Safety in Work Place Safety in Welding

SHECON INC.
, 1 SAFETY TRAINING
SAFETY IN WORK PLACE

Safety In Welding & Cutting Operations
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WELDING
Welding in India has developed to a great extent and has become indispensable tool for fabrication.
Besides, oxy-acetylene and electric arc welding, other modes used are submerged arc welding, gas
shielded arc welding processes TIG and MIG, plasma arc cutting and gauging etc. All these types of
operations are associated with various hazards.
In general welding is carried out almost in all factories and workshops and the sites can be broadly
divided into four categories.
(a) Open workshop
(b) Open are
(c) Semi-confined spaces
(d) Confined spaces.
Hazards associated with welding and cutting can be classified as:

i. Radiation hazards – which are usually visual hazards
ii. Hazards due to dangerous fumes and gases.
iii. Burns and eye injuries.
iv. Fire & explosion.
v. Electric shock.
vi. Environment/Atmospheric condition.
vii. Postural fatigue
viii. Hazards associated with working at height.
ix. High noise level during certain operations.
The American Welding Society suggests that for metal arc welding of wild steel natural ventilation is
adequate, provided the room volume is approximately 1000 cft. per welder and ceiling height is at
least 16 ft., unless fluxes containing fluorides are used and cross ventilation is blocked by partitions,
equipment, etc. The amount of gases or fumes a welder is likely to inhale is dependent on many
factors, such as dimensions of the welding area, the number of welders and cutting operators, the
duty or operational factor (arc time, etc.), the method of welding or cutting employed, the material
involved, the size and type of filler wires and fluxes used, the ventilation system employed and the
most important of all is the position of the welder himself in relation to the plume of fumes.
In short, the hazards to which the operator may be exposed during welding and/or cutting will
depend on the welding and the cutting process, the base metals and the filler metals, fluxes, the
presence of contaminants, presence of volatile solvents in the area, etc. However, it is expected, the
welding operation can be made safe for the welders and the people in the neighbourhood by taking
care of the following common hazards associated with welding/cutting:
1. Light rays
Electric arc and gas flames both produce ultraviolet and infrared rays which have harmful effect on
the eyes and skin. The usual effect of ultraviolet is to ‘sunburn’ the surface of eyes which may cause
pain and temporary disablement. However, permanent eye injury may result from looking directly
into a powerful arc without eye protection. Ultraviolet may also produce the same effects on the skin
as a severe sunburn infra-red has only the effect of heating the tissue with which it comes in
contact. Goggles, helmets and hand shields that give maximum eye protection for welding process
should be worn by welders and helpers. Goggles with suitable shades give full protection against
injurious rays and from flying objects.
2. Atmospheric conditions
During welding operation heat generates and evolution of hazardous fumes, gases or dust
according to the metals involved takes place. Good ventilating system keeps temperature down and
circulated air prevents build-up of toxic contaminants. Protective clothing give full protection, but
some times sparks lodged in rolled-up sleeves or pockets of clothing or cuffs of overalls or trousers
SHECON INC., 2 SAFETY TRAINING
cause burns High boots give protection to the foot from hot spark or molten metal. Welders and their
helpers should cultivate habit of using shoes, spats, leather sleeves, aprons etc.
3. Electric shock
Every welder should examine the holder and welding cable. Welding cables with exposed metal
strands can cause a fire hazard, electric shock and burn too. Exposed metal strands of cable if
come in contact with metallic job, the entire job will become live and can cause shock. In hot
seasons due to perspiration the intensity of shock will be much severe. With proper care, many
hazards can be eliminated. In fact, welder should develop the habit of keeping his body insulated
from both the work and the metal electrode and holder.
4. Welding at elevated heights

Ladders or scaffolds are necessary to work at elevated heights. Before going up, it should be
ensured that they are rigid enough and properly secured. All adjustments to the welding equipments
should be carried out at the ground level before going up. At the end of working period, all tools
should be brought back to the ground.
5. Working in confined spaces

Confined space is intended to mean a relatively small or restricted space, such as a tank, boiler,
pressure vessel or small compartment of ship. At the time of working in a confined space, the gas
cylinders or welding machines should be kept well outside the job. Safety belts and life lines are
necessary in case entry is through a manhole. Air line respirator may be used, whenever required.
6. Hazardous locations
Welding should not be carried out in or near rooms containing flammable or combustible vapours,
liquids or dust, or inside closed tanks or other containers which have held such materials until all fire
and explosion hazards have been eliminated. Combustible materials in the form of cotton waste,
rags, waste papers, packing materials, etc. on shop floor catch fire when they come in contact with
hot welding spares. If welding is to be carried out near hazardous locations like carpentry shop,
painting booths, paint stores, flammable liquid storages, garbage yards, etc. First-aid, fire fighting
equipments like fire extinguishers, water buckets, sand, etc., should be kept near. A helper should
be deputed throughout the welding operation to take care of any outbreak of fire. At the end of
welding job, every possible source of ignition should be extinguished.
7. Handling of welding equipments

Following precautions should be taken at the time of handling of welding equipments:
i. Cylinders should be kept away from the source of heat.

ii. Cylinders, cylinder valves, couplings, regulators, hose, welding cables, etc., should be kept free
from contamination due to oil or greasy substances.
iii. Valves of empty cylinders should be kept closed and protected by caps.
iv. Valves should be closed when work is finished.
v. Cylinders should never be used as rollers or supports whether full or empty.
vi. Empty cylinders should be marked empty of MT and returned for proper storage.
vii. Cylinders should not be dropped or roughly handled.
viii. Hammer or wrench should not be used to open cylinder valves.
8. Other precautions
(a) Electrode holders become hot during welding operations if holders designed for light work are
used on heavy welding or connections between the cable and the holders are loose or if ground
connections are poor.
(b) Hot electrode holders should not be dipped in water.
(c) Sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned to prevent lodging of hot sparks.
(d) Follow safe housekeeping principles. Do not throw electrodes or rod stubs on the floor – discard
them in the proper waste container. Keep tools and other tripping hazards off the floor-put them
in a safe storage area.
DO’s AND DONT’s IN WELDING OPERATIONS
DONT’s DO’s
Tamper with cylinders or fittings. Light the blow pipe properly.
Attempt to mix gases in a cylinder. Storage the cylinders properly.
Use cylinders for any purpose other than Keep full and empty cylinders apart.
welding.
Move only one cylinder at a time or by crane in
Expose cylinders to heat. properly designed cradle.
Use oil or grease near oxygen. Shut cylinder valves when work has stopped or
the cylinder is empty.
Use faulty apparatus, i.e. regulator, hose, torch,
cable holds, etc. Open the cylinder valves slowly.
Test for leakage with a naked flame.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND
1. The blow pipe back-fires mainly because:
(a) the regulators are not set to the correct pressures, or

(b) light has been applied before the flow of fuel gas is properly established.
2. To light the blow pipe, follow procedure:
(a) Set the regulators to the recommended working pressure.

(b) Keep the blow pipe nozzle away from any source of ignition until the fuel gas is flowing freely
from nozzle.
3. The flame snaps out because of the following:
(a) The regulator pressure or gas flow or both are incorrect, either too high or too slow.
(b) The nozzle is obstructed.
(c) The nozzle is held too close to the work.
(d) The nozzle has become overheated.
4. In case the flame snaps out, adopt the following:
(a) Completely shut both blow pipe valves.

(b) Check regulators setting and cylinder pressures.
(c) Relight in accordance with the procedure mentioned above.
5. In case of over heated nozzles, cool the blow pipe in water.
6. If any acetylene cylinder is heated accidentally or becomes hot due to excessive or severe back-
fire from the use of faulty equipment, it should be dealt with promptly as follows:
(a) Shut the valve.
(b) Detach regulator or other fitting.
(c) Take the cylinder outdoors in the open air at once.
(d) Immerse in or apply water copiously to keep the cylinder cool.
(e) Inform shop floor in-charge for guidance.
TIG & MAG welding
TIG – Argon as shielding gas

MIG – CO2 as shielding gas
Ozone which is produced by the action of ultraviolet light on oxygen of air, has been detected in
weld, zone in volumes higher than TLV, Ozone content in thebreathing zone is well below TLV in
well ventilated shops.
TIG or MIG welding must not be carried out in the vicinity of Tri and Perchloroethylene. Even a
distance of 50 metres may be too close as in the arc it is decomposed to highly toxic phosgene and
other gases in dangerous quantities. Even welding of parts degreased with these compounds must
be approached with caution.
Plazma Arc hazards
- Electrical hazards
For equipment used for cutting heavy thicknesses the voltage may be as high as 400V and danger
should be anticipated. The technique of firing the arc by a high-frequency pulse exposes the
operator to the dangers of an unpleasant shock and a painful penetrating high frequency burn.
- Noise hazards
The plasma jet is ejected at very high speeds producing intense noise particularly in the higher
frequency bands. To protect hearing from danger, ear plugs or muffs, preferably the latter, must be
worn.
- Radiation hazards
The plasma arc may produce radiation which will include part of the X-ray, ultraviolet, visible light
and infra-red bands. Precautionary measures must be taken I particular to protect the eyes and skin
from injury.
- Health hazards
Adequate exhaust ventilation around the work must be provided for gas, dust and fume removal
since oxides of nitrogen are produced in dangerous concentrations, Ozone may be generated and
there are also health hazards due to the possible inhalation of harmful dusts and fumes (as well as
a possibility of fires and explosions caused by accumulations of dust).
Resistance welding
- Physical hazards
Sometimes no visible heat is produced and burns can result from handling of hot assemblies.
Particles of hot or molten metal should not fly out of spot, seam or projection welds if conditions are
correct, but non-flammable screens should be used and precautions taken against fire. Lose parts
should not be left in the throat of the machine, because they are liable to be projected with some
velocity. Whenever necessary, protective clothing, gloves and goggles must be worn.
Resistance welding machines have at least one electrodes which moves with considerable force. If
a machine is operated while a finger or hand is lying between the electrodes, severe crushing will
result. Where possible, a suitable means must be devised to safeguard the operator. Cuts and
lacerations can be minimized by first de-burring components and by wearing protective gloves or
gauntlets.
- Noise hazards
Certain resistance welding machines produce excessive noise and in such cases protective ear
muffs may also be necessary.
- Health hazards
If the articles are covered with a thin layer of oil, or coated with a paint primer, plastic or a metallic
coat such as zinc, the amount of fume is unlikely to be great, but in small and inadequately
ventilated workplaces local exhaust ventilation may be required.
General precautions
- Screens and booths

