Patroclus as examples of the disregard down into the ranks of the common soldiers. When there is no
some of the men have for those of higher rank: Patroclus and respect for leadership, the generals can't even hope to
Achilles sit in their tent making fun of Agamemnon and Nestor command their men. Armies function like a microcosm of
by imitating them. Nestor then adds that Ajax and Thersites society, and Shakespeare is showing the breakdown of said
behave in similar fashion. society. While Homer paints Achilles as heroic in The Iliad,
Shakespeare does not. Achilles is a problem that will only
Aeneas arrives and offers a challenge: Hector will fight any
become worse throughout the play.
Greek warrior in hand-to-hand combat the following day.
Although Hector obviously wishes to challenge Achilles,
Ulysses suggests using the challenge as a way to bring both
Achilles and Ajax back in line. By fixing the selection lottery,
Act 2, Scene 1
they will make sure Ajax is chosen for the challenge. Achilles's
pride won't be able to take such an offense. Ulysses offers his
win-win proposition: if Ajax loses the battle, the Greeks can Summary
simply say they didn't have their strongest warrior fighting
Hector. If Ajax wins, glory to Greece, and Achilles must work Thersites, Ajax's fool, insults his master and ridicules him for
twice as hard to regain his reputation. his jealousy of Achilles. In retaliation Ajax beats him, because
he cannot win against Thersites's verbal taunts and insults.
Achilles and Patroclus arrive, and Achilles intervenes before
Analysis Ajax can beat Thersites further. Thersites insults Achilles as
well, and then leaves. Achilles tells Ajax of the challenge. When
In many of his plays, Shakespeare balances humor and drama, Ajax asks him how the challenger will be chosen, Achilles tells
the political and the romantic, relatively effortlessly. The him a lottery will decide, and he and Patroclus depart.
balance is less so in a problem play such as Troilus and
Cressida. The scene switches from the lovers in Troy to the
Greek camp and the military machinations of the Greek army. Analysis
The gravity of a wartime situation is ineffectually undercut by
the mention of Achilles and Patroclus doing bad impressions of Thersites functions as a kind of Greek chorus for much of the
other heroes. While this serves to reinforce Shakespeare's play, commenting on the action and choices of both the
rewriting of the Greek and Trojan heroes as less than heroic, it Greeks and the Trojans. His crude behavior and word choices
also affects the tone of the entire play. The tone switch would appeal to much of the audience as he provides his harsh
becomes more and more distracting as the play continues. commentary on human nature. Though unlikeable, he still
speaks unvarnished truth, especially about the war and the
While Agamemnon might be the leader of the Greek forces in nature of those fighting it. He says things many members of
Troy, it is Ulysses who appears as the Greek strategist, in both the audience doubtless wish they could say. Usually in scenes
the source material and Shakespeare. Ulysses is given credit with Ajax and then Achilles, he is the supposed coward to their

heroes, but by speaking the truth, he makes them look small more than Helen's continued presence in his city. He argues
and ridiculous. Ajax cannot even counter him verbally and so her value is not worth enough when weighed against the cost
resorts to beating him into submission, which serves only to of human life. Troilus counters by arguing for her symbolic
make Ajax look even more brutish. value—Helen has been stolen from the Greeks, so it will look
weak if they return her. If Troy were to return Helen now, all
In the source material of The Iliad, Ajax and Achilles are often the lives already lost to the war will have been for nothing.
at odds—Ajax stays in contention with Achilles for who is the While Hector looks at the real-world truths of value, Troilus
greatest of the Greek warriors. Again, the audience would focuses on symbolic value, the value of reputation. Troilus's
likely have known of their history, which Shakespeare uses to argument that Helen is worth fighting for because of the glory
set up the conflict between the two Greeks that Ulysses later they will receive when they win seems to be the idea that
exploits. eventually wins over Hector. This value of reputation will be
leveraged again with Ulysses and Achilles later in the play.
Act 2, Scene 2 In the source material Shakespeare drew from, Hector was
one of the main heroes of The Iliad, certainly the tragic hero of
the epic poem. Shakespeare's audience knew this text, so he
Summary made Hector the most honorable character in the play, and in
this scene, the lone voice of reason. Still, for the play to
continue, Hector must change his mind. He has to be
Hector meets with his father and brothers to discuss the Greek
convinced by vainglorious weak arguments because
demands. They have once again demanded Helen's return to
Shakespeare has written himself into a corner. Hector and
her husband, Menelaus. Hector advises them to return Helen to
Achilles have to fight—the outcome of the play demands it, and
her rightful husband to avoid further loss of life in the war. She
so he has his most heroic character accept Troilus's weaker
is not worth the cost of the war, he argues. Troilus
arguments to continue fighting the Greeks. Part of the problem
disagrees—he thinks returning Helen would dishonor Troy and
with the play is Shakespeare must work within a preexisting
their family.
narrative framework, and sometimes that work is clumsy.
Cassandra enters and predicts disaster for Troy unless Helen
Cassandra, though a minor character in Troilus and Cressida, is
is returned to the Greeks. Everyone thinks Cassandra is mad,
a tragic one. In the myths Cassandra was loved by Apollo, but
although Hector treats her kindly. Like Troilus, Paris thinks
when she did not return his love, he cursed her so she would
returning Helen is a blow to his honor, and he argues
speak the truth but never be believed. All of her warnings
strenuously against it. Hector still disagrees and thinks both
about the fate of Hector and Troy are doomed to fall on deaf
Paris and Troilus are being immature.
ears, and she is often characterized as crazy. By including her,
In the end Hector rethinks his stance. While he believes it is even briefly, she foreshadows the doom of Troy and the folly of
only right they return Menelaus's wife to him, he also realizes those who will not listen to one who speaks the truth. Where
the honor of his father and Troy are at stake. He concedes the Thersites is dismissed because of his station, Cassandra's
issue and tells his brothers of the challenge he issued to the warnings are similarly dismissed because of her perceived
Greeks earlier. madness.
Analysis Act 2, Scene 3

This scene provides insight into how the Trojans view the
ongoing war with the Greeks, and further cements Hector as
Summary
one of the more honorable heroes in the play. Hector is against
continuing the war, preferring to prevent further loss of life
Thersites, enraged at his treatment by Ajax, insults his master
over a woman they technically have no right to keep. To him
as he walks through the camp. Patroclus and Achilles come out
the lives of his soldiers, of the people he will one day rule, mean

