MODULE -1

INTRODUCTION:
The evolution of ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING (rapid prototyping, 3d printing, free form fabrication) has
changed the face of direct, digital technologies for the rapid production of models, prototypes, patterns, and fit &
functional parts, since its introduction, AM technology has changed design, engineering, and manufacturing
processes within the aerospace, automotive, electrical & electronics, consumer industries, biomedical and dental
devices & implants. Due to wide applications, rapid prototyping technology has become a revolutionary field in
manufacturing.
Additive Manufacturing (rapid prototyping, 3 D printing) can be defined as the layer-by-layer fabrication of three-
dimensional physical models directly from a computer-aided design (CAD) data.

This AM technology known by many names such as:-

• 3d printing
• Rapid prototyping and manufacturing.
• Free-form fabrication
• solid free-form fabrication
• direct digital manufacturing
• Additive Manufacturing (AM) is the official term for the technology as per ASTM
international (American Society for Testing and Materials) & ISO.

1.2 Evolution of Additive manufacturing

Rapid prototyping started from meager beginnings, but today it has grown to be one of the best technologies
in the manufacturing sector. Basically, the origins of rapid prototyping have been branched from the cad industry.
Solid modeling which is a feature of cad which produces 3-D objects in an electronic format was introduced in the
1980s.
Rapid prototyping technology was born in the late 1970s when scientists at ultra violet products, Inc. worked
to develop a technology that could build three-dimensional parts using lasers. This technology worked by curing or
hardening a thick liquid substance (photopolymer) called resin in the shape of the required prototype. As the
photopolymer was exposed to the heat it became harder and eventually became completely rigid.
In 1986 Charles hull, of ultra violet products, Inc. Patented this technology, which is now known as
stereolithographic. Later on, Charles hull formed 3d systems, Inc. and commercialized this technology.
In the years between 1988, when chuck hull’s stereolithographic was first made available for public
purchase, until 1996, many incremental accomplishments further advanced the commercialization of AM. In 1991,
the following am technologies were commercialized: laminated manufacturing (LOM), solid ground curing (SGC),
and fused deposition modeling. These achievements were all based on the principle of additive manufacturing but
used different materials and composition methods to develop the final object.

1.3 difference between AM &CNC machining process

An important difference between additive manufacturing technology and CNC machining process is that a prototype
or model is obtained by layer by layer addition process as opposed to removing material from a 'block'.

The following block diagram shows the difference between additive manufacturing technology and conventional
machining
Process.
1) Material difference:
Additive manufacturing: 3D Printed materials are mainly liquid resin (SLA), nylon powder (SLS), metal powder,
gypsum powder, sandstone powder, wire, sheet (LOM) and many more. Liquid resins, nylon powders, and metal
powders account for the vast majority of industrial 3d printing.
CNC machining: the materials used for CNC machining are all one piece of sheet metal, which is a plate-shaped
material. By measuring the length, width, height, and wear of the parts, the corresponding size of the sheet is cut for
processing.
2) Structural difference:
Additive manufacturing: Its principle is to cut the model into n layers/n multi-points, and then pile up one by one in
order, just like building blocks, therefore, additive manufacturing processes parts with complex structures, such as
hollowed out parts
CNC machining: It is the reduction of material manufacturing. Through the various tools running at high speed, the
required parts are cut according to the programmed tool path. Therefore, CNCmachining can only produce rounded
corners with a certain degree of curvature but cannot directly process the inner right angle which is realized by
processes such as wire cutting/sparking.
3) Operating software :
Additive manufacturing: most of the 3d printed slicing software is easy to operate, even if the layman can
master the slicing software in the next two days of professional guidance. Because the slicing software is currently
optimized to be very simple, support can be generated automatically, which is why 3d printing can be popularized to
individual users.
CNC: Programming software is much more complicated and requires professional personnel to operate.
4) Post-processing difference :
Additive manufacturing: There are not many post-processing options for 3d printed parts, which are generally
polished, sprayed, deburred, dyed, etc.
CNC: Machined parts have a variety of post-processing options, in addition to grinding, fuel injection, deburring, as
well as electroplating, silk screen, pad printing, metal oxidation, laser engraving, sandblasting and so on.

1.4.1 Advantages of AM:

• Design complexity and freedom: The 3d printing technology has been expanding products, which involve
levels of complexity. The advantage has been taken up by designers and artists to the impressive visual effect. It has
made a significant impact on the industrial application. These applications are being developed to materialize
complex components that are proving to be both lighter and stronger than their predecessors.
• Speed: one can do complex parts within hours, with limited human resources. The only machine operator
is needed for loading the data and the powder material, start the process and finally for the finishing. During the
manufacturing process, no operator is needed.
• Customization: 3d printing processes allow for mass customization, personalize products according to
individual needs and requirements.
• Tool-less: In industrial manufacturing, for low volume to medium volume production it is costlier, time-
consuming and labor-intensive, thus additive manufacturing can eliminate the need for tool production
• Extreme lightweight design: Additive manufacturing enable weight reduction via topological optimization
• sustainable / environmentally friendly: 3D printing technology provide environmental efficiencies in terms of the
manufacturing process by utilizing up to 90% of standard materials, and, therefore, creating less waste.
• No storage cost: since 3d printers can “print” products as and when needed, and does not cost more than
mass manufacturing, no expense on storage of goods is required.
• Employment opportunities Increases: The 3d printing technology increases demand for designers and
technicians to operate 3d printers in turn helps in job creation.

1.4.2 Disadvantages:
• Questionable accuracy: 3d printing is primarily a prototyping technology, meaning that parts created are
mainly test parts. For a test part, the dimensions have to be precise to get an accurate reading to check whether a part
is feasible or not.
• Support material removal: when production volumes are small, the removal of support material is usually not
a big issue. When the volumes are high, it becomes an important consideration.
• Limitations of raw material: in traditional manufacturing, there are a wide range of materials wherein an
additive manufacturing technology can work with only a few. More research is required to devise methods to enable
3d printed products to be more durable and robust.
• Good skills are required for application design and to set process parameters
• Material cost: cost of most materials of additive systems is greater than that of those used for traditional
manufacturing.
• Material properties: a limited choice of materials is available. Actually, materials and their properties (e.g.,
tensile property, tensile strength, yield strength, and fatigue) have not been fully characterized. Also, in terms of
surface quality, even the best RM processes need perhaps secondary machining and polishing to reach acceptable
tolerance and surface finish.
• Intellectual property issues: the ease with which replicas can be created using 3d technology raises issues over
intellectual property rights. The availability of blueprints online free of cost may change with for-profit
organizations wanting to generate profits from this new technology.
• Limitations of size: 3d printing technology is currently limited by size constraints. Very large objects are still
not feasible when built using 3d printers.
• Cost of printers: The cost of a 3d printer is not feasible for purchase by the average householder. Also,
different 3d printers are required in order to print different types of objects.