All arc welding operations should be screened to protect other persons working nearby. Where the
work is carried out at fixed benches or in welding shops, permanent screens should be erected
where possible, otherwise temporary screens should be used.
All screens should be opaque, of sturdy construction of a flame resistant material.
The use of black paints for the inside of welding booths has become an accepted practice, but the
paint used should produce a matt finish. Adequate ambient lighting should be provided to prevent
eye strain leading to headaches. Welding booths and portable screens should be checked regularly
to ensure that there is no damage which might result in the arc affecting persons working nearby.
- Ventilation
In large, lofty shops local exhaust ventilation is generally unnecessary, provided that no toxic
elements are present. Where natural ventilation is insufficient, mechanical ventilation is necessary.
The most effective method of removing fumes and gases is by exhaust ventilation placed near to
the work undergoing treatment. Any situation in which the natural ventilation is poor should be
regarded as a “confined space” and a responsible person should be given the task of ensuring that
adequate ventilation is provided and used. Oxygen should never be used to “sweeten” the air in a
vessel or confined space.
- Respiratory protection
Fumes give off when certain coated or otherwise treated metals are welded may be dangerous and
corresponding precautions (reinforced ventilation or respiratory protective equipment) are required,
special care must also be paid to ventilation in the welding of non-ferrous metals and certain alloy
steels, as well as to protection from the hazards of ozone, carbon monoxide and phosgene which
may be formed.
- Welding of containers.
If the previous contents are unknown, a vessel should always be treated as if it had contained a
flammable substance. Accidents may be prevented either by removing any flammable material or by
making it non-explosive and non-flammable. Any such vessel must be certified by a responsible
person as safe for entry and work with an arc of flame.
- Radiography of welds.
In high pressure fabrication radiography of welded joints is essential to ensure quality. This exposes
radiography operator and others in the neighbourhood to hazards of radiation absorption and utmost
care has to be taken as advised by BARC. Radioactive sources must be handled only with special
tools and subject to the special precautions required.

1. Gas Welding & Oxygen Cutting:
The cylinders used are Oxygen, Acetylene, L.P.G. & Hydrogen. Oxygen and Hydrogen cylinders are
usually of 244 cft. capacity and are filled at about 2,000 psi at 700F. Acetylene cylinders (C2H2)
consists of 92.3% by weight of carbon and 7.7 & by weight of hydrogen in chemical combination.
Acetylene burned with oxygen can produce a high flame temperature of about 60000F, higher than
any other gas used commercially. Range of flammability limit for Acetylene is 2.5 to 81% in air by
volume. Calcium carbide, itself is neither flammable nor explosive. Acetylene is a product of the
reaction between Calcium Carbide and water. Calcium Carbide is stored and sold in air-tight and
water-tight cans or drums. If these are damaged in transit and if water comes in contact with
Carbide, acetylene will be generated and there is then a serious danger of ignition and explosion.
Hence this operation is covered under Calcium Carbide Rules administered by the Chief
Controllerate of Explosives in our country.
Definition of a welder and welding operator. A welder is engaged in manual or semi-automatic

welding operations. A welding operator operates machines or automatic welding equipments.
An oxygen cutting process severs or removing metal by the chemical reaction of the metal with
oxygen, at an elevated temperature maintained with heat from the combination of fuel gases. In the
powder cutting process, a finely divided material, such as iron powder is added to the cutting
oxygen stream. The powder bursts into flame in the oxygen stream and starts cutting without
preheating the metal to the cut. Powder cutting is used in stainless and other steels, on many non-
ferrous metals and on concrete in construction and demolition jobs.
Acetylene should never be generated distributed or used at a pressure in excess of 15 psi.