of their tent and speak with him. Thersites insults them, but
they take the fool's words in stride. When they see
Summary
Agamemnon, Ulysses, Nestor, Ajax, and Diomedes coming,
Pandarus meets with Paris at Troilus's behest. Troilus wants
Achilles and Thersites return to Achilles's tent. Patroclus tells
Paris to offer an excuse for his missing dinner with their father,
the other Greeks Achilles is not feeling well.
King Priam, that night. Paris suspects Troilus will be with
Ajax is furious at this show of pride from Achilles. Ulysses Cressida that evening, but Pandarus denies that is the case.
meets with Achilles in his tent only to return and tell the others Although he doesn't believe him, Paris agrees to the ruse.
Achilles refuses to fight Hector the next day. Ajax launches Pandarus agrees to Helen's request for a song, and sings
into a diatribe about Achilles's pride while Agamemnon, about love.
Ulysses, Nestor, and Diomedes all make comments on Ajax's
own pride in asides to the audience. To his face they flatter him
and tell him he will be the one to fight Hector the next day. Analysis
Pandarus continues his work as go-between for Troilus and
Analysis Cressida, this time helping Troilus arrange his assignation with
Cressida so his family is none the wiser. It is telling that he
Ulysses's plan to use Achilles's pride against him is set in approaches Paris rather than someone like Hector. Again, if
motion. Ulysses's cunning is used to full effect in this scene; he Hector is to continue being the most honorable, he cannot lie
and the other Greek generals begin to build up Ajax in the to his father so that his younger brother can spend the night
hopes of motivating him to fight. Shakespeare uses Ajax's rant with a traitor's daughter. Paris, though, does not have to be
to show the hypocrisy of both supposed heroes, with Ajax honorable—he already squandered that when he stole
being guilty of the same behavior of which he accuses Achilles. Menelaus's wife while a guest in his house.
When Achilles still refuses to fight, even after meeting with
Again the tone of the play turns back to comedy, a break from
Ulysses, he appears ludicrous. Ajax is likewise made to look
the stories of epic heroes and tragic love. Pandarus's attempts
the fool, both by Thersites's keen insults about his intelligence
to stymie Helen from listening in on a private conversation, as
at the beginning of the scene and by his belief in the flattery
well as her continued requests for him to sing, are humorous.
the Greek generals feed him, proving Thersites right in his
The shifting in tone and structure continues to make this play
assessment.
difficult to classify.
Again, in the source material, Homer explains Achilles refused
to fight in protest over Agamemnon taking a slave girl from him
as a spoil of war. Shakespeare may have counted on his Act 3, Scene 2
audience knowing this detail, but without explicitly stating
Achilles's reasons for sitting out the battle, he makes Achilles
look even more petulant and childish. Shakespeare undercuts Summary
the myth of the epic hero, making Achilles—and Ajax, to a
lesser extent—laughable. He will later turn Achilles into Troilus meets with Pandarus outside Cressida's house.
something even worse: an honorless villain. If Hector is indeed Pandarus leaves to fetch her and brings her to Troilus.
the most heroic of the bunch in Troilus and Cressida, then Pandarus all but pushes them together, and they finally kiss.
Achilles is the worst. Troilus swears his love, and Pandarus swears the same for
Cressida. Cressida finally confesses she's loved Troilus for
many months, but she was concerned he would remain faithful
Act 3, Scene 1 only when she was unavailable, and stray once he won her.
Troilus assures her he is faithful; in fact, he claims when lovers

swear their oaths, they will say, "As true as Troilus." Cressida
responds in kind, saying if she ever proves false to Troilus,

people should say, "As false as Cressid." These act as their in the future all go-betweens shall be called "panders," a play
vows, and Pandarus declares himself their witness. The lovers on his name. Considering the way he is creepily procuring his
leave to spend the night together. niece, Cressida, for Troilus, Shakespeare appears to be
negatively commenting on such men. Pandarus then ushers the
two off to bed to consummate their relationship. Whereas in
Analysis previous romances, consummation occurs after marriage, in
the case of Troilus and Cressida, there is no marriage, no
Shakespeare returns to the romantic plot of the play, finally binding contract. The situation reads simply as a night of
uniting the two lovers with a healthy dose of foreshadowing. passion. Though Troilus and Cressida tries to emulate the
Troilus waits for Pandarus to arrive and bring him to Cressida, romance and love of a play like Romeo and Juliet, it only
likening the man to Charon. In Greek mythology Charon ferried manages a kind of lukewarm lust, a shallow relationship not
the souls of the dead across the river Styx to the underworld. even warranting the arrangement of a secret marriage. Theirs
Shakespeare doesn't use a lot of Greek mythological allusion is not a true love at all, and the relationship is doomed when
in his play, so it is telling he uses it here in this particular they are forced to separate.
setting. It is a strange comparison to make when Troilus talks
about spending the night with the woman he loves. Instead, this
dark image foreshadows Cressida's eventual betrayal, Troilus's Act 3, Scene 3
death, and the fall of Troy. It is a hint at the coming ruination.
The foreshadowing continues once Pandarus leaves to

prepare the bedchamber. Troilus seeks to reassure Cressida Summary
her fears of his faithlessness are unfounded. He vows he will
keep his word to her so future generations of lovers will use his Calchas, Cressida's father, defected to the Greek side
name to swear their love, hence the "As true as Troilus" line. sometime previous to the events in the play. He now asks
Not to be outdone, Cressida swears if she ever betrays Troilus, Agamemnon for a reward for his help by requesting a prisoner
future lovers will use her name as a curse. The audience, again exchange: the Trojan prisoner, Antenor, for Cressida.
aware of the events of the Trojan War—not to mention Agamemnon agrees to the exchange and sends Diomedes to
Boccaccio and Chaucer's poems about the lovers—would oversee it.
understand these promises will be broken and Cressida will

Ulysses sees Achilles and Patroclus standing outside his tent,
betray her lover, adding to the tragedy. Troilus is a car heading
so he suggests all the generals ignore Achilles to upset him,
for the bridge the audience knows has been washed out.
opening the way for Ulysses to speak with him about his
Cressida's characterization here is important. She appears behavior. Agamemnon agrees to this course, and he and the
reticent, hesitant to speak her desires and to reveal how long other warriors pass him by without acknowledgment. Achilles
she's really loved Troilus. She chides herself for giving away is upset at the treatment.
her secret. She sounds like a woman guarding her heart for
Ulysses arrives and tells Achilles a person's value is defined by
fear of having it broken, or like a fearful woman who sees
the way others see them, and Achilles is seen as less valuable
Troilus as a man standing between her and the enemies she
than Ajax because of Ajax's fight with Hector. If he wins, his
must have because of her father's defection. She's in a
value will only increase, thus lessening Achilles's value in the
vulnerable position and knows it, and she is wise to be
eyes of the men. Patroclus agrees with Ulysses, saying Achilles
concerned about what life would be like for her if she were no
has hurt his reputation by refusing to fight. Thersites joins them
longer Troilus's beloved.
and continues to insult Ajax. After some back-and-forth with
Pandarus provides further foreshadowing regarding his own Patroclus and Thersites, Achilles decides to send a letter to
name and position as go-between. He has already been Ajax.
somewhat of an uncomfortable presence in this scene as he

inserts himself more obviously into Troilus and Cressida's
relationship. He vows if either of the two of them prove untrue,