1.5Additive manufacturing process:

Nowadays many rapid prototyping techniques are available even however all employ the following
Process.
The steps are:
1. Conceptualization
2. CAD
3. Conversion to STL
4. Transfer to additive manufacturing
5. STL file manipulation
6. Machine setup
7. Build removal and clean up
8. Post processing

1.5.1 Conceptualization
The first step in an additive manufacturing process is that one needs to imagine and also develop a thought about the
function and appearance of the product. This may be in the form of textual descriptions, sketches, 3-dimensional
computer models. Conceptualization is done through making 3d cad model using cad programs.
1.5.2 CAD
After conceptualizing object to be built, modelling is done using a computer-aided design software packages. Solid
modeling packages like solid works, pro/engineer, catia, and unigraphics are used to represent 3-d objects more
accurately than 2-d wireframe modeling packages and gives better results. The pre-existing cad file is used to create
prototypes.
1.5.3 Conversion to STL:
Additive manufacturing technology uses the stereolithographic (standard triangulation language (STL) file format.
STL format captures surfaces of the 3D model by stitching triangles of various sizes on its surfaces. The spatial
locations of the vertices allows pre-processor programs to determine the spatial locations of the part in a building
envelope and also locate the surfaces of interiors in part. The limitation in STL is, only geometry information is
stored in files while all other information of cad model is eliminated such as color, material, etc which plays a
critical role in surface finish of AM part.
The “AMF” format was developed specifically to address limitations of STL format and is now the ASTM/ISO
standard format. This format addresses dimensions, color, material, and additional information with a file format.
Number of CAD program companies, including several major programs, included support of AMF file formats.
1.5.4 Transfer to additive manufacturing:
Once a correct STL file is available, a series of steps is required to transfer the information to start the build. The
needed information varies, depending on the technology, these steps start by repairing errors within the STL file,
such as gaps between surface triangle facets, inverted normal where “wrong side” of a triangle facet is identified as
the interior of the part.
After repairing errors, proper orientation of the 3d model with respect to the build platform is decided and
orientation, geometry, densities of structures are decided and generated in 3d model.
1.5.5 STL file manipulation
Next step after transfer to AM,CAD model preparation starts with importing an STL file, into the pre-process
software program. After importing, the dimensions can be modified accordingly and number of steps are carried to
correct errors in the file. Errors include missing triangles, inverted triangles, transverse triangles, open edges and
contours. These error types will cause problems in the building process and result in incorrect parts and geometries.
1.5.6 Machine setup
After STL file manipulation machine set up is done through dividing in two groups of tasks such as machine
hardware set up and process control.
1) Machine hardware setup: Hardware setup includes cleaning of build chamber, loading of powder material, a
routine check of critical build settings and process controls such as gas pressure, flow rate, oxygen sensors, etc.
2) Process control: The tasks in the process control group allow an additive manufacturing systems to
• Accept and process build files
• Start the build
• Interrupt the build if required,
• Preparing the machine for finished part extraction,
• Unloading of material.
After physical locations are decided, we follow a series of steps to define the
• Build process parameters,
• Material parameters, and
• Part parameters.

1) The build process parameter controls machine level parameter that is applied to the entire build.
2) Material parameters control powder dosing behaviors and chamber environment control through inert gas
injection.
3) Part parameters are assigned to each and every component/part to be built. These parameters are taken into
account in the slicing process that takes place in the previous step of the process chain.
1.5.7 Support generation:
The primary function of the “support generation” is extract heat, provide surfaces to build plate to avoid war page
from thermal stress which occurs after build.
Generation of support structures in powder bed processes can be done in two ways. The first way is generate the
support structures during cad modeling and design the support to be features of the geometry of the part. Another
way is support structures can be generated in the STL preprocess software program.
1.5.8 Build file preparation:
After generating support to part, for creating build file, the slicer program divides the model layers in the
build direction for required thickness. The thickness of layer should always be larger than the mean diameter of
powder for achieving high coupling of laser energy input into the absorption, heating, and melting of powder.
Parameters that determine an amount of energy incident onto the powder bed per unit time are energy input, beam
power, scan speed, and focus move. After generating slice information, part is transferred into the interface program
that runs on AM systems. The interface program serves as the interface between information of the build and
machine control which carries build process.

1.5.9 Build removal

The build time of the powder bed process depends on a number of factors the main factor here we see is the
height of the entire build which has an effect on the total time. It can take anywhere from minutes to days. After
build completes, unpacking of the build chamber is done and we retrieve finished part. The unpacking process
typically involves raising the platform in the build chamber and removing loose powder at the same time. Once
the loose
powder is removed from the finished part, the build is ready for post-process.
The finished parts at this point for powder based polymer metals are removed by chemical technique and for metal
powder, we use cutting tools such as band saws, or wire EDM for higher fidelity and flexibility.

1.5.10Post-processing: Depending on additive manufacturing technology post-processing techniques can be varied

in a wide range. Post processing step sometimes may require no post process operation or May contains several
additional steps to change the surface, dimensions, or material properties of the built part.

1.6 Classification of additive manufacturing:

There are many ways to classify additive manufacturing technologies.
1) Baseline technology- Whether the process uses lasers, printer technology, extrusion technology, etc.
2) Processes and the type of raw material input.
The problem with above mentioned types are, some processes get grouped together in odd combinations (like
selective laser sintering (SLS) groups together with 3D printing) or some processes that may appear to produce
similar results end up being separated (like stereolithographic and material jetting with photopolymers). As it
inappropriate, we use a single classification approach.
A popular way of classifying is a two-dimensional classification method as shown in fig.
From the above diagram thus, additive manufacturing can be classified as follows
• Liquid polymer system,
• Discrete particle system,
• Molten material systems and
• Solid sheet system.
1.6.1 Liquid polymer systems:
As liquid polymers are widely and popularly used material. Using this liquid polymer 3d systems developed a first
commercial system using stereolithographic process (SLA). Let us understand the working of the SLA system. The
detail working principal of SLA is explained below.

Stereolithography apparatus (SLA)

It is often considered the pioneer of the rapid prototyping industry, with the first commercial introduced in1988 by
3d systems. The system consists of a ultra-violet laser, a vat of photo-curable liquid resin, and a controlling system.
This technology is the commercially most popular and widely used method of rapid prototyping. 3d systems of
Valencia, California, USA, launched this technique in 1987.
In this technique, three-dimensional models are built from liquid a photosensitive polymer that solidifies when
exposed to ultraviolet light. As shown in the following fig, the model is built upon a platform which is situated just
below the surface in a vat of liquid epoxy or acrylate resin. A low-power highly focused ultraviolet laser traces out
the first layer, solidifying the object’s cross section while leaving excess areas liquid. After, an elevator
incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer. A sweeper re-coats the solidified layer with liquid, and
the laser traces the second layer atop the first. This process repeats until the prototype is complete. Afterward, the
solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess liquid. Supports are removed and the model is then
placed in an oven for complete curing.
Advantages
• SLA process builds complex geometry parts which cannot be possible by a conventional manufacturing process.
• High-quality surface finish can be achieved.
• Clear model with good resolution can be achieved.