Acetylene for welding, cutting purposes is usually supplied in cylinders having a capacity of about
300 cft of acetylene dissolved in an approved porous material impregnated with acetone, under
pressure of 250 psi at 700F.
Torches used in gas welding and oxygen cutting processes are constructed of metal castings,
forgings and tubings. Usually, they are made of brass or bronze but stainless steel may also be
used. The cotton torch, unlike the welding torch uses a separate jet of oxygen in addition to the jet
or jets of mixed oxygen and fuel gas. The mixed gas jet is for jet is for heating prior to the operation
and the pure oxygen jet is for cutting. The flow of oxygen to the cutting jet is controlled by a
separate valve
2. In fusion welding process, the following known processes are used in our country.
1. Manual metal arc welding,
2. CO2/MIG welding process.
3. TIG welding process, using argon as a shielding gas.
4. Resistance welding process.
5. Submerged arc welding process.
6. Plasma Arc cutting process.
7. Atomic Hydrogen welding process.
8. Carbon arc welding process.
The secondary voltage of AC. welding equipment, generally does not exceed 100 V and is thus not
very dangerous and normally would around 400 to 440 V AC. and hence dangerous.
3. Manual metal arc welding process: This is one of the most commonly used process in
welding. The source required in this process are (i) Welding Transformer (AC Welding Machine)
air-cooled or oil-cooled or motor generator (DC welding machine). In both these cases, the
primary is 440 V AC and secondary is either 66, 80 or 100 V in case of transformer (AC) or 80 V
DC in case of the DV welding machine. A welding rectifier will have 380-440 C AC as the
primary and the secondary will be 64, 70 V DC. A Diesel Generator’s secondary will be around
80 V DC. The amperage of the secondary will vary between 50 to 600 Amps depending upon
the machine and requirements. It will be noted that the open circuit voltage of arc welding
machines are less than 100 Volts. However, in spite of these being low, they can be dangerous
to life under certain circumstances, when handled carelessly. The danger is particularly marked
in very hot weather, when the welder sweats or when he is wet. The welder should, therefore,
develop the habit of always keeping his body insulated from both the work and metal electrode
and holder. He should always wear shoes and gauntlet gloves. He should never permit the
metal part of the electrode or any part of the electrode holder to touch either his bare skin or any
wet coverings on his body. Since the primary is, generally, around 400 to 440 V, any leakage of
electricity in the equipment, will result in a severe or fatal electric shock. Therefore the welding
equipment has to be grounded properly, by any electric standard. The starter of the generator
should have overload and low voltage protection incorporated and for the transformers and
rectifiers, similar protection should be provided with suitable capacity fuses. All the power
sources should be suitably enclosed and protected the secondary terminals of the welding
machine must be securely tightened into an insulated board, welding cables with lugs should be
properly tightened in the secondary terminals. If they are left loose, heavy arcing can take place
and welding cables get hot, which damages the terminals as well as cable lug ends. Plain
carbon or low alloy steel electrodes with usual types of coverings, represent about 80% of all
electrodes used in this process. When such electrodes are used in a large on open area, no
harmful results have been reported. The fumes from these types of electrodes consist of iron
oxide and varying amounts of flux materials. The TLV for iron oxide is 1 mg/m3 of air, a
concentration high enough to reduce visibility markedly. A concentration of this nature is seldom
produce in the general shop atmosphere, although it may be exceeded in the breathing zone of
the individual welder, depending on his position largely and his method of working. When
welding is done inside tanks or other confined areas, where the fumes cannot be readily
removed or diluted by convection currents, the hazards increases. Oxides of nitrogen always
produced in arc welding, may accumulate to a point where they can cause damage to the lungs.
In such cases, an external air supply furnished by use of mask or special helmet may be
required, in addition to a second person being stationed at the tank manhole to provide
assistance to the welder, if necessary. The flux covering of low hydrogen electrodes contain
fluoride compounds. The fumes produced also contain fluoride salts, usually in amounts
somewhat higher than the coverings. Under some conditions, the fumes may also contain
hydrogen fluoride, but usually in extremely small amounts. The TLVs for fluoride as a salt is 2.5
mg/m3 for hydrogen fluoride it is 2.0 mg/m3. The amount of fluoride inhaled by the welder will
depend upon the amount in the fumes, the size, shape and the position of the work and the
individual work habits of the welder. An increased hazard may exist, for example in a well-
ventilated area if the position of the work or the work habits of the welder are such that he works
with his hand in the path of the fumes. Fumes from stainless steel electrodes may contain up to
6% chromates apparently produce by oxidation of chromium. TLV of 0.1 mg/m3 may exceed in
the breathing zone of the welder, unless adequate ventilation is provided.
Shielded metal arc welding processes: Invisible ultraviolet and infra red rays emitted in this
process can injure unprotected eyes and skin. Therefore, protection of eyes and skin is
mandatory. The best protection for the face and the eyes is provided by an helmet that covers
the face and contains a slit type opening covered by a filtered lens. The optimum shade differs
for different welders and for different types of fusion welding processes. It should be dark
enough so that the arc can be seen without discomfort, but not so dark that visibility during
welding is implied. The shades also vary according to the size of the electrodes. Arc welding
also produces ozone, hence good ventilation should be provided. Special ventilation is required
when metals coated with copper, zinc, lead, cadmium are welded because fumes from these
metals are toxic. Precautions in installation and operating the electrical components used in
shielded metal arc welding processes are the same as those for other electrical devices, with
similar output and voltage capacities. The grounding should be sound as per the rules and
regulations for installation and operation of welding equipment.
Arc Welding: It is defined as a process for joining metals by heating with an electrical arc or
arcs, with or without application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material. The
process of shielded welding uses gas or a solid flux to blanket the weld. Arc welding is used to
fabricate nearly all types of carbon or alloy steels, common non-ferrous metals and is
indispensable in repair and reclamation of metallic machine parts.
Arc Cutting: is used only for rough cuts or for scrapping, because of the unevenness of the cut
obtained. Arc-oxygen is used for finer cutting and is especially useful for cutting metals that do
not oxidize readily.
The voltage across the welding arc varies from 5 to 40 volts, depending on the type and size of
the electrode used. The welding secondary circuit, however, must supply higher voltage to strike
the arc. This is called “open circuit or no load voltage”. After the arc is established, the open
circuit voltage drops to a value about equal to the arc voltage plus the lead voltage drop. The
open circuit voltage on DC welding machines should be less than 100 volts.
4. CO2/MIG shielded process: This process consists of a constant potential welding power
source with control unit with wire feeder, welding torch and a set of accessories. The power
source required is a constant potential welding rectifier of 415 V, AC 3 phase primary and 56 V
DC, 600Amps secondary-maximum. The molten metal is shielded by a gas, which is inert such
as helium, argon or CO2, which is caused to flow around and through the arc. There are several
health hazards associated with this process due to high arc temperatures and high ultraviolet
and infrared radiations. Ozone is produced by the action of ultraviolet light on the oxygen of the
air. The amount formed varies with the metal and gas used and the current and the humidity.
The average concentrations of samples collected under the helmet and around the arc are
within safe limits. It has been shown that the generation of ozone increases at an accelerating
rate, with increase of argon flow and more so with argon than with helium and other inert gases
used. The flow of argon should be controlled to a minimum, consistent for a good weld.
Triperchloroethylene (degreasing agents), if in the air, surrounding the arc even 100 feet away
are decomposed readily by radiation from the arc. Phosgene and other harmful gases are
produced in dangerous concentrations, even where such concentrations may be too low to be
detected by odour alone. This decomposition is, generally, accompanied by a strong
disagreeable odour. Welders should be warned to stop such welding when such odour is
noticed. Such degreasers should not be located in a room near welding operations 9at times
even 200 ft. may be too close), unless there is a positive air movement from the welding area
towards the degreasers. Because the vapours are decomposed at some distance from the arc,
local exhaust ventilation gives little or no control. Carbon Dioxide, when used as a shielded gas,
is decomposed by the arc to produce Carbon Monoxide. The total amount of CO so produced is,
generally, quite small; but relatively high concentrations are found in the path of the fumes.
Insignificant concentrations are found at distance of more than a few inches from the cone of the
fumes. Thus there should be no health hazard except in confined spaces or where the welder
works with his head directly in the path of the fumes. Good ventilation is usually required under
these conditions. Ordinarily, the amount of oxides of nitrogen formed during gas shielded arc
welding processes is too small to be significant. However, if nitrogen gas itself is used for
shielding during welding or cutting, concentrations high enough to require good ventilation
standards have been reported. Hence, nitrogen as a shielding gas is not recommended. The
higher temperatures involved in gas shielded welding processes produce large amount of metal
fumes than other welding processes.
5. TIG/Argon welding process: The arc is struck between tungsten electrodes and the work
piece. The electrode itself does not melt and is not used as filler material. Argon, the inert gas
shields the arc and is fed through a suitable torch, which also acts as the electrode holder. In
gas-shielded arc welding systems, only one electrode is normally used. The gas zone protects
the molten weld from the atmosphere and stops oxidation of the base metal. The process
consists of AC or DC power sources with high frequency control units, a suppressor unit and a
welding torch with Tungsten electrode. The primary voltage are 415/440 Volts, the currents are
350 to 500 Amps, and open circuit voltage are 65 to 82 Volts. Helium, Argon and gas mixtures
are used for gas-shielded arc welding units. These are supplied by manufacturers in cylinders
filled at pressures from 2200 to 2640 psi; these should be stored and handled with care as
required for other high pressure gas cylinders. CO2 although not strictly as a inert gas, is
sometimes used as a shield gas, when steel is welded by this process. This is supplied in
cylinders, partially gaseous filled at about 835 psi. Regulator must reduce the pressure to 25 psi
or less. Air is used to cool the torch and electric current cab cables. Water is also used for
cooling generally, when the welding current is more than 250 Amps. A strainer must be used to
keep out the impurities in the water used for this purpose; otherwise they get into the torch and
plug the water cooling passages.
6. Resistance Welding Process: Spot, seam and projection welding comprise the group of
resistance welding processes, wherein the required heat at the joints to be welded is generated
by the resistance offered through the work parts to the relatively short time flow of low voltage,
high density electric current. Force is always applied before, during and after the application of
the current to assure a continuous electric circuit and to force the heated parts together. The
maximum temperature achieved is ordinarily above the melting point of the base metal.
7. Submerged Arc Welding Process: In this process, the welding arc is kept submerged under
granular flux. The electrode is mechanically fed, resulting in a high metal deposition rate. The
higher feed rate enables use of high currents. This is one of the most economical welding
processes for long seams (joints) and deep groove butt welds. The primary is 400 to 440 V AC,
whereas the secondary is DC 30 to 100 Volts, the current could be as high as 1500 Amps.
8. Plasma Arc Cutting Process: This process was recently introduced to industry, by 1955 in
western countries, for cutting of Aluminum and other non-ferrous metals. This is similar to TIG. It
produces better, more concentrated, more controllable arc. Cutting speeds with plasma arc
process are several times higher than those obtained with oxygen gas cutting. A special rectifier
with high frequency with 380 to 440 volts primary and secondary voltage is 120 Volts with
currents ranging from 300 to 500 or more Amps is employed in this process. There is a noise
pollution in this process and to dull the noise generated, the operator should use noise-killing car
helmets.
9. Atomic Hydrogen Welding Process: This process retains the unique advantage of the ability
to control heat input over very wide ranges, by manipulating the flame. Thus, tool and die repair
and similar operations requiring very precise metal build-up with accurate alloy control, are the
field where there is no satisfactory substitute process. Atomic Hydrogen welding is an arc
welding process, wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc maintained
between two metal electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Shielding is obtained by hydrogen.
Pressure may or may not be used and filler material may or may not added. Hydrogen in its
normal state, called molecular hydrogen, to distinguish it from Atomic Hydrogen, is di-atomic i.e.
each molecule consists of two atoms. When an arc is established in hydrogen between two
electrodes, usually tungsten, the temperature in the arc stream rises to approx. 11,0000F,
dissociating the molecular hydrogen into its atomic form.
10. Carbon Arc Welding Process: This was the first of the arc welding processes to be developed,
being introduced commercially, in about 1881. Although it is now not used very extensively, it
has, nevertheless, certain useful fields of applications. It is a “pudding process and is not
suitable for overhead or vertical work. The currents in the open arc vary from 15 to 700 Amps,
depending upon the size of the carbon electrode and the thicknesses of the sheets to be
welded. Copper, Aluminum, Stainless Steel, Galvanized sheets and high nickel alloy steel
metals can be welded in thick and thin sections by this process; this process is also employed
for cutting and gauging the joints in the metal.
11. Personal Protection for Welders:
i. Respiratory protection: Toxic gases and dusts may be evolved in welding processes. In
open-air welding or cutting operations, such protection may not be necessary. However, in
confined spaces such as in tanks, pressures vessels and ship holds, local exhaust or
general ventilation systems should be provided. If contaminants cannot be kept below their
MAC or TLV values, because work is intermittent or for other reasons, welder should wear
respiratory protective equipment. Where oxygen can also be deficient, self-contained
breathing apparatus or air-hose masks with blowers are necessary. When welding or cutting
involves coatings or fluxes containing base metals that contain elements such as Zinc,
Fluorine, Beryllium, Lead or Cadmium and their compounds, local exhaust removal or
general ventilation should be provided to maintain the concentration of toxic fumes below
their TLV’s or MAC’s.
ii. Generation of gases and fumes: Oxides of Nitrogen, Ozone are also likely. Rapid
decomposition of chlorinated hydrocarbons is also likely due to ultraviolet radiations. A
greater amount of ultraviolet is produced with Helium or with other gas shields.