Analysis Summary
Shakespeare begins to draw the political plot together with the Paris and Aeneas meet with Diomedes and Antenor, the Trojan
romantic plot. Usually, this weaving occurs earlier in his plays. prisoner. Aeneas and Diomedes exchange what amount to
Yet another reason Troilus and Cressida is considered one of friendly combat challenges. Paris pulls Aeneas aside and tells
his less successful endeavors: the two plots proceed in parallel him to go to Cressida's house and let Troilus know what's
with each other, taking far too long to come together, which happening with the prisoner exchange. Diomedes then has
leaves both of them feeling rather hurried and unfinished at the harsh words for Paris regarding Helen and her part as the
end of the play. Calchas's request sets in motion the action for cause of the Trojan War.
the latter two acts of the play on the romantic front, forcibly
separating the two lovers. Again, Shakespeare's audience
knows the outcome of both the romantic plot and the political Analysis
plot, so he is working within the constraints of a preestablished
narrative, but that leaves elements feeling shoehorned in to Diomedes raises surprising points—for a warrior—about
satisfy those constraints. Helen's role in the Trojan War, functioning as yet another voice
of reason. Helen's beauty and subsequent abduction by Paris
Ulysses's cunning once again comes into play as he and the brought about the war. Diomedes's opinion of her is not as a
other generals enact another scheme to motivate Achilles. great beauty but as a whore, and he characterizes Menelaus
After setting up Achilles to be offended at his treatment by the as a "puling cuckold" and Paris as a "lecher." Menelaus wants
other Greek commanders, Ulysses swoops in with a speech to retrieve his wife who has turned out to be a faithless, fickle
that echoes the value judgment in Act 2, Scene 2 with Helen. A woman, and Paris is content to beget heirs to the throne of
man is only as good as the value those around him assign him. Troy with a woman who isn't faithful to her husband. Neither of
Without his reputation, Achilles is just another soldier. With these men is admirable or heroic. If Ulysses's speech to
Ajax fighting Hector while Achilles sits out battles, the men Achilles is to be followed, then both of these men have
have no reason to think highly of Achilles, and soon he will lose squandered their reputations. Menelaus was unable to hang
the thing he values most—his reputation for being the greatest onto his wife, and Paris is content to steal the wife of another
of the Greek assembly. man. This sentiment is a far cry from the narrative of the "face
that launched a thousand ships" and the epic heroes that
Ulysses also states everyone knows about Achilles's
fought to get her back.
relationship with Priam's daughter, Polyxena, revealing the men
assume that's the reason he won't fight. He explains how that Shakespeare turns the epic framework on its head. He's
belief will follow Achilles home to Greece, tainting his already showing the typical heroes of the Trojan War are
reputation forever. Instead, it will be Ajax who gets the glory anything but heroic; with Diomedes's speech to Paris, he's
and will be more greatly valued because of his deeds in fighting puncturing the idea of honorable reasons to wage war. In this
Hector and the Trojans. Ulysses's words begin to get through light the reasoning behind the Trojan War makes little sense,
to Achilles who wonders if he is sacrificing his reputation. While especially if the Greek soldiers value Helen so little. There is
still not roused to fight, Shakespeare must bow to the nothing heroic or valiant in this enterprise despite how Troilus
established narrative and get Achilles back into the battle, and tries to paint it for Hector in Act 2, Scene 2. The appearance of
yet he does so very slowly. Perhaps Shakespeare is attempting the war is not at all what it is about, just as the appearance of
to build tension, which the structure of this play lacks. the great romance of Troilus and Cressida is shallow at best.
Act 4, Scene 1 Act 4, Scene 2

Summary Act 4, Scene 3

At dawn Troilus leaves Cressida, while she begs him to stay.
Pandarus wakes and smarmily banters with the two of them,
stopping only when Aeneas arrives. Aeneas tells Pandarus and
Summary
Troilus that Cressida is to be exchanged for Antenor, and Paris
In this brief scene Paris asks Troilus to bring Cressida so she
and Diomedes are on their way to collect her. Troilus leaves
can be delivered to the Greeks. Troilus sadly comments he will
with Aeneas to join the party as if he and Aeneas met by
give her into the Greek's hand as "a priest there off'ring to it his
chance. Pandarus tells Cressida of her fate, and she vows she
own heart."
will never leave Troilus or Troy.
Analysis
Analysis
The political plot finally merges with the romantic plot. Troilus
For someone who ends up being renowned for faithlessness,
is heartsick at the idea of turning Cressida over to the Greeks.
Cressida is incredibly worried about Troilus's faithfulness to
Paris says he knows what it is like to be in love and wishes
her. Now that she has slept with him, she is worried he has
there were something that could be done. Coming from the
grown tired of her and plans to move on. Again, if the audience
man who started the Trojan War in the first place by stealing
views Cressida as seeking a protector, the outcome of her
another man's wife, these comments ring false. This is
affair with Troilus has much higher stakes for her, hence her
especially true after Diomedes's damning speech regarding the
worry about his fidelity. Without the benefit of marriage,
nature of the war, Helen, Menelaus, and Paris, something
Cressida is in a precarious position.
Shakespeare wrote to further skewer the epic hero narrative.
However, her concerns are unfounded, and indeed provide

contrast in the end when she treats Troilus as she was afraid
he would treat her. Depending on how Cressida is interpreted Act 4, Scene 4
by the actor playing her, she could come off as disingenuous
or legitimately concerned for her continued relationship with
Troilus. So far, there is nothing in her words to make the Summary
audience think she will be anything less than true.
Troilus informs Cressida she must go with the Greeks as part
This scene also serves to tie Cressida more closely to Helen. of the prisoner exchange, and urges her to be true to him. He
Throughout the play audiences often hear her beauty being tells her he will find a way to visit her in the Greek camp. They
compared to Helen's. In what happens next, Cressida is the exchange love tokens, she giving Troilus a glove and he giving
Trojan version of Helen. She is abducted by the Greeks and Cressida a sleeve. He warns her the Greeks are cunning and
taken away to their camp, where she spurns Troilus and will use their wiles to sway her. He then asks her to be true.
latches on to Diomedes. Like Helen, she is a faithless She tells him she will be.
whore—as Diomedes already has called Helen in the previous
scene and as Thersites will call Cressida in a later scene. Diomedes and the company arrive to receive Cressida. He and
Troilus exchange words about her honor and dispensation.
While they are saying their goodbyes, Pandarus shows up to Diomedes, Cressida, and Troilus depart separately. Hector's
continue his assault on propriety. He asks invasive questions trumpets sound, and Aeneas and Paris hurry off to join Hector
and offers impertinent, overly familiar remarks. What should be on the battlefield.
a tragic, momentous event for Troilus and Cressida is reduced
to something approaching an embarrassment. Shakespeare
again undercuts the romantic subplot as further commentary
of the anti-epic nature of this play.

Hector, Paris, Troilus, and the other Trojans arrive. Hector says
Analysis that because Ajax is half Trojan and half Greek—he is Hector's
cousin—it will not be a fight to the death. They fight, but after a
Troilus and Cressida part, but not without exchanging tokens
short time, Hector does not want to continue the bout,
of their love. Troilus asks her to be faithful, which makes her
respecting Ajax as his kinsman. Ajax introduces Hector to the
think he doubts her word. This exchange foreshadows her
Greeks assembled. Achilles insults Hector, and the two agree
upcoming betrayal when she switches loyalty and gives away
to hand-to-hand combat the following day. When the two
his token of love so easily.
groups go to eat, Troilus asks Ulysses if he will show him
When Diomedes and Troilus meet, Shakespeare uses language where Calchas's tent is.
that can be easily misread for both the amusement of his
audience and to further the plot. He tells Diomedes, "I'll give her
to thy hand / And by the way possess they what she is. / Analysis
Entreat her fair," meaning Diomedes should treat her well and
with respect. Diomedes, however, deliberately confuses As the Greek camp prepares for the fight between Hector and
Troilus's meaning and implies through double entendre that Ajax, Diomedes brings Cressida to the various commanders.
Cressida will be used sexually by the Greeks. He says, "The Here is where Cressida's characterization becomes
luster in your eye, heaven in your cheek, / Pleads your fair problematic. It's almost as if Shakespeare just remembered
usage," enraging Troilus at the implications. When he threatens she's supposed to be the greatest example of faithless women
to kill Diomedes if he touches Cressida, Diomedes counters by in literature and scrambled to include it in her behavior.
saying he will do what Cressida wants rather than worry about