Applications
• It is used to produce parts with very fine features and high-quality visualization models
• Fit and functional parts for assembly
• Models are used to flow visualization and stress analysis
• manufacturing medical models
• To manufacture parts for tooling and vacuum
casting Case study: SLA patterns for custom turbines
Small to midsize hydro-electric power plants in inaccessible areas/ landscapes, such as the southern
AmericanAndes, are the specialty of Tushino power machine tools. The implementation of customized hydro-
electric power plants for midsize towns yields a +20% improvement in efficiency when compared to competitive off
the shelf products.
Each turbine with its blades is individually adapted to the water pressure, drop height and flow rate of the
individual power plant project. At tushino, a team of highly educated mathematicians takes each of these key values
and all environmental conditions into consideration to calculate the most efficient turbine design for each specific
project.
With the help of their ipro™ 9000 SLA® center and Accura™ 60 material, tushino power machine tools is then
able to turn the design into a master pattern for casting. The Francis-style turbine in the images has 14 turbine
blades, a diameter of 150 cm (39.4 inches) and a capacity of 12 megawatts. The quick cast™ stereo lithography
master pattern, produced with accura™ 60 sla® material is a pattern that weighs just 70 kg (154.3 lb), while the final
cast model weighs 1990 kg (4387.2 lbs).
With traditional milling or CNC high-speed machining, the production time for turbines is extensive and costly, as
every single blade would have to be milled separately and mounted to the body. With the quick cast™ build style, a
casting pattern is automatically produced unattended on 3d systems’ SLA® production center creating a hollow,
honeycomb structure inside. This structure minimizes the mass to burnout during the casting process resulting in a
custom turbine in a fraction of the time

1.6.2 Discrete particle systems:

Discrete particles systems are also known as powders based systems. Here powders are graded into a uniform
particle size and shape and narrow size distribution. Finer particles are better and gives good result, if too small
powders are used then controlling the distribution and dispersion in particles will be difficult.
In 1D approach using a laser, we produce thermal energy in a controlled manner so the temperature increases to melt
the powder. The polymer powders used should exhibit thermos elastic behavior so that they can be melted and re-
melted to permit bonding of one layer to another.
The two polymer-based approaches commercially available are the SLS technology marketed by 3d systems and the
EOS Int processes developed by the German company EOS.
Let us understand the SLS process in detail,
Selective laser sintering (SLS) process
This process was first developed by CarlDeckard, (university of Austin, Texas) for DTMCorporation (3d
systems) in 1986. Selective laser sintering involves fabrication of a physical model by the selective melting of
powdered material layer by layer. This process uses a fine powder which is heated with co2 laser so that the surface
tension of the particles is overcome and they fuse together. Before the powder is sintered, the entire bed is heated to
just below the melting point of the material in order to reduce the thermal distortion and facilitate fusion to the
previous layer.
The geometry of the object is created as cad data and cad files are transferred into an STL file system. The STL file
is then sliced and drawn as one cross-section at a time. The laser selectively fuses powdered material by scanning
cross-sections of the object on the surface of a powder bed. After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is
lowered by one layer thickness, a new layer of material is applied on top and the process is repeated until the part is
completed. Compared to other processes a relatively wide range of powder materials can be used in this process.
Polymer powders like nylon, glass- filled nylon and polystyrene and metal powders like steel, titanium, alloy
mixtures, and composites can be processed.

Advantages:
• A wide range of materials can be used
• Post curing is not necessary
• Unfused powder acts as the support
• The support material can be easily removed

Applications:
• Fit and functional prototypes for mechanical and thermal tests
• Small plastic parts can be used for rapid tooling applications like injection molding
• can be used for soft tooling and short run production

Case study - 3d printing spurs a manufacturing revolution

3d printing spurs a manufacturing revolution, San Francisco - businesses in the south park district of SanFrancisco
generally sell either web technology or sandwiches and burritos. Bespoke innovations plans to sell designer body
parts. The company is using advances in a technology known as 3d printing to create prosthetic limb casings
wrapped in embroidered leather, shimmering metal or whatever else someone might want.

Fig. 3d printed prosthetic limb

Scott summit, a co-founder of bespoke, and his partner, an orthopedic surgeon, are set to open a studio where they
will sell the limb coverings and experiment with printing entire customized limbs that could cost a tenth of
comparable artificial limbs made using traditional methods. And they will be dishwasher-safe.
“I wanted to create a leg that had a level of humanity,” Mr. Summit said. “It’s unfortunate that people have had a
product that’s such a major part of their lives that was so under designed.” The technology has been radically
transformed from its origins as a tool used by manufacturers and designers to build prototypes. And 3d systems has
remained a leader and shaper of this market, providing the broadest line of 3d printing, rapid prototyping and
manufacturing systems and parts solutions available.
The custom prosthesis shown was printed using 3d systems selective laser sintering, SLS technology. These days the
availability of 3d printing is giving rise to a string of never-before-possible businesses that are selling iPhone cases,
lamps, doorknobs, jewelry, handbags, perfume bottles, clothing, and architectural models. And while some wonder
how successfully the technology will make the transition from manufacturing applications to producing consumer
goods, its use is exploding. It is manufacturing with a mouse click instead of hammers, nails and, well, workers.
Advocates of the technology say that by doing away with manual labor, 3d printing could revamp the economics of
manufacturing and revive American industry as creativity and ingenuity replace labor costs as the main concern
around a variety of goods. “There is nothing to be gained by going overseas except for higher shipping charges,” Mr.
Summit said.
Depending on the type of job at hand, a typical 3d printer can cost from $10,000 to more than $100,000. 3d systems
offers the broadest portfolio of 3d printers and production systems extending into six figures when requirements
include the rapid manufacturing of end-use parts, rapid tooling, direct metal or the level of accuracy and durability
only possible with SLA and SLS technologies. Today anyone may also source a single part or a complex assembly
with complete design to manufacturing services through 3dproparts™, a global network of parts solutions. Bespoke
innovations uses this service regularly.
Moving the technology beyond manufacturing does pose challenges. Customized products, for example, may be
more expensive than mass-produced ones, and take longer to make. And the concept may seem out of place. In a
world trained to appreciate the merits of mass consumption.
At bespoke, Mr. Summit has built a scanning contraption to examine limbs using a camera. After the scan, a detailed
image is transmitted to a computer, and Mr. Summit can begin sculpting his limb art. He uses a 3d printer to create
plastic shells that fit around the prosthetic limbs and then wraps the shells in any flexible material the customer
desires, be it an old bomber jacket or a trusty boot. “We can do a midcentury modern or a Harley aesthetic if that’s
what someone wants,” Mr. Summit said.
Mr. Summit and his partner, Kenneth b. Trauner, the orthopedic surgeon, have built some test models of full legs
that have sophisticated features like body symmetry, locking knees and flexing ankles. One artistic design is metal-
plated in some areas and leather-wrapped in others.
“It costs $5,000 to $6,000 to print one of these legs, and it has features that aren’t even found in legs that cost
$60,000 today,” Mr. Summit said. “We want the people to have input and pick out their options,” he added. “It’s
about going from the model t to something like a mini that has 10 million permutations.”
3d systems is pleased to have bespoke as a customer for 3dproparts™ and an extremely knowledgeable user of its
technologies and services. It is exciting to work with Scott and his team and we are looking forward to their
continued success in this critical and underserved market.