Efficiency and safety in the use of welding and cutting the heating go hand in hand with careful
observance of suitable operating procedures, precautions and safe practices.
Know your equipment and accessories connection oxygen cylinder to blowpipes
Oxygen cylinders are fitted to a pressure of 140 kg/cm2 approximately. The working pressure is
obtained with the help of a regulator.
A. 1. Never let oil or grease come in contact with oxygen or any equipment through which oxygen
passes. It may ignite violently in the presence of oxygen under high pressure.
A. 2. Do not use pipe fitting compounds, oil, grease for making connections.
A. 3. Use only hose & connections made specially for the Oxyacetylene equipment. Oxygen and
acetylene connections should not be changed.
A. 4. Never force connections that do not fit.
A. 5. Be sure there is no oil or grease on hands or gloves. Position the cylinder safely.
A. 6. ‘Crack’ open the oxygen cylinder valve and close it. It will remove any dust or dirt.
A. 7. Connect oxygen regulator to the oxygen cylinder. It has right hand threads. Should it be
necessary to tighten the unit nut (Hex nut) after the regulator is connected, be sure to close
the cylinder valve first.
A. 8. Turn out the pressure adjusting screw of the regulator until loose. Always stand to one side
of and away from the gauge faces and front of the regulator when opening cylinder valves.
A. 9. Open the cylinder valve slightly first – then one full turn. Always stand to one side of and
away from the gauge faces and front of the regulator when opening cylinder valves.
A. 10. Use proper hose clips and not wires at either end of the hose. If hose is new, blow it out to
remove loose talc.
A. 11. Test connections for leaks. Use soapy water. Do not use the equipment until all connections
are leak proof.
A. 12. Oxygen can be supplied from
a) Single Cylinder
b) Portable manifold
c) Fixed manifold
d) Liquid installation
A. 13. For connecting acetylene cylinder, regulator, hose etc. not that all connections are left
handed for safety reasons.
A. 14. Never ‘crack’ open an acetylene cylinder valve near other welding and cutting work, or near
sparks, flame, or any other possible source of ignition.
A. 15. Do not draw more than 20% of the cylinder contents/hr. For more requirement make use of
cylinder manifold.
General Operating Instructions:
B. 1. Never allow oil for grease to come in contact with oxygen under pressure.
B. 2. Never use oxygen as a substitute for compressed air, as a source of pressure for ventilation.
B. 3. Before starting to weld or cut look around to make certain that flame, sparks, hot slag or hot
metal will not be likely to start a fire,
B. 4. Always use, wear goggles when working with a lighted blowpipe.
B. 5. Always use the proper size tip and the proper gas pressure.
B. 6. Be sure to keep a clear space between cylinders and the work.
B. 7. Do not use matches for lighting blowpipes. Use friction lighters.
B. 8. Do not use matches for lighting blowpipes. Use friction lighters.
B. 9. Never use acetylene at pressure above 15 lbs. It is hazardous above this pressure.
B. 10 Never release acetylene where it might be the cause of a fire or explosion.
B. 11. Always ensure that hose is securely connected before using equipment.
B. 12. Do not hang a blowpipe with its hose on regulators or cylinder valves. It may interfere with
the quick closing of the cylinder valves.
B. 13. Never connect an oxygen pressure reducing regulator to a cylinder containing combustible
gas or vice versa.
B. 14. When stopping work for an h our or longer, release the pressure in the regulator. So there
will be little chance of any accidental release of gases, when the operator is away from the
equipment.
Back fire And Flashback
Improper operation of the blowpipe may cause the flame to go out with a loud snap or pop, which is
called a backfire. A backfire may be caused by touching the tip against the work, by overheating the
tip, by operating the blowpipe at other than recommended pressure, by a loose tip or head, or by dirt
on the seat.
Should the flame flash back inside the blowpipe, close the oxygen valve at once then close the
acetylene valve, a flashback occurs when the flame burns back inside the blowpipe, usually with a
still hissing or squealing, noise. Flash back occurs it indicates that something is radically wrong
either with the blowpipe or with the way it is being operated. Incorrect pressure of oxygen and
acetylene are often responsible.
If the flame continues to snap out of if there has been a flash back, first make certain that the
welding head nut, cutting attachment, nut, detachable welding tip, or cutting nozzle nut is tight. Wipe
and clean all seating surfaces of welding head, tip, or cutting nozzle and the matching surface in the
blow pipe.
Storage, Handling And Use Of Cylinders
C. 1. Avoid abusing cylinders.

C. 2. It is illegal to tamper with numbers and markings stamped into the cylinders.
C. 3. Cylinders should be stored only in approved safe places – so that they are not knocked or
damaged by passing or falling objects. Do not store oxygen and acetylene cylinders
together. Avoid direct sun-rays.
C. 4. While cylinders are being moved, keep them from being knocked over of from falling, when
moving cylinders by crane or derrick, use a suitable cradle, boat or platform. Never use
slings or an electric magnet. Always close cylinders valves before moving cylinders.
C. 5. Never use cylinder as rollers or supports even if they are considered to be empty.
C. 6. Never allow cylinders to come in contact with live wires, third rails, or ground wires from
electrical equipment.
C. 7. Keep cylinders away, far enough, from the welding or cutting work so that sparks, hot slag or
flame will not reach them.
C. 8. Always call oxygen by its proper name – oxygen & never confuse with ‘air’. Never use
oxygen for compressed air.
C. 10. Do not use a hammer or wrench to open oxygen cylinder valves.
C. 11. Never tamper with, not attempt to repair oxygen cylinder valves.
C. 12. Never tamper with fusible plugs of D/A cylinders.
C. 13. Never use cylinder that is leaking acetylene.
Other Precautions:
D. 1. Do not blow out hose with acetylene. Air or oxygen can be used with a pressure of about 5
lbs/”. Before connecting to the acetylene regulator, blow through it from the mouth.
D. 2. Avoid unnecessarily long length of hose. If it is a must, take care it does not kink or tangle
and that it is protected from damage.
D. 3. Protect hose from oil, grease, flying sparks, hot slag or other hot objects and open flames.
D. 4. Inspect hose periodically and replace at once when needed.
D. 5. Use special care when working in confined space – special clothing – preferably fire proofed
should be worn. Have adequate ventilation by natural means or by an air fan or blower.
Never feed oxygen from a cylinder into a confined space.
D. 6. Arrange good ventilation when welding on brass, bronze or galvanized iron. If a slack feeling
should be experienced during or after welding brass or bronze or galvanized iron, milk
should be drunk freely.
D. 7. When cutting iron or steel coated with lead or paint, containing lead, always wear a suitable
airline mask. There must be sure protection against breathing lead fumes which occur when
lead in any form is headed.
D. 8. Never do any welding or cutting on containers that have held a flammable substance until
they have been thoroughly cleaned and safe guarded.
For volatile substances steam can be used.
For oily one, caustic soda be used. For further safe guard fill with water before welding/cutting or
other hot work is done. Carbon-dioxide or Nitrogen may be used. CO2 should be atleast 50% in the
free space. If N2 is used the concentration must be atleast 10% higher than CO2.
The use of carbon tetrachloride in place of CO2 or N2 is not recommended as carbon tetra chloride
gives off a poisonous vapour when heated.
D. 9. Make sure that jacketed containers or other hollow parts are sufficiently vented before
heating, welding or cutting. Drill holes to vent out if necessary.
D. 10. Bushing in castings should be removed or securely fastened in place before heating. Bronze
bushings expand more than cast iron when heated.
D. 11. Be ready to put out any fire promptly with fire extinguisher, pails of water hose or sand.
D. 12. Clean orifices of the tips or nozzle with a soft brass or copper wire.
Principles & Precautions to follow in Welding Operations
Welding, burning, heat and spark producing equipment can be operated without causing fires, if
adequate precautions are taken before, during and after the job. This fact sheet outlines the basic
principles and precautions that should be followed to control these operations and prevent fires.
BASIC REQUIREMENT
1. Whenever possible, welding, burning, heat or spark-producing operations should be done in a

shop area set aside for that purpose or should be moved to a location where there will be no
chance of causing fires.
2. Every company should have a written procedure which specifies:

Who is responsible for preparing the area prior to issuing permission to burn or weld or use the
heat or spark producing equipment;
Who is responsible for inspecting the area and approving the issuance of a permit;
The areas where it is not permissible to do any work involving flames or spark producing tasks.
The standard precautions to be followed during and after the job, and the procedure to be
followed, if the job extends beyond the shift on which it starts.
3. Supervisor must ensure that outside contractors are adequately instructed and supervised on
the requirements of the procedure.
4. Everyone having responsibility in carrying out the procedure must be thoroughly instructed in its
requirements.
WORK AREA PREPARATIONS
1. Where possible, move combustible materials at least 35 to 40 feet away from the work area or
carefully and completely cover the materials with asbestos sheeting, sheet metal, flame-
retardant-treated tarpaulins, or combination of these materials.
2. Flammable Liquids:
Remove all portable flammable liquid containers from the work area. Discontinue operations
involving the handling of flammable liquids. Operating equipment containing flammable liquids
should be carefully inspected to ensure that there are no openings through which hot metal or
sparks may enter or vapours may escape.
Flammable liquid leaks from pumps, valves, and so on, should be corrected.
3. Compressed gas cylinders:

Remove all compressed gas cylinders from the immediate work area. Discontinue operations in
the work are involving the handling of flammable gases.
4. Protect combustible construction, such as wood floors, walls and roofs, from sparks, hot metal
and flame by shielding or thorough wetting down.
5. Openings through floors and walls, such as around piping, equipment, doorways and windows
leading to other building areas should be closed to prevent hot metal or sparks from escaping
and flammable vapors from other sections from entering the work area.
6. Cover trenches and pits which may contain combustible liquids so that sparks cannot enter or
flammable vapors escape. A water flush should be provided.
7. The equipment to be worked on should be cleaned of all chemical accumulations, oily dirt,
excess lubrication and other combustible materials.
8. Test the area with a flammable vapor detector to determine whether or not flammable vapors or
gases are present.
9. When work is to be performed on equipment which has contained explosive, corrosive or
flammable liquids or materials, it must be adequately cleaned and vented, isolated and tested to
ensure absence of flammable vapors.
10. Provide the necessary fire extinguishers or hoses in the work area.
PRECAUTIONS DURING JOB
1. Check and maintain sprinkler protection in buildings where the work is being performed. If the
sprinkler system must be shut off, it should be done when welding, burning, heat or spark-
producing operations are not performed.
2. At least one helper should stand by ready to extinguish any fire promptly with suitable fire
extinguishers or hoses.
3. Operators or employees should remain alert to detect any change is operating conditions which
could introduce a fire hazard. Should conditions change and present a potential hazard, all
welding, burning, heat and spark-producing operations must be halted until it has been
corrected.
4. Welders and mechanics should follow the safe practices established for operation of their
equipment. This includes providing for adequate ventilation.
5. When using gas equipment, place the cylinder carts outdoors, whenever possible, protect hose
lines from mechanical injury and from being burned.
6. When using electric welding equipment, arcing between metal structures of the building can
occur if there is insufficient metallic interconnection between the work and the object to which
the work cable is attached. Such arcing can cause fires in other sections of a building where
least expected. To avoid this, the WELDING CURRENT SHOULD BE RETURNED TO THE
WELDING MACHINERY BY ATTACHING THE CABLE DIRECTLY TO THE WORK. Both
welding earth and welding return cable should be connected to work to make a good electrical
connection. Welding return cable should have a sectional area of not less than the welding load.
It should be noted that even low voltage used in arc welding can be a serious hazard in
unfavourable circumstances. Welding earth keeps the work and any metal work in contact with it
at earth potential and to pass sufficient fault current for a quick disconnection of supply. High
impedance, absence or disconnection of welding return conductor can cause return current to
pass through other unexpected paths causing sparking at unexpected places.
7. In the event of a chemical spill or other emergency, all hot work must shop. Prior to resuming
hot work. The supervisor must again check the area and issue permission.
8. If the hot work continues into a new shift, the new supervisor must check the area and issue
new permits.
JOB COMPLETION PRECAUTIONS
1. Before leaving the work area when the job has been completed or for any substantial period of
time, the area should be inspected carefully to ascertain that no fire has started.
2. Where there was a possibility of sparks or hot metal falling to the floor below or of transfer of
heat to combustible materials on the floors above or below, these area should be carefully
inspected, before leaving the work area.
3. To eliminate the possibility of gas escaping through leaks or improperly closed valves on gas
cutting and welding equipment, the cylinder valves should be closed and gas pressure released
from the regulators.
Shut off the acetylene supply first to prevent the possibility of acetylene leaking back into the
high pressure chamber of the oxygen regulator. Acetylene in the regulator could cause it to
rupture when the oxygen supply is turned back on.
4. To prevent accidental arcing on electrical welding and cutting equipment remove the electrodes
and locate holders so inadvertent contact cannot occur. Disconnect the welding machine from
its power source.
Hot Work Permits: The use of flame or hot permits as part of the procedure for the control of
welding, burning, heat and spark-producing operations is highly desirable and aids the
employees responsible for supervision the procedure.
5. After welding or cutting work is completed. Mark “hot metal” or post a warning sign to keep
persons away from heated surfaces.
Safety in Soldering, Cleaning, Plating, Polishing,