For a woman who has just been torn away from her lover
Troilus's admonitions. This notion places the fault for anything
without any say in the matter, Cressida's manner is puzzling.
that happens squarely in Cressida's hands, something Troilus
The kissing scene is problematic because the interpretation of
has evidently been worrying about.
Cressida's behavior is largely left up to the reader or the
Cressida's characterization is still fairly solid here. She appears performer. Her reaction to the generals depends entirely on
to be in love with Troilus. Another failure of the play is in failing how she is interpreted. She is silent for the beginning of the
to show her to be at all duplicitous in earlier scenes or even scene when she meets the generals and they pass her around
conflicted about her true feelings for Troilus. Based on her for kisses. She could be fine with it, but if we go by her
speeches and responses, she seems to have loved him for a situation, her silence becomes unsettling. She's been taken
long time, certainly longer than she let him know about. from her home in Troy in a prisoner exchange, her father is still
However, in a scene shortly after this one, she throws him over nowhere to be found, and now she is in a tent with a number of
for Diomedes without a second thought. Her character arc is strange and powerful enemy combatants. She could be silent
shallow at best. out of fear of what might happen to her, going along with the
kissing to keep the Greeks from becoming angry. In the
previous scene she overhears Diomedes's taunts to Troilus, so
Act 4, Scene 5 she is aware of the sexual threat to her well-being in his words.
She could be assessing the situation to see how to best
safeguard herself until she is taken to her father. However, this
is mostly audience inference.
Summary
Agamemnon kisses her in welcome, followed by Nestor, then
The Greek generals are preparing to watch Ajax and Hector in Achilles, and then Patroclus who interrupts Menelaus, kissing
combat when Diomedes arrives with Cressida. She's greeted her twice. When she finally does speak, her words to the
with kisses from almost all of the generals—though she is generals are flirtatious and free, lighthearted—but she had no
insulted and spurned by Ulysses—after which Diomedes takes reactions when the game began. Cressida may realize it is
her to Calchas's tent. While Nestor finds her witty, Ulysses safer to pretend to be okay with their advances, or perhaps
thinks she's a bit too free with her affections. she truly wants them, but either way, it isn't until she speaks
that Shakespeare offers any insight into Cressida's reaction to

her plight. Only Ulysses seems immune from her charms, oath. While he reads the letter, Patroclus and Thersites
begging for a kiss and then saying he'll take his only when exchange insults. Achilles returns and says he will not break
Helen is a virgin once more and returned to her husband, a his vow, and he and Patroclus leave for the banquet where the
politely worded insult to Cressida who seems to take no other generals wait to feast with Hector and Troilus. Diomedes
offense to the snub. This characterization of Cressida seems leaves the banquet, and Troilus and Ulysses follow him.
rushed and forced, a complete turn from the thoughtful way Thersites follows them.
she is characterized earlier in the play.
When Diomedes removes Cressida to her father's tent, Ulysses Analysis

tells the other Greek commanders what he really thinks of her.
This action argues again for his intelligence and cunning. The Shakespeare undercuts the idea of Achilles as a hero by
others are charmed by Cressida's pretty face and witty words, having him plan to sabotage Hector into overindulging and
but Ulysses is wary and dismissive of her. When Ulysses meets hampering his ability to fight the next day. Achilles does not
Troilus, he asks the prince about Cressida's past in Troy. He behave like an honorable epic hero, even if he looks and styles
wants to know her reputation and whether she left behind a himself as one. Thersites insults Patroclus by calling him
lover. Troilus answers, though he doesn't admit he is the lover. "Achilles' male varlet" and "masculine whore," a reference to
Ulysses is gathering intelligence on an unknown person who the pair as lovers, and cursing him with a number of commonly
will be living in the Greek camp while the rest of the known sexually transmitted diseases. With these insults,
commanders are content to accept Cressida for what she Shakespeare reinforces the theme of appearance versus
appears to be, a beautiful woman. Ulysses also makes sure to reality, of how something can appear lovely on the surface but
mention that Diomedes seems intent on wooing Cressida if the be rotten and corrupt beneath it.
looks he's been giving her are any indication. Ulysses may not
know for sure Troilus and Cressida were involved, but he Achilles's reason for not fighting is revealed, and it is as
certainly seems to suspect they were. Ulysses guessed in an earlier scene: he pledged an oath to
Queen Hecuba of Troy and the princess he's in love with to not
Achilles and Hector exchange harsh words and threats, and fight against the Trojans. While this promise might seem an
Achilles finally challenges Hector to a fight. The Greeks have honorable choice, it also conveniently gets him out of fighting
been very impressed with Hector, expressing their with Hector the next day, another delay in the coming climactic
compliments to him and reminding the audience he is the most battle. The audience knows the history and knows the fight has
heroic of the characters in this play. In contrast, Achilles seems to take place. By having Achilles say once again he will not
petulant and childish. He has done nothing to deserve the title fight builds tension—and frustration. This decision also serves
of hero, while the audience has repeatedly seen Hector behave to further undercut Achilles's hero status, especially now that
heroically and honorably in his dealings with Ajax and the other he has witnessed Hector fighting Ajax.
Greeks.
After the feasting is done, Diomedes leaves to see Cressida.
Ulysses suggests to Troilus they follow him. Thersites follows
Act 5, Scene 1 as well, offering further insults to Diomedes. He does not trust
Diomedes, saying he is a "false-hearted rogue" and he "will no
more trust him when he leers than I will a serpent when he
hisses." Diomedes may appear honorable and heroic, but here
Summary the appearance is simply that, reinforcing Shakespeare's
theme of false appearances. Thersites also insults Cressida,
Achilles plans to get Hector to over-imbibe in food and drink at
making reference to a rumor in the camp Diomedes keeps a
the evening's feast so he can defeat him easily in battle the
"Trojan drab." Drab is another word for whore. Shakespeare
next day. Thersites enters with a letter from Troy for Achilles. It
must work quickly in turning Cressida into the faithless woman
is from Queen Hecuba, the mother of Polyxena, a princess of
she is famed to be in this final act of the play. Cressida has
Troy and Achilles's lover. She writes to remind him of his oath
been in the camp for less than a day and already she has fallen
to her to not fight the Trojans; she asks him not to break his
for Diomedes. Whether she did so willingly or as a way to

protect herself from the other generals is not clear because of letting the audience and readers see that, as he has in
Cressida is mostly silent from this point on. previous plays.
Her giving away the sleeve Troilus gave to her as a love token
Act 5, Scene 2 is final proof of her faithlessness. Giving away Troilus's sleeve
also argues against her possibly being the victim in this
scenario. Cressida is a Trojan woman, the daughter of a traitor,
who has been sent into an enemy camp against her will. She's
Summary alone with no one to protect her. When she arrives in camp,
she is passed around for the generals to kiss—a scene in
Troilus and Ulysses watch as Diomedes meets with Cressida
which she is at first curiously silent. She could be allying herself
outside her father's tent. Thersites watches from a different
with Diomedes for protection, paying with the only thing she
location. Diomedes and Cressida converse, sometimes in
has available to her: her affection and her body. If that were the
whispers, and he reminds her of a promise she made to him.
case, however, there would surely have been something else
She revokes it and asks him to not tempt her. He asks for a
she could offer him as a token instead of the sleeve. If she truly
love token, and she brings him the sleeve Troilus gave to her.
cared for Troilus, she could keep that for herself. Shakespeare
When she rethinks the gesture and tries to take it back,
has her give it up, driving home her infidelity.
Diomedes keeps it, asking to whom it belongs. Cressida does
not answer him. He tells her he will wear the sleeve on his Troilus, meanwhile, watches in despair and grieves when he
helmet in battle tomorrow to taunt the man it once belonged to. realizes Cressida is not whom she appeared to be when they
were together. Here is another development of the theme of
Troilus struggles to keep silent as Ulysses urges him to leave
appearance versus reality. She betrays him, just as he's feared
before he reveals himself. Thersites comments sharply on the
she would. Ulysses attempts to get him to leave, but having
situation. Finally, Cressida agrees to meet Diomedes later.
Troilus see Cressida betray him with Diomedes works to the
After he leaves, Cressida excuses her behavior while saying
advantage of the cagey Greek. Ulysses has commented in an
goodbye to Troilus. She is swayed by Diomedes's good looks:
earlier scene that Troilus is like a young Hector. He wouldn't
"The error of our eye directs our mind."
want two warriors of that caliber on the battlefield. Ulysses,
being cunning, suggests Troilus follow Diomedes, suspecting
Troilus deals with his heartbreak by claiming this is not his
what they'd find. With Troilus heartbroken, it is not out of the
Cressida, but rather Diomedes's Cressida. Realizing she's been
question to expect he will not fight—or not fight well—the
unfaithful, he vows to kill Diomedes in battle the next day.
following day.
Aeneas arrives to bring Troilus back to Troy.
Analysis Act 5, Scene 3