1.6.3 Molten material systems:

Molten material systems also called solidly based systems are characterized by a pre-heating chamber that raises the
material temperature to melting point so that it can flow through a delivery system. The most well-known method
for doing this is the fused deposition modeling (FDM) material extrusion technology developed by the US Company
Stratasys.

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) process

In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x-y plane. FDM builds
plastic models by extruding a semi-molten filament through a heated nozzle in a prescribed pattern onto a platform.
The nozzle is moved over the platform in the required geometry of the part which is driven by the cad data. The
platform is maintained at a lower temperature so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After the platform is
lowered, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first layer. The process is repeated until the required
object is built. The supports are built along the way which is fastened to the part with weaker material. Support
structures are fabricated for overhanging geometries and are later removed by breaking them away from the object.
A water-soluble support material which can simply be washed away is also available.
Stratasys Inc. Makes a variety of FDM machines which are ranging from fast concept modelers to slower, high
precision machines. The most commonly used materials in this process are abs which offers good strength,
elastomer (96 durometer), polycarbonate, polyenolsulfone and investment casting wax which extends the
capabilities of the method further in terms of strength and temperature range.

Advantages
• High strength and cost-effective process
• the process offers multiple materials with colors and greater strength
• Post curing is not required
• fast process with quick changing of material

Applications
• Fit, form and functional prototypes for testing
• Rapidtooling’s like investment casting and injection molding
• Prototypes constructed for production materials
• Quality parts with high stability and durable parts

Case study – automotive applications of am for jigs and fixtures

Rapid prototyping has become a standard practice in product development. At the BMWAg plant in Regensburg,
Germany, FDM (fused deposition modeling) continues to be an important component in vehicle design prototyping.
But moving beyond prototyping, BMW is extending the application of FDM to other areas and functions, including
direct digital manufacturing. The plant’s department of jigs and fixtures uses a stratasys 3d production system to
build hand-tools for automobile assembly and testing. According to engineer GünterSchmidt, "BMW has determined
that the FDM process can be an alternative to the conventional metal cutting manufacturing methods like milling,
turning, and boring." Schmidt and fellow engineer, UlrichEidenschink, have shown that financial advantages include
cost reductions in engineering documentation, warehousing, and manufacturing. For hand-held devices used on the
assembly line, engineers have discovered that there are even greater advantages that arise from the design freedom
that FDM offers. Capitalizing on the elimination of constraints, Schmid and Eidenschink employ FDM to make
ergonomically designed assembly aids that perform better than conventionally made tools.

Fused deposition modeling jigs and fixtures

To improve productivity, worker comfort, ease-of-use, and process repeatability, the plant uses FDM to enhance the
ergonomics of its hand-held assembly devices. The freedom of design allows engineers to create configurations that
improve handling, reduce weight, and improve balance. According to Schmid, "the tool designs we create often
cannot be matched by machined or molded parts." in one example, BMW reduced the weight of a device by 72
percent with a sparse-fill build technique. Replacing the solid core with internal ribs cut 1.3 kg (2.9 lbs.) from the
device. "This may not seem like much, but when a worker uses the tool hundreds of times in a shift, it makes a big
difference," says Schmid.

1.6.4 Solid sheet systems:

This is an obsolete technology which is not seen widely used nowadays. Example of earliest solid sheet system is the
laminated object manufacturing (LOM) system from Helisys, USA. Here we use a laser to cut profiles from sheet
paper supplied from a continuous roll which forms layers of the final part.

Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) process:

This process is developed by Helisys of Torrance, California USA, in 1998 which is a layer additive process. In this
process, the material consists of paper laminated which is coated with thermoplastic adhesive and rolled up on
spools. As shown in the fig. Below, a feeder mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a base is
made up from paper and double-sided foam tape. A heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base. Co2
laser traces the outline of the cad data fed in the computer. After the laser cutting is completed the platform moves
down and a fresh sheet of laminated paper is rolled on. The process is repeated as needed to build the part. Lom
process is used in pattern making and toy designing as this process is cheaper and high volume production can be
achieved. As of 2001, Helisys is no longer in business.

Advantages:
• The support structure is not required
• It is a fast, cheap and scalable process when compared to SLA and SLS process
• Material cost is low and various materials like paper, plastics and ceramics can be used
• Multiple parts in large volume can be built
• The building can be paused at any point in time

Applications:
• can be used as precise patterns for secondary tooling processes such as sand casting and vacuum
• casting
• Parts are used where high tolerances are not critical
• Parts can be used in the conceptual design area
• used as a visual model

1.7 Post-processing of AM parts:

Most Additive Manufacturing processes require post-processing after building part for its intended function.
Depending upon the additive manufacturing technique, the process for post-processing varies. The various post-
processing techniques used are:
1. Support material removal
2. Surface texture improvements
3. Accuracy improvements
4. Aesthetic improvements
5. Preparation for use as a pattern
6. Property enhancements using non-thermal techniques
7. Property enhancements using thermal techniques

1.7.1 Support material removal:

The most common type of post-processing in additive manufacturing is support removal. The support material can
be broadly classified into two categories:
(a) Natural supports
(b) Synthetic supports

A) Natural support post-processing:

In processes where the part being built is fully encapsulated in the build material, the part must be removed from the
surrounding material prior to its use. Processes which provide natural supports are primarily powder-based and
sheet-based processes.
The process of removal of support materials as follows
• In polymer powder bed fusion processes, after the part is built it is necessary to allow the part to go through a
cool-down stage.
• The part remains embedded inside the powder to minimize part distortion due to non-uniform cooling.
• The cool-down time is dependent on the build material and the size of the part(s).
• Once cool-down is complete, there are several methods used to remove the part(s) from the surrounding loose
powder.
• Typically, the entire build (made up of loose powder and fused parts) is removed from the machine as a block
and transported to a “breakout” station where the parts are removed manually from the surrounding powdered
material.
• Brushes, compressed air, and light bead blasting are commonly used to remove loosely adhered powder;
whereas, wood-working tools and dental cleaning tools are commonly used to remove powders which have sintered
to the surface or powder entrapped in small channels or features.
 Internal cavities and hollow spaces can be difficult to clean and may require significant post processing time.
Automated powder removal using vibratory and vacuum assist in a zcorp 450 machine

B) Synthetic support removal:

Some Processes require synthetic supports for overhanging features and these synthetic supports can be made
from the build material or from secondary material and the following describes the method to remove synthetic
material from the model.
• Supports made from the build material
All material extrusion, material jetting, and photo polymerization processes require supports for overhanging
structures and to connect the part to the build platform.
These processes use primarily for polymer parts which have low strength of the supports allows them to be
removed manually.
These types of supports are also commonly referred to as breakaway supports.
The removal of supports from downward-facing features leaves witness marks where the supports were
attached. As a result, these surfaces may require subsequent sanding and polishing.