Buffing & Heat Treatment Operations
Soldering Operations: There are two types of hazards in use of soldering irons. One is the
possibility of receiving burns due to accidental contact with hot parts of the soldering irons. Another
results from inhalation of dangerous fumes. Adequately insulated non-combustible holders will
practically eliminate the fire hazards as well as danger of burns on accidental contact. At times,
ordinary metal covers are provided on wood tables and are not satisfactory, since the metal
conducts heat and may ignite the wood below. Holders must be so designed to that workers cannot
touch accidentally the hot irons, if they were to reach for them without looking. The best-designed
holder encloses completely the heated surface and is also inclined so that the weight of the iron
prevents it from falling out. A pistol grip for such tools helps ease in handling them. When
continuous soldering operations are required, such as in electronics industry, a hand tool will not do.
Flow soldering becomes necessary and is likely to be more widely used in future. In flow soldering,
it is usual to heat the solder bath for 24 hours a day, with the problem of the bath being left
unattended for a part of the day. At times, flow soldering is combined with degreasing and often
inflammable solvents for degreasing are used. The ignition hazard of the electrical heating system is
high because of its continuous operations at high temperature and greater susceptibility to failure.
Hence, great care has to be exercised in choice of locations and construction of the building in
which flow soldering takes place.
Harmful quantities of fumes from lead soldering should not be allowed to accumulate. Even if lead
fumes are not present in harmful quantities, it may be desirable to exhaust the nuisance fumes and
smoke. Air samples should be taken to verify that the amount of lead in air is not harmful. Lead
solder particles should not be allowed to accumulate on the floor and on work tables. If there is a
possibility of solder of fluxes spattering, employees must be provided with face shields or do their
work under a transparent shield. The solder grinders must wear hoods to prevent foreign matter
from entering their eyes, ears, noses or mouth. Filtered air must be supplied to such hoods at about
12 psi and should be exhausted around the bottoms.
Electroplating & Cleaning Operations: The hazards of electroplating have in the past been
minimized by the use of metal plating tanks, by providing adequate ventilation of the plating room
and by prohibition of smoking. However, there is a growing tendency to use plastic baths for small
scale work, when fires have been caused by the electric heater igniting the tank, when there is a
loss of liquid level. Plastic tanks should, therefore, be avoided. Generally open surface tanks are
employed in these operations just as in pickling, dipping, metal cleaning, etching, stripping etc.
Since many of these involve heat and gassing of the liquid, a simple solution would be to provide a
canopy hood over the tank. This, however, has three drawbacks (1) with any canopy hood, the
worker’s head is likely to be between the hood and the tank surface, so that he will be exposed
more with the hood than without it. (2) many of these operations require the work to be raised and
lowered by a hoist on a monorail over the tank, with which the canopy hood will interfere (3) air
current caused by open doors and windows, passing traffic or air supply control equipment etc. can
seriously affect the exhaust over the tank surface to be effectively collected and removed by the
canopy hood. Hot water tanks are also used in plating, anodizing, metal cleaning and similar
operations. At times, the steam they release in the room leads to excessive moisture condensation,
lower visibility and discomfort particularly, this is felt more in winter conditions. If surface tanks are
used for dipping or quenching, they cannot be totally enclosed, but it is also essential to have 3
sides baffled or enclosed. Otherwise cross drafts will nullify the purpose of the stacks provided over
such baths and tanks. The stacks should extend a minimum of two feet above the high point of the
roof or that of the adjoining building, whichever is higher. Exhaust fans should be installed in these
stacks, so that air flow does not have to depend on outdoor conditions of weather and so that
downdrafts from chimneys / stacks are impossible. Minimum control velocities of about 100 FPM are
recommended for degreasing, pickling, plating and similar operations, where conditions of release
of conditions of release of contaminant with no significant velocity into relatively quiet air are
encountered. Important features incorporating principles of good exhaust hood design must be
followed in this respect. At times, lip extraction systems for extracting solvent vapours are adopted.
These vapours in health hazard concentrations are not appreciably heavier than air. As such, it is
desirable to capture them at their source, rather than collect them at floor level. The hood must be
located as close as possible to the source of contaminant. The hood must essentially be so
designed as not to interfere with the worker’s operations. Sometimes, inhibitors are employed,
which float on the liquid, and are supposed to prevent the fumes from coming out in sufficient
quantity. Heating of cadmium-plated metals is a common source of acute industrial poisoning. Such
jobs must be carried out only under an efficient local exhaust of the workers must be equipped with
supplied-air, respirators. For all types of plating such as Nickel, Chromium, Cadmium, Zinc, Silver
etc. and similar operations such as anodizing, pickling, and such other metal cleaning and
degreasing operations, Dipping and stripping operations, tables are available giving the ventilation
rates for open surface tanks employed in such operations prescribing minimum ventilation rates in
cfm per sq.ft. of tank area and per sq.ft. of hood opening. These should be followed in the design of
exhaust hoods for these hazardous operations schedule-II appended to Rule 114 of M.F. Rules,
1963 prescribes the statutory requirements to be observed when electrolytic plating or oxidation of
metal articles by use of an electrolyte containing Chromic Acid or other Chromium compounds is
carried out.
Sanders are also employed for cleaning operations. Those of the belt and disc type cause serious
skin burns. When the rapidly moving abrasive comes in contact with the body. it is impossible to
guard the sanders completely, therefore, thorough training of the concerned workers in their safe
use is the only answer. The motion of the sander should be away from the body and all clothing
should be kept away from the moving sander disc. Dust type safety goggles or plastic face shields
must be worn by the workers and if creation of any harmful dust is also likely, a dust respirator must
also be used. Careful cleaning sanders is a must, because of its dusty nature of work. They should
be periodically dismantled and also thoroughly cleaned every day by blowing out dust with use of
low pressure air. The fire ad explosion hazard of wood sanding is considerable, nence all
precautions should be taken to keep the dust taken to keep the dust to a minimum, through
ventilation or with a dust collector arrangement. On belt-sanding machines, a guard must be
provided on each in-running nip point between the drum and the belt. The unused portion of the belt
must be well guarded, where exposure to human contact is likely. The abrasive belts used on
sanders should be of the same width as that of the pulley drum. The drums should be adjusted to
keep the belt taut enough to turn at the same surface speed as that of the drum, yet not slip on the
drum, when material is brought into contact with the moving abrasive belt. Before using them, the
belts must be inspected for cracks, frays or excessive wear and if so found, they should be
replaced.
Various metal cleaning processes are employed to prepare the surface for painting. These can be
conveniently classified into 5 types viz. solvent cleaning, vapour degreasing, chemical cleaning,
mechanical cleaning and heat cleaning. Solvent cleaning is by far the most dangerous. As far as
possible, solvents which are not normally flammable such as Trichloroethylene and
perchloroethylene should be used. At times, emulsifiable cleaners are dissolved in paraffin and
similar liquids and therefore, can be hazardous. When flammable solvents such as petroleum
naphtha, benzene, toluene xylene are sometimes used, these solvents require the respect and
control measures normally associated with such flammable liquids. Vapour degreasing, chemical
and mechanical cleaning methods are relatively less dangerous, provided that appropriate solvents
are processes, gas torches and other heating equipments are required to be used and hence all
appropriate precautions should be employed. The following two schedules relate to this subject of
cleaning operations.
(i) Sch. V to Rule 114 of M. F. Rules 1963 – Grinding or glazing of metals and processes incidental
thereto.
(ii) Sch. VIII to Rule 114 of M.F. Rules 1963 – Blasting Regulations – Cleaning, smoothening,
roughening etc. of articles by a jet of sand, metal shot or grit or other abrasive propelled by a
blast of compressed air or steam. This has been revised in 1969. An important amendment is
that after two years of its date of commencement, it prohibits introduction of sand or any
substance containing free silica as an abrasive into any blasting Apparatus or inspector of
Factories.
Polishing & Buffering Operations: Polishing wheels are either wooden wheels faced with leather
or wheels made of discs of canvas or similar material stitched together with a coat of emery or other
abrasive glued to the periphery of the wheels. Buffing wheels are made of discs of felt, linen or
canvas and the periphery is given a coat of rouge, Tripoli or other mild abrasive. The size of the
flange determines the softness or otherwise of the wheels built up of linen, canvas, felt or leather.
The larger the flange, the harder the surface. Such wheels should be softened by placing the wheel
on the floor and pounding the wheel edges with a wooden hammer. A file or other object held
against it on the spindle should never be used for this purpose. In such a case, this object will most
certainly catch in the wheel and is likely to be thrown off with such force that the operator or his
helper will be injured. Safe mounting procedure for these wheels are the same as those used for
grinding wheels. Hood guards should be designed to prevent the operator’s hands or clothing, from
catching on protruding nuts or spindle ends. These exhaust hoods must also be designed to catch
particles thrown off by the wheels. Gloves should not be worn by the polishers and buffers, because
a glove part may catch and thereby catch the operator’s hand against the wheel. Small pieces
requiring buffing or polishing should be held in a simple jig or a fixture. The operator must never
attempt to hold a small piece against the wheel, with his bare hands. When the rouge or Tripoli cake
is applied to a revolving wheel, the side of the cake should be held lightly against the wheel
periphery. If a stick is used, the side of the stick should be applied on the “off” side, so that if thrown
away, it will fly away from the wheel. The range of peripheral speed in polishing and buffing
operations is from 3,000 to 7,000 surface ft/min. with 4000 sf/pm in general use for most purposes.
If the motors driving the wheel are equipped with adjustable speed controls, these controls should
be installed in a locked area, so that unauthorised persons cannot change the speeds. These
wheels should be guarded as completely as possible as would not interfere with their smooth
operations. The requirements of hood exhaust in terms of cfm of ventilation rates for polishing,
buffing, scratch brushing, sanders, and such other polishing belts and straps are given in standard
tables, depending upon their wheel diameter and wheel widths.
With brush wheels are used for removing burrs, scale, sand and other materials employing wheels
made of various kinds of protruding wires and with different thicknesses. The same machine set up
and conditions that apply to polishing and buffing wheels also apply to brushes. The speeds
recommended by the manufacturers must be followed and never exceeded. The hoods on scratch
wheels must enclose the wheel as completely as the nature of the work would permit and should be
also adjustable so that the protection will not be lessened as the diameter of the wheel decreases.
The guard must cover the arbor end or a smooth nut should be provided on them. The work rest
should be adjustable, so that it is always about 1/8” from the brush wheel. Personal protective
equipment is especially important in the operation of wire-brush wheels as there is a tendency of the
wires to break off. The wearing of aprons of leather, heavy canvas or other such heavy material,
leather gloves, face shields and goggles must be provided and worn by workers on these machines.
Heat Treatment Operations: Many metal parts are subjected to heat treatment to modify their
surface properties and the process is carried out either in furnaces at atmosphere containing
varying quantities of hydrogen, Carbon Monoxide, Ammonia, and Nitrogen or in a salt bath usually
containing molten nitrates or cyanides. The metal parts are then often quenched in an oil bath. The
heat treatment furnaces and baths are usually heated by gas, oil or electricity. These processes are
potentially hazardous, since all the three sides of the fire triangle are nearly always present. The
ever increasing size of heat treatment plants also increases the risk of serious accidents occurring
and it is therefore, essential that they should and appropriated control measures of gas, fired
furnaces, salt baths, oil quench tanks and hydraulic fluids is a very big subject, some important
hazards are discussed very briefly below:
Gas Fired Furnaces: Equipment, pipes and joints may corrode and distort over a period of time
leading to leakage of gas. Gas pipes should be sited in the open for this purpose. They should not