With this scene Cressida's fall is complete, and this is the last
time the audience hears from her. She appears to flirt with Summary
Diomedes, although she acts reluctant to engage with him,
even asking him not to tempt her. Still, she agrees rather The following day, Andromache, Hector's wife, pleads with
quickly to be with him. It does seem she has given him some Hector not to go into battle. She's had portentous dreams that
reason to be forward with her, although that scene never warn against his fighting. Cassandra arrives and warns him as
appears in the play. Shakespeare relies upon his audience's well, and then Andromache sends her to fetch King Priam.
knowledge of the story of Cressida's infidelity as a kind of Hector will not be dissuaded, however. When Troilus arrives,
shorthand. While this method doesn't damage understanding Hector tells him not to fight, but Troilus is likewise determined
of events, it does impede Cressida's characterization and to go into battle and does not listen.
makes her total turnaround feel strange and false. If it couldn't
survive even a day apart, what she felt for Troilus was not love, Cassandra returns with King Priam who also asks Hector not
but rather lust. Shakespeare, however, has not done the work to fight—Andromache, Cassandra, Queen Hecuba, and he have

all had ominous dreams. Hector once again refuses and they running in to report on the scene of a great battle without then
all leave, except Troilus. Pandarus arrives with a letter from having to show the action. Shakespeare makes a point of
Cressida. Troilus reads it, and then tears it up and leaves with giving Hector another moment of heroism—he challenges
Hector. Thersites, but does not strike him down or pursue him when
Thersites runs away. Hector lets him live rather than going for
the easy kill. Compared to Achilles later in the play, he does not
Analysis behave nearly so honorably with regard to Hector.
The foreshadowing of Hector's death and the downfall of Troy

is conveyed through Andromache, Cassandra, and Priam's Act 5, Scene 5
dreams and visions. Shakespeare's audiences would know
Achilles and Hector's fight will end in Hector's death, so this
scene ramps up the tension in what has been an anticlimactic
play so far. Shakespeare has to manufacture tension in
Summary
different ways with an audience that is so familiar with the
Diomedes has captured Troilus's horse, and he orders his
story. Sometimes it works, and other times it does not. Here,
servant to present the beast to Cressida as a trophy.
Hector ignores the warnings, a tragic flaw that the audience
Agamemnon relates the various battles that the Trojans have
expects.
won as he despairs of the Greek chances of victory. Nestor
Troilus receives a letter from Cressida, though the audience enters with the body of Patroclus and sends it to Achilles.
never finds out what she wrote. Instead, he tears it up, noting
Ulysses arrives to tell the generals Achilles is arming himself
while she may say sweet things, her words are simple lies. Her
for battle after the death of his friend Patroclus. Ajax and
actions do not match her words in yet another development of
Diomedes set off after Troilus. Achilles goes in search of
the theme of appearance versus reality. He has learned he can
Hector.
no longer take what he sees at face value, and he tears up the
letter. Cressida is dead to him, as is Pandarus who brought
about their meeting.
Analysis
Shakespeare builds the tension of the final face-off between
Act 5, Scene 4 Achilles and Hector. Audiences know it is the death of
Patroclus that finally arouses Achilles to battle, so
Shakespeare must include it. In The Iliad Patroclus pretends to
Summary be Achilles, dressing in his armor and fighting Hector when
Achilles still refuses to do so. Shakespeare couldn't show a
Thersites insults everyone while he describes the battle. pitched battle, so the fight takes place offstage with the body
Diomedes appears, followed by Troilus. They fight, continuing being brought back. Shakespeare plays into audience
offstage. Hector sees Thersites and challenges him to a fight, expectations here, to drive up the intensity as various battles
but Thersites tells Hector he's a coward, and Hector leaves. are being fought and reported back. The Greeks are losing
most of them.
Analysis The other generals provide commentary on the prowess of

Hector and his Trojans to increase the tension even more. At
Thersites again functions as a Greek chorus, filling the the same time Troilus is still—arguably—a major character in
audience in on the action which would have to take place this drama, so to keep the tension going with his plot,
"offstage" because it would be too much to stage a battle of Shakespeare sends both Ajax and Diomedes after him. This is
this magnitude in a theater. This technique was common during another way to show Troilus is nearly as powerful as Hector.
the Elizabethan period. Playwrights would use a character He gets two lesser enemies, one who nearly defeated Hector
and one who is a rival. Shakespeare is moving his players into

position for the climax.

Analysis
Achilles's behavior is not worthy of a hero; he descends into
Act 5, Scene 6 full-on villain mode here. Shakespeare dismantles the idea
Achilles and the rest of the Greeks were ever heroic in the
Trojan War. Achilles gives the order to bushwhack Hector and
Summary possibly allows Greek soldiers to be killed as his own warriors
sit out the battle. With the battle being as fraught as it is, the
Ajax and Diomedes both want to fight Troilus, and argue over Greeks could use the assistance of the Myrmidons, but
who should get him. Troilus declares he will face them both Achilles insists on behaving selfishly. These are not the actions
and the three exit, fighting, offstage. Hector and Achilles fight, of an epic hero; instead, they are cowardly and self-serving.
though Hector allows Achilles a chance to rest when the Greek
seems winded. Achilles does not appreciate the gesture and
leaves with a vow to return. Act 5, Scene 8
Troilus arrives and tells Hector Aeneas is fighting Ajax. An
unnamed Greek in admirable armor arrives, and Hector
pursues him for his armor. Summary
Thersites watches Menelaus and Paris fight before being
Analysis challenged to battle by a bastard, a son of King Priam of Troy.
Thersites flees instead of staying to fight.
Hector is once again shown to be an honorable man, this time
by offering a break to Achilles so he can rest. Rather than
accept the offer with grace, Achilles acts like a spoiled child Analysis
and leaves. The contrast between the two warriors is marked,
with Hector continuously acting as a hero with honor and Thersites functions once more as the chorus during the fight
Achilles behaving poorly. While Hector may not always make between Menelaus and Paris, commenting on their strange
the best decisions—such as dismissing his wife and sister's connection as Helen's husband and Helen's lover, respectively.
fears for his life—he is head and shoulders above Achilles and Their fight mimics that of Diomedes and Troilus, though
the other generals who are supposed to be epic heroes. Menelaus has a much more legitimate claim to anger—he is
Shakespeare further undercuts Achilles by casting him as an married to Helen, and it is Paris who is the interloper.
out-of-shape warrior. He has sat out from the battles for so
Thersites meets another son of King Priam—this one a bastard
long, he has lost his stamina to fight. At this point in the play,
who pursues Thersites despite the latter's unwillingness to
Achilles appears almost comical.
fight. This action again contrasts with Hector's treatment of
Thersites, and drives home his heroic behavior when compared
to nearly everyone else.
Act 5, Scene 7
Act 5, Scene 9
Summary
Achilles gathers his Myrmidons, a group of soldiers he
commands, and orders them to hold themselves in reserve
Summary
during the fighting until Hector appears and then to attack and
Hector strips the armor from the body of the dead Greek he
kill him.
had chased in an earlier scene. He begins to swap out his