• Supports made from secondary materials

Secondary materials like Polymer based melts and dissolves in a water-based solvent. The water can be jetted
or ultrasonically vibrated to accelerate the support removal process.

1.7.2 Surface texture improvements

In complex structure, surface texture improvements very much needed for good aesthetics improvements, which can
be done by improving effects such as stair-steps, powder adhesion, type of post processing, witness marks from
support material removal.
  Stair-stepping issue in layered manufacturing can be addressed by choosing a thin layer thickness to
minimize error at the expense of build time.
 Powder adhesion occurs in powder-based processes, the amount of powder adhesion can be controlled, to
some degree, by changing part orientation, powder morphology, and thermal control technique.
 The type of post-processing utilized for surface texture improvements depends upon the desired surface
finish outcome. If a matte surface finish is required a simple bead blasting of the surface can help even the
surface texture, remove sharp corners from stair-stepping, and give an overall matte appearance.
 If a smooth or polished finish is desired, then wet or dry sanding and hand-polishing are performed.
In many cases, it is desirable to paint the surface prior to sanding or polishing. Painting the surface has the dual
benefit of sealing porosity and, by viscous forces, smoothing the stair-step effect, thus making sanding and polishing
easier and more effective.

1.7.3 Accuracy improvements

There is a wide range of accuracy capabilities between additive manufacturing processes. Some processes are
capable of submicron tolerances, whereas others have accuracies around 1 mm. typically, the larger the build volume
and the faster the build speed the worse the accuracy.

Sources of inaccuracy
 Process-Dependent: Process dependent inaccuracy can be improved by good operator skill. If we use
automatic real-time control strategies to monitor and control the process then also the accuracy will be
increased.
 Material-dependent - Material-dependent inaccuracy includes shrinkage effects which can be compensated
by scaling the cad model, quantitative understanding of the effects of process parameters, build style, part
orientation, support structures, and other factors on the magnitude of shrinkage, residual stress, and distortion
is necessary to enhance predictive capabilities.
To improve those inaccuracy following things to be considered
 In additive manufacturing processes, the position of the part within the build chamber and the orientation will
influence part accuracy, surface finish, and build time. Thus, translation and rotation operations are applied
to the original model to optimize the part position and orientation.
 To compensate for shrinkage variation, the highest shrinkage value is used then ribs and similar features will
always be at least as big as the desired geometry. However, channels and holes will be too large. Thus,
simply using the largest shrinkage value is not an acceptable solution. In order to make sure that there is
enough material left on the surface to be machined, adding “skin” to the original model is necessary. This
 skin addition, such that there is material left to machine everywhere, can be referred to as making the part
“steel-safe.” .
 Machining strategy is very important for finishing additive manufacturing parts and tools, considering both
accuracy and machine efficiency, adaptive raster milling of the surface, plus hole drilling and sharp edge
contour machining will meet needs of most parts.

1.7.4 Aesthetic improvements

In additive manufacturing parts which will be displayed for aesthetic or artistic reasons are usually a
marketing tool. Here aesthetics of the part is of critical importance for its end application. Aesthetic improvement is
related to surface finish, in some cases, a difference in surface texture between one region and another may be
desired. In this case, the finishing of selected surfaces only is required.
In cases where the color of the additive manufacturing part is not of sufficient quality, several methods can
be used to improve the part aesthetics.
Some types of additive manufacturing parts can be effectively colored by simply dipping the part into a dye
of the appropriate color.
This method is particularly effective for parts created from powder beds, as the inherent porosity in these
parts leads to effective absorption.
If painting is required, the part may need to be sealed prior to painting. Common automotive paints are quite
effective in these instances.
Another aesthetic enhancement is chrome plating. Several materials have been electroless coated to additive
manufacturing parts, including Ni, Cu and other coatings. In some cases, these coatings are thick enough that, in
addition to aesthetic improvements, the parts are robust enough to use as tools for injection molding.

1.7.5 Preparation for use as a pattern

Often parts made using additive manufacturing have intended as patterns for investment casting, sand
casting, room temperature vulcanization molding, spray metal deposition, or other pattern replication processes.
In many cases, the use of an additive manufacturing pattern in a casting process is the least expensive way to
use additive manufacturing to produce a metal part, as many of the metal-based additive manufacturing processes
are still expensive to own and operate.
The accuracy and surface finish of an additive manufacturing pattern will directly influence the final part
accuracy and surface finish. As a result, special care must be taken to ensure the
Pattern has the accuracy and surface finish desired in the final part. In addition, the pattern must be scaled to
compensate for any shrinkage that takes place in the pattern replication steps.

Investment casting patterns

In the case of investment casting, the additive manufacturing pattern will be consumed during processing. In this
instance, the residue left in the mold as the pattern is melted or burned out is undesirable. Any sealants used to
smooth the surface during pattern
Preparation should be carefully chosen so as not to inadvertently create unwanted residue.
Additive manufacturing parts can be printed on a casting tree or manually added to a casting tree after additive
manufacturing. The figure shows rings made using a material jetting system.
Rings for investment casting
In the first figure, a collection of rings is shown on the build platform; each ring is supported by a secondary support
material in white. In the second picture, a close-up of the ring pattern is shown. The third picture shows metal rings
still attached to a casting tree.
In this instance, the rings were added to the tree after additive manufacturing, but before casting. When using the
stereo lithography quick cast build style, the hollow, truss-filled shell patterns must be drained of liquid prior to
investment. The hole(s) used for draining must be covered to avoid investment entering the interior of the pattern.
Since photopolymer materials are thermosets, they must be burned out of the investment rather than melted.
When powdered materials are used as investment casting patterns, such as polystyrene from a polymer laser
sintering process or starch from a binder jetting process, the resulting part is porous and brittle. In order to seal the
part and
Strengthen it for the investment process, the part is infiltrated with an investment casting wax prior to investment.

Rings for investment casting

1.7.6 Property enhancements using non-thermal techniques
Powder-based and extrusion-based processes often create porous structures. In many cases, that porosity can
be infiltrated by a higher-strength material, such as cyanoacrylate (super glue). Proprietary methods and materials
have also been developed to increase the strength, ductility, heat deflection, flammability resistance, emit shielding,
or other properties of additive manufacturing parts using infiltrates and various types of Nano-composite
reinforcements.
A common post-processing operation for photopolymer materials is curing. During processing, many photopolymers
do not achieve complete polymerization. As a result, these parts are put into a post-cure apparatus, a device that
floods the part with UV and visible radiation in order to completely cure the surface and subsurface regions of the
part. Additionally, the part can undergo a thermal cure in a low-temperature oven, which can help completely cure
the photopolymer and in some cases greatly enhance the part’s mechanical properties.