be so positioned that they present special hazards e.g. over process plants or where trucks can run
over or into them. The pipes and equipment must be visually inspected at least once weekly. Good
ventilation of heat treatment plants is essential. The greatest hazard for a gas - fired furnace is at
the time of its lighting up and shutting down stages. Dangerous accumulations of unburnt gas-air
mixtures is likely, if lighting up is delayed, if the flame goes out or if the gas is not shut off completely
and these accumulations may ignite and explode. Devices against flame failure in shape of thermo-
couples or photo-cells must be provided. Clearly written start-up and shut-down sequential
procedures should be established and followed. In the design of the furnace, provision must be
made to vent out explosion blasts safely out of the workroom. Should the supply gas fail through
insufficient gas pressure or an electrical fault, the furnace temperature will fall and outside air will be
sucked in, producing an explosive atmosphere. If this happens, the furnace should be flushed out
with nitrogen immediately and the gas valve closed and blinded.
Salt Baths: Molten salts will ignite materials. Salt baths should, therefore, be placed on a concrete
foundation. Any combustible construction around should be protected by metal sheets and no
combustible materials should be permitted in the immediate vicinity of these baths. Overheating of
salts can lead to their decomposition and explosion. The baths must be heated up slowly and the
temperatures should be thermostatically controlled. A high temperature cutout should be provided
and the baths should be emptied ad cleaned regularly. Water, foam, carbon dioxide and vaporizing
liquids should never be used on fires involving molten salts. The best extinguishing agent is dry
sand.
Old Quench Tanks: A fire may result if a hot part being quenched becomes stuck at the surface of
the oil if too many hot parts pass through the oil, at a given time. The oil temperature should be
controlled by a thermostat and a system for cooling the oil externally should be provided. If
overheating were to occur, an audible warning signal should operate when the oil temperature is
about 2000C below its auto-ignition temperature. It is always advisable to use a higher flash point oil
(about 1300C). The oil should be continually stirred to prevent local overheating and the stirring
should be interlocked with the conveyor, so that if the stirrer breaks down, the conveyor stops. The
oil level should be maintained and care taken not to contaminate the oil with water. The exhaust
ducting should be fixed in a vertical position, as far as possible, so that oil residues cannot readily
collect and adequate access should be provided for cleaning, Mechanical objects drip oil when
removed from the tanks. Hence suitable drip-trays should be provided for this.
Hydraulic Fluids: Serious fires can occur when pipes leak and spray the hydraulic fluid on to
ignition sources. These fluids are usually employed in heat treatment of metals in the hardening
shop. Water for this purpose cannot be employed, since it has a corrosive effect on the metal parts.
So a petroleum based oil with the required specifications is used. The best risk control is first to use
the less hazardous hydraulic fluids such as water Glycol, Synthetic or water in oil emulsion types
known in chemical terms such as anhydrous synthetic fluids, silicate esters and halogenated
aromatic compounds. The shut-off switches for the hydraulic fluid pumps should be easily
accessible and the tubing used for the oil should have as few bends as possible, but should have at
least one bend to provide for thermal expansions and contractions.
High Frequency Heating Equipments: These installations range in power capacity from a few
hundred watts to several hundred KW’s, hence special safety considerations are called for. The
resistance of the body to the flow of high frequency current is not dependent upon the skin. At
frequencies of 200 KHz to several hundred megacycles per seconds, currents flow in a very thin
shell on the surface of the conductors. This tendency is known as “skin effect” and increases as the
frequency increases. In case the skin of a person gets punctured, the HF current still flows on the
skin surface and does not penetrate to the vital organs of the body. a person coming in contact with
HF power will in general receive burns, because of his natural tendency to pull away from the
conductor when contact is made, there-by setting up an arc. The burns are very painful and usually
take longer to heal than those from the common dry heat sources. Hence, several special
precautions have to be adopted to prevent accidental contact, some of which are: (1) Door
interlocks; In case any such access door is open, power will be cut off from the equipment. (2)
Enclosing the induction heating coil by a shield and which cannot be reached by the operator.
Materials to be induction heated will be carried by revolving hopper feeds or on a conveyor. (3) By
locating high frequency generators much away from the furnaces or on the floor below and
conveying HF power by a transmission line (4) Insulating inducting heating coils with 2 or more
layers of glass tapes and impregnated with silicone varnish. This insulation protects the operator in
case of accidental contact with the heater coils.
Paint Spraying Operation: Although this subject comes under metal surface finishing, only some
special aspects are dealt with here. Nowadays, in large industries, synthetic stove enamel paints
are used and are cured at a temperature of about 1500C. These are less hazardous than the
commonly used cellulose paints. The spraying operations should preferably be carried out in
detached buildings or cut off from other operations where possible. Where spraying is done in open
areas, curtains of non-combustible materials extending downward from the ceiling should be
provide. The enclosed area should not be made so small that explosive mixtures of vapour and air
can be formed easily. Ventilation must be secured by natural means through doors, windows, roof
vents, wall openings etc. If this cannot be arranged, forced ventilation or local exhaust removal must
be employed. Exhaust systems must ensure minimum amount of deposit which can be easily and
frequently removed. Fires in spray booths and spray operations most frequently result from
spontaneous ignition of spray deposits. A regular schedule of cleaning would avoid this, based upon
the determination of rate of accumulation. Water washed baths are safer than spray booths for
preventing fires, since they trap the excess spray before it can enter the exhaust ducts. Automatic
water of CO2 systems confine fires most effectively.
In bigger industries, the process of electrostatic spraying is becoming increasingly popular. The
parts to be so treated are automatically carried on an earthed conveyor into a coating zone, where
an electrostatic field is sprayed into an electrostatic field is created between them and an adjustable
electrode system charged to a static potential of 130,000 volts. Atomized coating material is sprayed
into an electrostatic field forming a mist through which the work pieces pass. The particles of coating
material become charged with the same polarity and potential as the electrode and hence are
attracted to and deposited on the earthed work pieces. The spray area is enclosed in a booth,
through which an air flow of about 100 ft/min. is maintained. Considerable amount of paint is also
saved in this system and it is claimed that this also results in a more uniform coating. The fire
hazards associated with electrostatic spraying are controlled by.
(1) Making interconnections to ensure that the electrostatic field cannot be established until after the
ventilating system and the conveyors are both in operation.
(2) The electrodes must be rigidly supported and well-insulated.
(3) The transformer and the power packs are located outside the booth.
(4) Proper maintenance and inspections should be provided and paint deposits on booth and
trunking should be cleaned at least once weekly.
(5) Some form of automatic fire-extinguishing equipment such as CO2 should be provided. This
method of spraying in some ways is a better fire risk than conventional spray painting methods;
but much depends on the operation of a number of fail-safe devices. A properly installed,
maintained and operated electrostatic spray painting shop is a better fire risk, generally
speaking.
CONFINED SPACE: HAZARDS & CONTROLS
ENTRY INTO CONFINED SPACES:
Unlike other accidents, those arising from entry into confined spaces are preceded by a deliberate
and conscious act - that is, the entry into the confined space. In case of work associated with
confined spaces, we can very well know where the accidents, should occur, will take place. We can
even know the persons most likely to be effected. Work in such cases is usually of a non-routine
nature and thus we normally give more consideration thereto. It is, therefore, possible to foresee
probable causes of an accident. Hence accidents associated with work in confined in confined
spaces are avoidable.
What will, be the severity of the injury, if an accident occurs? The mishap in confined space has a
high probability of being fatal. It is, therefore, very essential to set up safe working procedures. Such
procedures should not only be devised, but enforced too. They will not be effective unless they are
enforced ‘strictly
Legal Requirements: Section 36 of the Factories Act, 1948, prescribes the steps to be taken for
work in confined spaces.
a) Rule 68 M.F.R prescribed under section 36 lays down minimum dimensions of manholes. They
should be not less than shoulder width of the person concerned plus 8 Cms. In length and 30
Cms. Wide in case of rectangular or oval shape and in case of circular shape.
b) Portable electric light or appliance of voltage exceeding 24 Volts is not permitted. Further, in
case flammable fumes or gases are present in the confined space, only flame proof light is
permitted.
c) Dangerous fumes must be removed and arrangement must be to prevent any ingress of fumes.
d) A written certificate declaring the space free from dangerous fumes to be issued, or the worker
entering the confined space must wear a suitable breathing apparatus and a safety belt with a
life line,
e) Suitable breathing apparatus, reviving apparatus and belts and ropes must be kept ready for
instant use.
f) The space must be sufficiently cooled to be safe for persons to enter.
SAFETY ENTRY SYSTEMS:
1. Isolation of the vessel: Mere closing of valves is not sufficient. The satisfactory method of
isolation of inlet and outlet pipes is to disconnect them or to put blanks therein. Isolation of
chutes and dump valves from hopper should not be forgotten. Where the vessel contains
moving parts like agitators or cutters, these also require adequate isolation. Removal of fuses is
one method. However locking isolator switches in the off position is much safer. Absolute
isolation of energy is very must essential.
2. Cleaning: Contents of the vessel including the sludge, if there is any, should be cleared off.
Washing out with high pressure water hoses followed by steaming is a common practice.
Neutralization should be adopted with great care, as the neutralizing chemicals might react
violently.
If steaming is done, the vessel should be sufficiently cooled.
3. Ventilation of the vessel: Some form of ventilation should be provided to sweep out traces of
dangerous fumes, or to clear out an atmosphere which may be deficient in Oxygen. An exhaust
fan or a compressed air hose can be used. Ventilation should not be confined to purging the
atmosphere before entry, but should be continued throughout the operation.
4. Inspection & Testing: For an entry into a confined space, tests for dangerous gases, explosion
hazards and deficiency of Oxygen are necessary. Care should be taken while opening a joint in
a line to insert a blank, as the gas inside would escape out (Rule 73 C). Workers in such cases
should, be protected.
Knowledge of the past history of the tank to be entered into is very important. It is helpful if it is
known what the tank contained. The testing, of tanks for specific gases will not ensure that the
tank has sufficiency of oxygen. Continuous fresh air supply is preferable.
5. Issue of Certificate: A certificate should be designed to suit the requirement of the individual
factory. There can be different types of certificates depending upon the nature of the job, e.g.
Hot work Permit, Tank Entry Permit, Special Hazard Permit, etc. There can be distinctive
colours for each type of permit for easy identification. A procedure for request, preparation and
issue of certificate should be laid down. It should he remembered that work permit is an effective
means of communication.
6. Rescue: Despite all the precautions taken before a person is allowed to enter in a confined
space, there should be an arrangement for rescue, should a mishap occur. The persons
selected for this duty must be fit and capable of lifting out an injured man. They must have
training, in rescue, first aid and the use of breathing apparatus.
WORKING AT HEIGHTS
A couple of months ago there were a number of news reports regarding workers injured and killed
due to collapse of scaffolding. Sometimes there are news reports of workers at construction sites
losing their lives and limbs due to fall from building roofs. In many cases the workers are offered
some compensation or their surviving family members are given a measly amount which does not in
anyway compensate for the loss of income of a working hand. When a person falls from such
heights he suffers from a head or spinal injury which if he survives will leave him maimed and will
not be able to function to his full capacity.
Circus trapeze artists perform their stunts from heights but accidents are rare because of the safety
measures they use. They have a net which protects them from hitting the ground in case of a fall.
So also do the other artist who perform similar acts minimise the risks involved by using safety belts
tied to their waists.
Accidents that occur on account of working from heights are:
(1) Collapse of scaffolding/weak or fragile support.