armor for the Greek's, only to be interrupted by Achilles and his

Myrmidons. Unarmed, Hector asks for Achilles to behave nobly,
Summary
but Achilles orders his men to kill Hector as he watches. The
The Greek generals receive word Achilles has killed Hector.
retreat sounds from both armies, and Achilles orders his men
They send a messenger to ask Achilles to meet them in
to tie Hector's body behind his horse so he can return to camp
Agamemnon's tent to see if this news is true and if the war is
with it.
finally over.
Analysis Analysis
As Hector strips out of his armor to take that of the Greek he's
The anticlimactic nature of the play continues with this scene
fought and killed, his words drive home the theme of
as word of Hector's death reaches the other Greek generals.
appearance versus reality. He says, "Most putrefied core, so
There is no definitive ending of the war. Instead, the generals
fair without," a direct connection to the rotten core hidden by
gather in a tent to await word. Without resolution the play
the pleasing facade maintained by a number of the characters
evokes a feeling of being unfinished. Achilles does not receive
of this play. Shortly after, Achilles and his Myrmidons appear,
his comeuppance after his atrocious behavior.
almost as if summoned by Hector's words. Achilles proves
himself a brute and the villain of the play, ordering his men to
strike down an unarmed and unarmored Hector. He appears
cowardly and weak in the face of Hector's past behavior,
Act 5, Scene 11
especially when Hector himself reminds him how to behave
honorably in battle. Glory and revenge are more important to
Achilles than honor. Summary
In the source material Achilles and Hector did fight fairly, but Aeneas, Paris, Antenor, and the other Trojans have gathered.
Shakespeare used creative license to drive home his point Troilus arrives with word of Hector's death. Angrily, he urges
about the horror of war. This action is another anticlimax in a them to continue the fight, even though Hector is dead.
string of them—there is no epic battle between two great Pandarus tries to speak with Troilus but is rejected. The Trojan
heroes. Instead, one is struck down while unarmed by a group soldiers leave Pandarus behind.
of men, the slaughter orchestrated by a dishonorable
character. He laments his lot in life, saying to be a panderer is to be
despised. He asks for the audience's pity, if not for him, then
There is an odd, unfinished feeling to the way this play ends. for themselves, because they are all panderers in some
Hector's death should wrap up the political plotline, but it fashion. He states when he draws up his will, he will leave the
leaves most things unsettled. Troy hasn't fallen, the Trojans audience all his diseases.
haven't surrendered, and the horse the Greeks use to gain
entry into the city hasn't even been constructed—or even
thought of yet. The play begins in the middle of things and Analysis
ends in the same way, with no real resolution to the situation.
Even Troilus and Cressida's ending is unsatisfying. Diomedes is The unsatisfying resolution continues with Troilus announcing
still alive to presumably carry on his affair with her, and Troilus the Trojans will fight on without Hector. The war with Greece
is unable to do anything about it. continues with nothing really changed. The audience is left at
the end of the play in exactly the same place as when the play
started. Troy is still not conquered, and the Greeks still
Act 5, Scene 10 maintain camp, though Hector is dead. Troilus does not gain
his revenge on Diomedes and Cressida, and there is no
punishment for Achilles's thuggish behavior. The plotlines are
depressing letdowns, with no new worldview or change in

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Quotes 28
circumstance being offered at the end of them. As the war Ulysses comments on the order of the world to make the point
continues, Troilus is alone as he is at the beginning of the play, this is how things should be. When properly ordered, all is well.
and Pandarus offers his last words about pandering, However, the army, in contrast, is not ordered. The proper way
prostitution, and disease—a pessimistic end to a problematic an army should operate is by a chain of command. When that
play. falls apart, everything suffers. The Greek army's failure is a
result of its own disorder.
g Quotes
"The common curse of mankind,
"Her bed is India; there she lies, a folly and ignorance, be thine in
pearl." great revenue!"
— Thersites, Act 2, Scene 3

— Troilus, Act 1, Scene 1
Thersites is speaking to Patroclus, and is railing against the

Troilus is commenting on Cressida's beauty. However, he
men around him. He claims they are all hugely stupid fools.
couches it in terms of her sexuality as something to be owned.
Her body is the prize, not her love. His words foreshadow the
end of their relationship later in the play.
"But you are wise, / Or else you
love not; for to be wise and love /
"Men prize the thing ungained
Exceeds man's might."
more than it is."
— Cressida, Act 3, Scene 2
Cressida explains to Troilus that wisdom and love cannot exist

One of Cressida's fears is Troilus losing interest in her once together in the same person at the same time. She believes a
he's had her. Here she is expressing that concern. In so doing person can be one or the other but never both. This
she shows her knowledge of human nature: some things are understanding explains the various decisions she and Troilus
desired only so long as they are not possessed. make throughout their brief relationship.
"The heavens themselves, the "They say all lovers swear more
planets, and this center / Observe performance than they are able."
degree, priority, and place, /
Insisture, course, proportion,
season, form, / Office, and Cressida claims that when lovers are wooing, they promise
more than they can deliver. It is an act of deception to make
custom, in all line of order."
themselves look better. This idea ties into the appearance
versus reality theme.
— Ulysses, Act 1, Scene 3

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Quotes 29
— Paris, Act 4, Scene 3

"A plague of opinion! A man may
wear it on both sides, like a leather This quote is laughable coming from Paris. He could do
jerkin." something. He could give Helen back to the Greeks and so
bargain to prevent Cressida from going with the Greeks. He
would thereby save Troilus his heartache. Paris, however, does
not want to give Helen up. He is selfish, despite his
protestations.
Thersites refers to the two-faced nature of man. Opinions and
minds can be changed easily, like turning a shirt inside out.
There is no honor or conviction in a man holding opinions so
"The fractions of her faith, orts of
lightly.
her love, / The fragments, scraps,
the bits and greasy relics / Of her
"Those scraps are good deeds
o'er-eaten faith are given to
past, which are devoured / As fast
Diomed."
as they are made, forgot as soon /
As done." — Troilus, Act 5, Scene 2
— Ulysses, Act 3, Scene 3 Troilus realizes Cressida has betrayed him by giving her love to
Diomedes. His comparisons are disgusting, implying Diomedes
Ulysses attempts to convey to Achilles how he will be viewed. gets the leftovers of what he and Cressida felt for each other.
A man is only as good as his latest deed because people have
short memories. Achilles, therefore, cannot rest on his laurels;
he must complete greater and greater feats in order to "Lechery, lechery, still wars and
maintain his reputation.
lechery! Nothing else holds
fashion."
"Both merits poised, each weighs
nor less nor more; / But he as he,
the heavier for a whore." Thersites criticizes the entire venture of the Trojan War. He
says war and lechery drive the appetites of men. These are the
— Diomedes, Act 4, Scene 1 only things that matter to them.
Diomedes argues Paris and Menelaus are exactly alike as they

fight to have Helen who has proved herself faithless. Both men "Life every man holds dear, but the
deserve Helen, if one can be said to "deserve" her.
dear man / Holds honor far more
precious-dear than life."
"I know what 'tis to love, / And
— Hector, Act 5, Scene 3
would, as I shall pity, I could help."