1.7.7 Property enhancements using thermal techniques

After additive manufacturing processing, many parts are thermally processed to enhance their properties. In
the case of powder-based fusion techniques for metals, this thermal processing is primarily heat treatment to form
the desired microstructures and to relieve residual stresses. In these instances, traditional recipes for heat treatment
developed for the specific metal alloy being employed are often used. In some cases, however, special heat treatment
methods have been developed to retain the fine-grained microstructure within the additive manufacturing part while
still providing stress relief and ductility enhancement.
In order to prepare a green part for furnace processing, several preparatory steps are typically done. The figure
shows the steps for preparing a metal green part made from laser form ST-100 for furnace infiltration.

Fig. Laser form st-100 green parts. (a) Parts are placed next to “boats” on which the bronze infiltrate is placed. The
bronze infiltrates through the boat into the part. (b) The parts are often covered in aluminum oxide powder before
placing them in a furnace to help support fragile features during debinding, sintering, and infiltration, and to help
minimize thermal gradients

The use of cooling channels which follow the contours of the surface (conformal cooling channels) in an injection
mold has been shown to significantly increase the productivity of injection mold tooling by decreasing the cooling
time and part distortion, the appropriate use of conformal cooling channels enables many companies to utilize
additive manufacturing-produced tools to increase their productivity.

In addition to the thermal processes discussed earlier, a number of other procedures have been developed over the
years to combine additive manufacturing with furnace processing to produce metal or ceramic parts.
One example approach utilized laser sintering to produce porous parts with gas impermeable skins. By scanning
only the outside contours of a part during fabrication by SLS, a metal “can” filled with loose powder is made. These
parts are then post-processed to full density using hot iso static pressing. This in situ encapsulation results in no
adverse container–powder interactions (as they are made from the same bed of powder), reduced pre-processing
time, and fewer post-processing steps compared to conventional.

1.8 SELECTION METHODS FOR A PART:

The selection methods followed for additive manufacturing parts are:
• Decision theory
• Approaches to determining feasibility
• Approaches to selection
1) Decision theory
There are three elements for any decision, they are.
• options—the items from which the decision maker is selecting
• Expectations—of possible outcomes for each option
• Preferences—how the decision maker values each outcome
-In an additive manufacturing selection, an outcome might consist of the time, cost, and surface finish of a part built
using a certain additive manufacturing process, while the process itself is the option.
-Expectations of outcomes are modeled as functions of the options, x=g (a), and may be modeled with associated
uncertainties. (a- set of decision options, x- expectations)
-Preferences model the importance assigned to outcomes by the decision maker.
For example, a designer may prefer low cost and short turn-around times for a concept model, while being
willing to accept a poor surface finish. In many ad hoc decision support methods, preferences are modeled as
weights or importance. For simple problems, the decision maker may just choose weights, while for more complex
decisions, more sophisticated methods are used, such as pair-wise comparison.
In utility theory, preferences are modeled as utility functions on the expectations. Expectations are then
modeled as expected utility. The best alternative is the one with the greatest expected utility.
The advantages of decision support problem, compared with other decision formulations, are that they provide a
means for mathematically modeling design decisions involving multiple objectives and supporting a human
judgment in designing systems. The formulation and solution of decision support problem facilitate several types of
decisions, including:
Selection—the indication of preference, based on multiple attributes, for one among several alternatives, Compromise
—the improvement of an alternative through modification
Coupled and hierarchical—decisions that are linked together, such as selection–selection, compromise–compromise,
or selection–compromise.

The selection problems being addressed is divided into two.

First, it is necessary to generate feasible alternatives, which, in this case, include materials and processes.
Second, given those feasible alternatives, a quantification process is applied that results in a rank-ordered list of
alternatives.
The first sub problem is referred to as “determining feasibility,” while the second is simply called “selection.”

2. Approaches to determining feasibility:

Most approaches to determine feasibility are a knowledge-based approach to deal with the qualitative information
related to AM process capability.
The problem is defined here as “To propose, from a detailed functional specification, different alternatives of rapid
manufacturing processes, which can be ordered and optimized when considering a combination of different
specification criteria (cost, quality, delay, aspect, material, etc.).” Their approach utilized two reasoning methods,
case-based and the bottom-up generation of processes; the strengths of each compensated for the other’s
weaknesses. Their system was developed on the KADVISER platform and utilized a relational database system with
extensive material, machine, and application information. The problem of determining the process and material
feasibility can be represented by the preliminary selection decision support problem.
The decision support problem is a structured decision formulation and corresponds to a formal decision
method based on decision theory. Qualitative comparisons among processes and materials, with respect to decision
criteria, to identify feasible alternatives and eliminate infeasible ones. The key step here is how to capture and apply
experience-based knowledge. One chooses a datum concept against which all other concepts are compared.
Qualitative comparisons are performed, where a concept is judged as better, worse, or about the same (+1, -1,
0, respectively) as the datum with respect to the principal criteria for the selection problem. Then, a weighted sum of
comparisons with the datum is computed. Typically, this procedure is repeated for several additional choices of
datum’s. In this manner, one gets a good understanding of the relative merits and deficiencies of each concept.

3. Approaches to selection
The basic advantages of using decision support problem of any type lies in providing context and structure
for engineering problems, regardless of complexity, they facilitate the recording of viewpoints associated with these
decisions and evaluation of results through post solution sensitivity analysis.
The standard selection decision support problem has been applied to many engineering problems and has
recently been applied to AM selection.
The word formulation of the standard selection decision support problem is given in a table, the decision
options for additive manufacturing selection are feasible material-process combinations.
Expectations are determined by rating the options against the attributes. Preferences are modeled using
simple importance values.
Rank ordering of options is determined using a weighted-sum expression of importance and attribute ratings.
An extension to include utility theory has recently been accomplished.
For the identify step, evaluation attributes are to be specified. For example, accuracy, cost, build time, tensile
strength, and feature detail (how small of a feature can be created) are typical attributes. Scales denote how the
attribute is to be measured.
Given set of additive manufacturing processes/machines and materials (alternatives)
Identify set of evaluation attributes. Create scales and determine importance.
Capture each alternative relative to each attribute.
Rank additive manufacturing methods from most to least promising

1.8 Challenges of selection

The complex relationships among attributes, and the variations that can arise when building a wide range of parts,
make difficult to decouple decision attributes and develop structured decision problems. Nonetheless, with a proper
understanding of technologies and attributes, and how to relate them together, meaningful information can be
gained.
For example, there are large, expensive machines that can fabricate parts using a variety of materials with relatively
good accuracy and material properties and with the ability to fine-tune the systems to meet specific needs. In
contrast, there are cheaper systems, which are designed to have minimal setup and to produce parts of acceptable
quality in a predictable and reliable manner. In this latter case, parts may not have high accuracy, material strength,
or flexibility of use.
Machines vary in terms of cost, size, a range of materials, an accuracy of a part, time of build, etc. It is not
surprising to know that the more expensive machines provide the wider range of options and, therefore, it is
important for one looking to buy a new machine to be able to understand the costs vs. the benefits so that it is
possible to choose the best machine to suit their needs.
Approaching a manufacturer or distributor of additive manufacturing equipment is one way to get
information concerning the specification of their machine.
Conventions and exhibitions are a good way to make comparisons, but it is not necessarily easy to identify
the usability of machines.
Contacting existing users is sometimes difficult and time-consuming, but they can give very honest opinions.
When looking for advice about suitable selection methods or systems, it is useful to consider the following points.
• The information in the system should be unbiased wherever possible.
• The system should provide support and advice rather than just a quantified result.
• The system should provide an introduction to additive manufacturing to equip the user with background knowledge
as well as advice on different additive manufacturing technologies.
• A range of options should be given to the user in order to adjust requirements and show how changes in
requirements may affect the decision.
• The system should be linked to a comprehensive and up-to-date database of additive manufacturing machines.
• After the search process has completed, the system should give guidance on where to look next for additional
information.