(2) Material falling from height leading to injury to a passer-by.
(3) Worker falling from building top/chimney due to lack of adequate safety precautions
followed.
Normally persons like to resort to shortcuts by using some makeshift arrangement by climbing on
boxes which are unable to withstand the weight of material and platform or working floor has not
been suitably laid and sides not lined by railings.
There are many safe methods that can be used to work at heights.
LADDERS:
Ladders are used to reach the job-site located at a

certain height above the ground. If the length of the
ladder exceeds 9ft. a fall arrester is to be used
which is fitted to the users belt by a chain. If the
user falls the fall is arrested by a catch in the cable.
Many accidents are caused due to slipping of the
ladder. This can be prevented by having another
worker to hold the ladder and to see to it that it is
always in place. Slipping while climbing the ladder
can be prevented by using non-slipping ladder
shoes made of cork or steel spikes. Ascending and
descending the ladder should be made facing the
ladder and holding to the rungs hand on hand as
holding the rungs is easier in case of slippage.
Care should be taken while working as equilibrium
is easily upset when one leans sideways from the
ladder. A ladder is not designed for use a horizontal
bridge or a platform and must not be exposed to
the sun and weather.
WORKING ON ROOFS (PLATFORMS):
Platform should be provided with railings and safety belts for the workers. The platform should be
built of material having the strength to support the weight of material and persons working on it.
Accidents occur due to overloading and lack of railing provided along the sides especially in case of
sloping roofs.
STAIRWAY:
These are provided to access platform and the preferred sloped is between 300 to 350. It should be
fitted with railings on the open side and be capable of bearing loads and steps should be wide
enough and not steep.
SCAFFOLD:
The stability of a scaffold is very important. It is normally used for construction of building and
painting. The important points to be taken into consideration are
(a) it is temporary
(b) should be able to take four times the anticipated load of worker and material
(c) normally made of wood or metal and both should not be mixed
(d) overhead protection to be given to passer-by
(e) footing of scaffold should be rigid and capable of taking load and loose bricks and sand
should not be used as footing
(f) construction and dismantling should be done under a supervisor
(g) rails should be provided, slipping conditions avoided and planks of flooring overlapping
Wooden scaffold:
They are normally used for stone masonry, plastering and brick layering. The scaffold should be as
near as possible to the wall of the building. Diagonal brackets should be provided to prevent
swaying, moving and provide stability. Scaffolds greater in height than 60 ft. should be designed by
an engineer.
Tubular Scaffold:
This is made of metal and economical to use. Safety rules must be followed strictly and equipment
must be followed strictly and equipment must be maintained and rusted scaffolds never used.
Mobile Scaffolds:
These are tubular scaffolds mounted on wheels and can be locked when in use. Brakes should be
used when they are not being moved. They are not to be ridden on when being moved and floor
should be free from potholes.
Swinging scaffolds:
They are used for painting operations and are light duty with minimum material and tools. It is
supported by two hangers and at two hangers and at two points can be lowered and can be raised.
The rope should be able to take 6 times the anticipated load. The platform should be secured by a
lash and a fender attached to the side facing the building. A safety belt should be used which is
attached to a lifeline other than the scaffold itself. All ropes and suspension gears should be
thoroughly checked.
Suspended Scaffold:
Theses are lowered and raised by hoists and weight is used to balance and prevent toppling.
Overheat protection should be given to passer-by. And the worker should safety belt.
Using all the above methods along with the precautions and following safety guidelines the element
of risk attached to working at heights and work can be carried out without any accidents and fear.
INDUSTRIAL HOUSEKEEPING
Industrial Housekeeping plays an important role in Accident Prevention Programme. Housekeeping
does not represent only cleanliness alone, but cleanliness as well as orderliness also. It helps to
improve the performance of the organisation.
Housekeeping is an important point which has to be considered at the time of designing stage of the
plant. When the drawings are on the paper many points such as, location of machineries, different
shops, air direction, light, ventilation etc., should be given importance. And to check these points
approval of the plans from Factory Inspectorate is made compulsory. As per the Factories Act,
1948, Section 6, every industry has to obtain a prior approval for the plant layout. Further to that
cleanliness (Section 11), Disposal of Waste and Effluents (Section 12), Ventilation and Temperature
(Section 13), Dust and Fumes (Section 14) etc., are to be considered at the time of preparing the
plans of the factory.
In short to maintain good housekeeping, thoughts have to be given over so many points. By
considering the above mentioned points we can achieve low accident rate.
It has been observed in industry that wherever housekeeping is neglected more accidents are
occurring. If material is placed near machines in haphazard manner there is a chance of
falling/tripping. If aisles are not maintained, dirt or greasy floors are not cleaned immediately,
materials are not stacked properly, definitely these are going to be the causes of accidents. These
are some of the examples of bad housekeeping. Such types of examples can be seen on the
shopfloor in many industries.
Good housekeeping means nothing but place for everything and everything in its place. This can be
possible only with proper planning. There is not much difference between home housekeeping and
industrial and industrial housekeeping. Both requires advance planning, both gives pleasant
appearances, both needs efforts. Housekeeping at home is maintained in somewhat better manner.
But in Industry the experience is different. When V.I.P’s are visiting the industry the factory is
cleaned, washed, orderliness is maintained, aisles are painted, raw material near the machinery is
arranged in proper fashion, waste/scrap is removed as and when bins are full. Yes, this is called
really a good housekeeping. Once it is managed, it is not difficult to maintain it. It does not take
much time. Only this tempo is to be kept constant. This culture is to be developed. Once the habits
of maintaining good housekeeping is developed, then it become a part and parcel of the routine
work.
Maintaining good housekeeping is the responsibility of Management as well as employees. It is very

much important to provide sufficient space for every employee for free movement. The section 16 of
the Factories Act, 1948, gives the statutory requirement of over-crowing. Also arrangement should
be done to provide scrap boxes near every machine and to empty them to observe the cleanliness.
Emergency exist should not be blocked by keeping material in front of it. Of course without the
employees’ cooperation this is not possible. Education the employees plays a vital role. Once the
employees are trained in line to maintain good housekeeping they themselves will maintain it. No
one likes to work in dirty environment and congested workplace.
Bad housekeeping is an indication of management’s failure. It means the management has not
realised the importance of good housekeeping. A Safety Engineer can convince the management
that bad housekeeping helps to increase the accident rate and more accident means more loss.
And hence “A Safe Factory is more productive factory”.
Following are the some points of good housekeeping on shop floor.

• Clean and plain flooring.
• Properly stacked / stored material.
• Sufficient place for free movement.
• Required distance between two machines.
• Proper access to workplace.
• Maintaining aisles for material movement.
• Colour coding to pipelines, waste collecting bins.

• Clean toilets/locker rooms/canteen.
• Only required material near machinery.
• Tool storage facility near machine.
• Proper placement of different shops
• Care for lighting and ventilation.
HOW TO ACHIEVE GOOD HOUSEKEEPING:
EDUCATION:
Nowadays it is very much important to train the employees. In the training programme it is
necessary to emphasis on the benefits of good housekeeping. It is necessary to explain them how
with the help of good housekeeping morale/health of the employees can be improved.
FORMATION OF HOUSEKEEPING COMMITTEE:
A Committee can be formed. Members of this committee should be from the workmen. They should
be assigned the work of maintaining housekeeping. Periodically they should visit the shop and
check it as per the checklist prepared. If the particular section is not meeting the requirement of
housekeeping, the in charge of that section should be informed to take corrective action
immediately.
HOUSEKEEPING TROPHY:
A rolling housekeeping trophy can be introduced. A section which is maintaining good housekeeping
can be awarded with this trophy. The employees from that section should be appreciated. Vide
publicity should be given so that other sections’ employees can be motivated.
As the shop layout is prepared considering all the aspects of good housekeeping workers can make
free movement as required by him. He works with the tension free mind. Because of proper lighting,
good ventilation his morale can be increased. With this increased morale he can produce more
output. Of course material free aisles and machines loaded with only required raw material help for
free and fast movement of material. With this material movement time is saved and it results into
reduction in operating cost. As only required material is kept material is kept near machines, the
floor space can be utilised in better way. In such conditions production control becomes much more
easy. Another important factor of good housekeeping is that we can achieve the saving in
production time.
When good housekeeping is maintained on the shop floor, it means there is no material kept in the
aisles, no unwanted material near machines, no training cables/hoses on the floor, no spillages and
hence there are no chances of tripping, falling, slipping. Thus accident rate can be controlled
naturally.
In a nutshell with good housekeeping we can achieve -

• Reduction in operation cost.
• Increase in production output.
• Improvement in production control.
• Conservation of material.
• Saving in production time.
• Better use of floor space.
• Better movement of men and material.
• High morale.
• Reduction in Accident Rate.
• Reduction in fire loss.

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SHECON INC.

SAFETY IN WORK PLACE

Hazards associated with welding and cutting can be classified as:

4. Welding at elevated heights

5. Working in confined spaces

7. Handling of welding equipments

i. Cylinders should be kept away from the source of heat.

DO’s AND DONT’s IN WELDING OPERATIONS

Attempt to mix gases in a cylinder. Storage the cylinders properly.

Test for leakage with a naked flame.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND

1. The blow pipe back-fires mainly because:

(a) the regulators are not set to the correct pressures, or

2. To light the blow pipe, follow procedure:

(a) Set the regulators to the recommended working pressure.

3. The flame snaps out because of the following:

4. In case the flame snaps out, adopt the following:

(a) Completely shut both blow pipe valves.

5. In case of over heated nozzles, cool the blow pipe in water.

TIG & MAG welding

TIG – Argon as shielding gas

Plazma Arc hazards

- Screens and booths

All screens should be opaque, of sturdy construction of a flame resistant material.

Safety In Welding & Cutting Operations

Definition of a welder and welding operator. A welder is engaged in manual or semi-automatic

Acetylene should never be generated distributed or used at a pressure in excess of 15 psi.

11. Personal Protection for Welders:

Safety In Welding & Cutting Operations

Know your equipment and accessories connection oxygen cylinder to blowpipes

General Operating Instructions:

Back fire And Flashback

Storage, Handling And Use Of Cylinders

C. 1. Avoid abusing cylinders.

For volatile substances steam can be used.

Principles & Precautions to follow in Welding Operations

1. Whenever possible, welding, burning, heat or spark-producing operations should be done in a

2. Every company should have a written procedure which specifies:

WORK AREA PREPARATIONS

3. Compressed gas cylinders:

PRECAUTIONS DURING JOB

JOB COMPLETION PRECAUTIONS

Safety in Soldering, Cleaning, Plating, Polishing,

CONFINED SPACE: HAZARDS & CONTROLS

ENTRY INTO CONFINED SPACES:

SAFETY ENTRY SYSTEMS:

If steaming is done, the vessel should be sufficiently cooled.

Accidents that occur on account of working from heights are:

(1) Collapse of scaffolding/weak or fragile support.

Ladders are used to reach the job-site located at a

WORKING ON ROOFS (PLATFORMS):

Maintaining good housekeeping is the responsibility of Management as well as employees. It is very

Following are the some points of good housekeeping on shop floor.

• Colour coding to pipelines, waste collecting bins.

HOW TO ACHIEVE GOOD HOUSEKEEPING:

FORMATION OF HOUSEKEEPING COMMITTEE:

In a nutshell with good housekeeping we can achieve -

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