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Symbols 30
Hector will not be dissuaded from battle, despite the warnings binding ceremony like that found in Romeo and Juliet.
of his wife and sister. Honor is more important to a hero than Essentially, the sleeve and the glove represent the empty
life itself. promises of the two lovers: Troilus's sleeve is empty of his arm,
and Cressida's glove is empty of her hand. They are hollow
shells without the things that should fill them, just as their love
"Words, words, mere words, no is a hollow reflection of what true love actually is.
matter from the heart." It is easy to see why Cressida can part with the sleeve so
easily when she hands it to Diomedes later in the play. The
empty sleeve that represents Troilus's love—his heart, if you
— Troilus, Act 5, Scene 3
will—means nothing to Cressida. The sleeve becomes a symbol
for her infidelity, the faithlessness she becomes famous for.
Troilus reads Cressida's letter. His comment indicates that Diomedes promises to wear it into battle, not as a sign of her
words mean nothing, even if they come from the heart, if the favor, but as a sign of her infidelity. He is effectively rubbing
actions are not there to support them. He's seen Cressida's Troilus's nose in Cressida's betrayal.
false heart, so her words have no meaning.
Gloves were often a common token exchanged, but here the
glove functions as a nice comparative callback to another set
"I am unarmed. Forgo this vantage, of young lovers—Romeo and Juliet. In the famous balcony
scene, Romeo says, "O, that I were a glove upon that hand, / O,
Greek." that I might touch that cheek!" If Romeo and Juliet are the
pinnacle of true love, both willing to die for the other, then
— Hector, Act 5, Scene 9 Troilus and Cressida represent the nadir. How superficial their
exchange of tokens appears when compared to those of real
lovers. It is for them the appearance of being in love that
Hector has just slain a Greek in fancy armor. He takes off his
matters, not love itself, and thus the hollowness of their tokens.
own armor to put on that of the defeated man. Achilles finds
Hector at that moment without his armor, and he prepares to
attack. Hector appeals to the Greek's honor, saying he is
unarmed and asking him to stay his hand until they can have a Illness and Disease
fair fight. Achilles does not listen.
A number of characters make references to diseases and
l Symbols illnesses throughout the play. Often, these occur while

characters insult each other and sometimes in reference to the
war. Troilus and Cressida is one of Shakespeare's most
pessimistic plays, and the language used by its characters
The Love Tokens reflects this outlook.
Disease-ridden language symbolizes that the world is out of

balance and sick. The Greek camp is in turmoil after seven
The tokens the lovers exchange are symbols of the binding
years of war. Ulysses attributes it to the army's lack of
love between Troilus and Cressida. Troilus offers Cressida his
discipline. "The General's disdained," he explains, and the
sleeve, a clever play on wearing his heart on his sleeve. She, in
discontent "grows to an envious fever / Of pale and bloodless
turn, offers him one of her gloves. William Shakespeare once
emulation. / And 'tis this fever that keeps Troy on foot." It is not
again undercuts the meaning of these tokens with regard to
that Troy is powerful; it is the that Greek army is diseased
the future of their relationship, another act of foreshadowing.
because of rampant insubordination in their ranks. It afflicts the
This action is not an exchange of marital tokens, no rings, no
army from the top down with generals being disrespected by

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Themes 31
other generals. The infection flows down the entire chain of if she is beautiful, she must be faithful. He is ill-equipped to
command. The natural order is overthrown by the diseased in deal with the revelation of her true nature, so he believes the
its midst. woman betraying him for Diomedes to be a different person.
He asks Ulysses for confirmation he is awake and seeing
Shakespeare questions the morality of a war motivated by the Cressida pass along his love token to another man. "Rather,
desire to get back an adulterous woman who has been stolen think this not Cressid," Troilus says, and he goes on to say, "No,
away. What is supposed to be heroic turns into something this is Diomed's Cressida. / If beauty have a soul, this is not
pathetic. Thersites sums it up in a curse: "Vengeance on the she; / If souls guide vows, if vows be sanctimonies." He must
whole camp!" He says, "Or rather, the Neapolitan bone-ache! separate the two Cressidas in his mind, for this one does not
For that, methinks, is the curse depending on those that war live up to the fictionalized vision he had of the Cressida he fell
for a placket." He's wishing syphilis on the Greek army for in love with.
going to war over a woman.
Hector also weighs in on the theme of appearance versus
Thersites doubles down on the language of disease in Act 5 reality. During the last scene before his death, Hector is
when speaking to Patroclus, whom he has just called a whore: peeling away the dead Greek's fancy armor when he notes,
"Now the rotten diseases of the south, the guts-griping, "Most putrefied core, so fair without, / Thy goodly armor thus
ruptures, loads o'gravel in the back, lethargies, cold palsies, ... hath cost thy life." The outer beauty of the armor masks the rot
take and take again." The men in this war are all diseased, the beneath it, hiding the truth of the pride of the Greek soldier.
noble reason for the war is a sham, and only Thersites calls it This scene is a microcosm of the entire play. When Diomedes
out because he's one of the few who can. The language of speaks of Helen and her role in the war, it is William
illness and disease ties in to the lack of honor in the heroes. Shakespeare commenting on the nature of this war. It isn't
Because of the diseased world the play takes place in, fought for noble aims—the Trojan War was fought because a
expecting anyone to be heroic seems silly. Love can't thrive in woman had an affair and left her husband who then crossed
such a place either, which is why the love story of Troilus and the sea to wage war on the man who took her. That isn't
Cressida falls flat. Only iniquity and infidelity benefit from a heroic, though on the surface it may appear to be. Instead, it is
diseased setting such as this. a selfish waste of life. The noble ideal does not live up to the
actual reality of people dying over what amounts to an
extramarital affair. The Trojan War is not an epic account of
heroism; it's an overblown domestic dispute.
m Themes
Thersites keeps up a running commentary on appearance
versus reality and how it permeates the play. In Act 5 he calls
Diomedes a "false-hearted rogue, a most unjust knave," and
Appearance versus Reality compares him unfavorably to a serpent. After seeing Cressida
with Diomedes and observing Troilus's reactions, he says, "A
proof of strength she could not publish more, / Unless she said
One of the major themes in Troilus and Cressida is appearance 'My mind is now turned whore.'" The only person who seems to
versus reality. Troilus falls in love with the person he thinks surprise him is Hector. When Hector challenges him and
Cressida is, not with whom she is in actuality. Pandarus talks Thersites responds he is a coward not worth fighting,
up his niece in every meeting with Troilus, comparing her Thersites says, "God-a-mercy, that thou wilt believe me!"
beauty to Helen's, something readers should take note of, because it is so shocking to find someone actually honorable in
considering Helen's own infidelity. However, Troilus chooses to all of this insanity.
idealize Cressida. Troilus and Cressida only have Pandarus's
descriptions of each other's character to go by, and because Ajax, in particular, is abused by Thersites and the rest of the
he appears to have a vested interest in getting them together, company pretty regularly. When Ulysses, Agamemnon, and
his characterizations are suspicious. Troilus has trust in Nestor attempt to speak with Achilles, Ajax is furious at
Cressida's fidelity, so he is all the more stunned when she Achilles's prideful response and begins to rail about his
betrays him in Act 5. To Troilus, beauty equates with goodness; behavior. While the other generals appear to support him and