Applications of additive manufacturing

1.9.1 Functional models,
There are a number of RP technologies that meet the need for building functional prototypes with material properties
close to those of production parts. One of the RP processes that are widely used for producing models for functional
tests is SLS. Initially, four nylon-based materials (standard nylon, fine nylon, fine nylon medical grade, nylon
composite) were available commercially for this process. Later Duraform PA and glass reinforced Duraform GF
were added to this. Duraform prototypes can be relatively easily finished to a smooth appearance. The production of
nylon parts is generally cost-effective when a small number (1-5) of parts is required. Before the introduction of
Duraform PA, a nylon composite known as the proto-form composite was used widely for producing functional
parts.
A case study of protoform - building a functional model
Proto form is a blend of 50% by weight nylon powder and 50% by weight spherical glass beads. This SLS glass-
filled nylon processed to near full density which has a high modulus and good heat and chemical resistance. The
housing in figure is a test part and is built in proto form composite because it is required to withstand harsh testing
conditions including temperatures of about 100°c. As a base part for mounting precision components, it has to keep
its dimensions within close limits. The geometry of the housing prevented the downdraft, leaving a hot area inside
the part and causing post-build warping of the walls.

Fig: composite nylon housing: without ribs (left) - with ribs (right)
The first part manufactured suffered from much distortion: there was vertical growth and "wash out" (loss of
definition and rounding of edges) on the downward facing surfaces and the external dimensions of the sidewalls
varied. This problem was solved by making the wall thickness uniform and reducing its dimension. The non-
functional ribs were added across the housing to stiffen it. Two ribs were positioned vertically and two others
horizontally as shown in figure the number and size of the ribs were determined from experience to constrain post
process distortion in the x and y directions without adding too much build time. The ribs were also located so that
they could easily be removed by machining after completing the build. Subsequently manufactured parts had much
better dimensional accuracy. The main functional dimensions were measured but no
Form or geometrical accuracy measurements were taken. To evaluate the influence of the ribs, the accuracy in the
build direction (z direction) and the x-y plane was studied. The results showed that the ribs improved the accuracy
consistently but had different effects in each direction. Also, there was reduced post-process distortion due to the
added ribs. Another indicator of the quality of a part produced by RP is the international tolerance grade established
by the ISO-ANSI standards which showed good results in nylon.

1.9.2 Patterns for investment and vacuum casting

RP technologies are widely used for building patterns for investment and vacuum casting. For example, models built
employing SLA, SLS, and FDM can be used as patterns for both casting processes. A case study is presented below
that discusses some accuracy aspects of producing SLS patterns and also addresses general issues regarding the
technological capabilities of the process.
Two SLS materials are currently available for producing casting patterns, cast form
And true form. In this case study, true form, which is an acrylic-based powder, is used to build casting patterns. It is
processed at relatively low temperatures, good accuracy but moderate strength. The density of true form parts can
vary from 70 to 90% depending on build parameters and they can be polished to a mirror-like finish. Dense parts are
used as patterns for vacuum casting while rather porous parts are better suited for investment casting; unlike dense
models, they do not expand to cause shell cracking during the burning out of the patterns.
The figure shows a to BS l99 aluminum housing (195x145x250mm) made by investment casting from a true form
pattern.

Trueform housing pattern (right) and aluminum investment casting (left)

True form behaves like an injection molded plastic and thick sections may be subjected to sinking or
sagging. Part orientation must, where possible, be selected to prevent sagging. This may not always be practicable
and in such cases shelling of the model (i.e. Converting a solid model into a hollow part) can significantly reduce
part distortion. Trueform normally gives good accuracy.
If a larger SLS machine such as the Sinterstation 200 had been used this would have allowed the part to be oriented
horizontally in the build area. In this way, the accuracy would certainly have been much closer to ±0.12smm which
is the accuracy quoted for the trueform material by the machine manufacturer.
However, even if some dimensions were out of the required general tolerance (±0.12smm) the aluminum castings
were fully satisfactory as any deviations were able to be corrected when some of the features were machine-finished
afterward. Trueform patterns become cost-effective when a small number of parts, say up to 50, of complex design
are required and the cost of a mold for wax patterns is prohibitive.

1.9.3 Engineering analysis models

Computer aided engineering (CAE) analysis is an integral part of time compression technologies. Various software
tools exist, mainly based on finite element analysis (FEA), to speed up the development of new products by
initiating design optimization before physical prototypes are available. However, the creation
Of accurate FEA models for complex engineering objects sometimes requires significant amounts of time and effort.
By employing RP techniques it is possible to begin test programmes on physical models much earlier and
complement the CAE data. Two applications of RP models for engineering analysis are described below.
1. Visualization of flow patterns. For example, SLA models were used to optimize the cross-flow jacket of a v6
high-performance racing engine (figure). 60 sensors were installed in the model to monitor local flow temperature
and pressure conditions. The coolant flow patterns were visualized by accurately injecting very small air bubbles.
The flow patterns were recorded by high-speed video. The analysis conducted provided valuable data about
stagnation zones and insufficiently cooled sections. This data allowed the critical sections to be redesigned and SLA
models of the modified components were produced. Each design iteration took one week. This enabled the testing of
flow channel variations in a very short time. The accuracy and surface quality of the SLA models are more than
adequate to reproduce complex flow behaviors.

Figure assembly of the cross-flow water jacket of a v6 high-performance

2. Photo elastic stress analysis. Photo elastic testing can be used to determine the stresses and strains within physical
parts under specific conditions. This analysis is based on the temporary birefringence of a transparent material
subjected to a specific load. Sla models fabricated using the aces build style exhibit the required birefringence that
can be illustrated by irradiating the test samples with polarized white and monochromatic light. Results from photo
elastic analysis of SLA models can be transferred to functional metal parts by employing fundamental similarity
laws. This allows predictions to be made rapidly at a low cost regarding the actual stress distributions anticipated in
functional parts. By using SLA models for photo elastic stress analysis, it is also possible to "freeze" the stresses and
strains by warming the loaded model to a level above the resin glass transition temperature and then gradually
cooling the model back to room temperature.
Fig: the frozen stress distribution for a model of an aero engine turbine rotor

1.9.5 Artistic industry

The use of additive manufacturing technology in jewelry and arts offers new possibilities to design most complex
designs or shapes as shown in figure SLA (from 3d systems) has been used successfully to develop fine jewelry
models because of the high printing resolution. Models fabricated by SLA were used as master patterns to create the
rubber molds for manufacturing wax patterns. These were later used in the investment casting process to fabricate
the functional end-user product.