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Themes 32
agree with him, they constantly cut him down in asides to the speech from a man who is heartily sick of the waste he sees on
audience. They do not respect him and think him nearly as bad the battlefield for a prize that doesn't seem to be worth
as Achilles, but they need him and use him accordingly, winning.
justifying their two-faced behavior.
Thersites mirrors Diomedes sentiments in Act 2. He observes
that "all the argument is a whore and a cuckold, a good quarrel
to draw emulous factions and bleed to death upon." It seems
War no one wants to be fighting this war save for Menelaus, Paris,
Ajax, and Troilus. It is a futile enterprise. Likewise futile is
Diomedes and Troilus's battle with each other. With Cressida
functioning as the Trojan version of Helen, the battle between
With Troilus and Cressida, Shakespeare gives his take on one
those two men is a lesser version of the Trojan War and
of the most famous wars known in literature. Instead of
likewise not worth the effort. Cressida, like Helen, proves
Homer's rousing heroic epic of great warriors doing famous
herself false. She's not worth the effort to keep her, and
deeds for which they will be forever remembered,
Thersites comments on the pointlessness of such action.
Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida is an illustration of what
truly happens to people in war. There is nothing stirring in his
interpretation of the events of the Trojan War. Hector doesn't
even want to keep fighting over Helen. In Act 2 he states, Honor and Heroism
"Since the first sword was drawn about this question, / Every
tithe soul, 'mongst many thousand dismes, / Hath been as dear
as Helen; I mean, of ours. / If we have lost so many tenths of
ours / To guard a thing not ours—nor worth to us." War over Honor, or the lack thereof, plays an important part in
Helen is not worth all those senseless deaths of Trojans, Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida. Shakespeare treats his
especially when Helen doesn't even truly belong to them. heroes much like he treats the Trojan War, inverting the typical
behavior expected of heroes into something base and pathetic.
This is a strange sentiment—and a surprisingly cogent Achilles, the great hero of the Greeks, comes off as a bullying
argument—from a warrior of Hector's caliber. He finds the coward, Ajax as an imbecile, and Ulysses as a manipulator. As
carnage unnecessary and would just as soon stop the with the nature of war, Shakespeare uses several characters
madness, regardless of fame or daring deeds. His care is for to comment on the concept of honor.
the people fighting the war, which makes him more heroic to
modern audiences but less in keeping with an epic hero. Thersites has harsh words for his master, Ajax, throughout the
Shakespeare allows Hector a more modern view of warfare. play. In Act 2 he calls out Ajax's hypocrisy with "Thou
Unfortunately, Shakespeare must have Hector change his view grumblest and railest every hour on Achilles, and thou art as
in order to continue the story—he must capitulate to Troilus's full of envy at his greatness as Cerebus is at Proserpina's
argument, despite functioning as the voice of reason. beauty, ay, that thou bark'st at him." Ajax is envious of
Achilles's martial prowess, and at every turn he tries to cut him
Diomedes echoes this sentiment in Act 4 of the play when he down. When Achilles's refusal to fight gives him the fight
oversees the prisoner exchange. When Paris asks him who against Hector, Ajax swaggers around the camp, acting just
deserves Helen, Diomedes's response is not of a proud Greek like he accused Achilles of doing earlier.
ready for battle but of a man disgusted by the slaughter
around him. Helen, he says, "is bitter to her country. Hear me, Ulysses makes use of this enmity between the two heroes and
Paris: / For every false drop in her bawdy veins / A Grecian's their own weaknesses to forward his own agenda. He lies to
life hath sunk; for every scruple / Of her contaminated carrion Ajax, cheats at the lottery to ensure Achilles does not win, and
weight / A Trojan hath been slain." Like Hector, he rails against generally manipulates the other generals. While cunning, these
the loss of life he has witnessed over the past seven years, are also suspect actions that would ordinarily never be found in
lives lost on both sides. This is not the typical heroic speech a chivalric tale. However, Shakespeare isn't telling a heroic
about fame and honor and great deeds. Rather, this is a story, and so his heroes are almost all corrupted.

Troilus and Cressida Study Guide Suggested Reading 33
Thersites rages at Diomedes in Act 5, referring to him and the

other Greek commanders as "nothing but lechery! All e Suggested Reading
incontinent varlets!" A war brought about by lechery has
lechers fighting it. Shakespeare casts Diomedes as the Bloom, Harold. Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human.
adulterous Paris in his micro-instance of Helen of Troy with Riverhead, 1998.
Troilus in the cuckolded Menelaus role. Still, this isn't a tale of
love and honor. Just like Paris and Helen, their "love" is Mabillard, Amanda. "Troilus and Cressida: Q & A." Shakespeare
manipulated. Aphrodite manipulated Paris and Helen so she Online, 19 Aug. 2000.
could win the 'For the Fairest' contest, offering Paris the most
Oates, Joyce Carol. "The Tragedy of Existence: Shakespeare's
beautiful woman in the world. Troilus and Cressida are
'Troilus and Cressida.'" Celestial Timepiece, 3 Jan. 2016.
manipulated by Pandarus, who tells each of them what they
want to hear. The closest both couples come to love is lust,
spurred on by other entities.
Hector is the only character to truly exhibit any kind of heroic

mentality. Even Troilus is focused on the fame and reputation
of his family rather than on making the honorable choice and
returning Helen after seven years of warfare. Hector argues
against continuing the war effort, disgusted by the loss of life.
He treats Ajax with honor, refusing to kill him because they are
related. He even gives Achilles an opportunity to rest when
they meet on the battlefield.
Hector's heroic nature makes his death all the more

disappointing because Achilles behaves as anything but a hero.
Even after Hector gives him a reprieve, Achilles uses his
Myrmidons to attack and kill Hector while he's unarmed and
unarmored. Shakespeare altered the battle detailed in The Iliad
and other source material to make Achilles appear a villain. In
the source story, Achilles and Hector fight honorably, but
Shakespeare takes creative license to dismantle the idea of
epic heroism. The hero of the Greeks is shown to be a
sneaking coward who cannot defeat Hector in a fair fight.
After Hector's death Troilus falls further from the behavior of

an epic hero as he becomes obsessed with vengeance. His last
speech in the play encourages the Trojans to keep fighting to
get revenge on the Greeks for Hector's death. However, this
speech reads more as a reaction to his own inability to kill
Diomedes. He will keep fighting a war now hoping to get
revenge on the man who stole Cressida from him, making the
parallels between him and Menelaus complete.
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Troilus and

Calchas, a Trojan priest who defects to the Greek side of the

j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1

h Characters .................................................................................................. 4 Trojan War

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there is little to mark it as a classical romance. Pandarus treats

Beyond tone, the play lacks a true tragic hero or a central

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Shakespeare most likely died on April 23, 1616, leading to the

Throughout his career Shakespeare and his fellow actors were

Retirement and Legacy Pandarus

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Achilles Enemies Troilus Pandarus

Other Major Character

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Full Character List Calchas

Diomedes is a general in the Greek

Diomedes's Diomedes's servingman is an

Alexander Alexander is Cressida's servant. Paris is a son of King Priam of Troy

Antenor is a Trojan warrior who was

Priam Priam is the king of Troy.

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Ulysses says Hector obviously means to fight Achilles. He

Troilus's man Troilus's man is Troilus's servant.

Ulysses is the king of Ithaca and one Act 2

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commands. Diomedes should he wear the sleeve into battle. Angered at

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The next morning Hector's wife, Andromache, and his sister,

Meanwhile, Hector kills Patroclus, causing Achilles to finally

Achilles orders his soldiers, the Myrmidons, to hold themselves

Troilus brings news to the Trojans of Hector's death. He

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Rising Action Falling Action

4. Troilus and Cressida spend the night together.

5. The Greeks exchange a Trojan prisoner for Cressida.

8. Patroclus is killed, rousing Achilles to join the fighting.

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Seven years into war

Troilus is lovesick for Cressida. She loves him as well but

The Greeks are discouraged. Achilles refuses to fight.

The Trojan hero Hector challenges any Greek to single

Later the same day

Trying to wound Achilles's pride and get him into the

Priam and his Trojan generals debate the merits of

Calchas asks Agamemnon to exchange a prisoner for

Pandarus brings Troilus and Cressida together. The

The next morning

Cressida is exchanged for the Trojan prisoner Antenor.

That same day

Trojan hero Hector battles the Greek hero Ajax. The

After the fight

Ajax invites the Trojans Hector, Aeneas, and Troilus to a

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feast in the Greek camp.

Later that evening

Troilus observes Cressida give the sleeve he gave her as

The next day

Hector kills Patroclus in battle. Achilles fights Hector but

The same day

Angered by Cressida's disloyalty, Troilus fights but fails

Achilles returns to the battlefield, finds Hector, and kills

Achilles drags Hector's body behind his horse,