An investment cast silver alloy prototype of a broach (right), a wax pattern created from the
Silicon rubber molding (center), and the two-time scaled SL built model (left)

Additive manufacturing technologies can provide a powerful tool to the jewelers and artists for their work, which
will allow them to fabricate unique shaped parts in just a few hours rather than days or weeks. Systems manufacturer
Solidscape division of Stratasys in the united states, have shown much interest in this particular area and have
reported the most work in this area
The other example of a work of art produced employing RP techniques is a bracelet designed by m. Woolner and t.
Cook. The bracelet is designed in such a way that it can be produced only by using RP technologies. The artifact is a
complex trajectory extrusion starting at one end as an ellipse with a star-shaped internal form and finishing at the
other end with a star-shaped section having an ellipse as an internal form. The RP model was built using an SLA
system. Both models are shown in figure, the intention was to cast the bracelet in silver after making minor
modifications to the design.

3d cad model and the SLA art prototype

1.9.6 Medical industry

RP technologies are applied in the medical domain for building models that provide visual and tactile information.
In particular, RP models can be employed in the following medical applications
• Operation planning. Using real size RP models of patients' pathologic regions, surgeons can much more easily
understand physical problems and gain a better insight into the operations to be performed. RP models can also
assist surgeons in communicating the proposed surgical procedures to the patients.
• Surgery rehearsal. RP models offer unique opportunities for surgeons and surgical teams to rehearse complex
operations using the same techniques and tools as during actual surgery. Potentially, such rehearsals can lead to
changes in surgical procedures and significantly reduce risk.
• Training. RP models of specimens of unusual medical deformities can be built to facilitate the training of student
surgeons and radiologists. Such models can also be employed for student examinations.
• Prosthesis design. RP models can be used to fabricate master patterns which are then replicated using a bio-
compatible plastic material. Implants produced in this way are much more accurate and cost-effective than those
produced employing conventional techniques.

A study considered 47 mandibular reconstruction cases (between 2003 and 2009) to evaluate the feasibility of
applying am built 3d models in the medical field, concluded that 95.7% of the patients were found to have at least a
satisfactory result and the majority (38 out of 47) of patients were in a good and the very good end result categories.
Recently this technology was used for the separation of Siamese twins by performing precise pre-surgical planning
on additive manufacturing built models as shown in figure. It is a very significant discovery in the medical sector,
which opened the way for creating other complex human organs or tissues with the help of additive manufacturing
technology.
But still, this technology cannot be used in daily practices due to the presence of current issues like cost, time,
suitable material etc. For biomedical applications, further research is required to reduce the overall cost (virtual
planning and fabrication cost), development of suitable biomaterials.

(a) Additive manufacturing model of congenital scoliosis, (b) pre-surgical planning on the additive manufacturing
model before total hip replacement, (c) pre-surgical planning on additive manufacturing built models to separate
Siamese twins.

1.9.7 Architectural industry

Another interesting field whereof this emerging technology has been used is an architectural industry. As we know
architects usually make their models by performing manual tasks (hand techniques). It consumes a lot of time and
sometimes it’s a hard task to create a complex shape model or to present their ideas in physical shape. Similar to the
jewelry industry, additive manufacturing technology is capable to create complex shapes quickly and accurately,
also it saves time in designing and developing complex shaped architectural models. Exceptional shapes become a
reality with the use of additive manufacturing processes.
Stereolithography process is very suitable for architectural modeling because of its printing resolution and materials
availability. Furthermore, designs can be improved easily by simply additive manufacturing ending the cad model.
Additive manufacturing technology provides a better resolution than other processes used in architecture. Models
such as presented in figure can only be fabricated by additive manufacturing processes.

Artistic models fabricated by additive manufacturing technology

Rapid tooling
Prior to 1992, Chrysler experimented with a variety of rapid tooling processes with stereolithography master
patterns. This included vacuum forming, resin transfer molding, sand casting, squeeze molding, and silicone
molding. Here we realize how early in the additive manufacturing field’s development these applications were
investigated.
An area of significant effort in both the aerospace and automotive industries was the use of SL parts as
investment casting patterns. Early experiments used thinly walled SL patterns or hollow parts. Because SL resins
expand more than investment casting wax, when used as patterns, the SL part tended to expand and crack the
ceramic shell. This led to the development of the quickcast™pattern style in 1992, which is a type of lattice structure
that was added automatically to hollow part STL
Files by SL machine pre-processing software.
The quick cast style was designed to support thin walls but not to be too strong. Upon heating and thermal
expansion, the quickcast lattice struts were designed to flex, collapse inward, break, but not transfer high loads to the
part skins which could crack the shell which, revolutionized the investment casting industry.
Another interesting development in the early 2000s was the large-frame binder jetting technology by Exone, where a
sand material was developed that was suitable for use as sand casting dies. Exone marketed the s15 binder jetting
machine for several years (the technology was purchased from a German company generis GMBH in 2003).
As one example, two of these sand machines were operating at the ford Dunton technical center in England in the
mid-2000s (they may still be operational) to support their design and development activities. Much of the ford of
Europe operations are housed here, including small car design, powertrain design and development, and some
commercial vehicles.
As of the end of 2005, Exone had reportedly sold 19 s15 machines, each of which cost over $1m. More recently,
Boeing, Northrop-Grumman and other aerospace companies have used material extrusion technology to fabricate
tooling. They developed tooling designs for composite part lay-up that was suitable for me fabrication. Other
reported tooling applications included drill guides and various assembly tools.

Aerospace Application:
The primary advantage for production applications in aerospace is the ability to generate complex engineered
geometries with a limited number of processing steps. Aerospace companies have access to budgets significantly
larger than most industries. The Production application of Aerospace industry is discussed.
Major aerospace companies in The USA and Europe have pursued production applications of additive
manufacturing for many years. Boeing, for example, has installed tens of thousands of additive manufacturing parts
on their military and commercial aircraft. Reportedly in an article that over 200 different parts are flying on at least
16 models of aircraft.
For commercial aircraft, polymer parts need to satisfy flammability requirements, so their adoption needed to
wait until flame-retardant polymer materials were developed. For metals, material qualification and part certification
took many years to achieve.
GE purchased Morris technologies in 2012 as part of a major investment in metal additive manufacturing for
the production of gas turbine engine components. The part that has received the most attention is a new fuel nozzle
design as shown in fig.

Fig: fuel nozzle and hinge used in aircraft done by additive manufacturing
The new fuel nozzle concept reported combining 18–20 parts into one integrated design and avoiding many
brazed joints and assembly operations and achieved 25 % weight reduction, and additional cost savings.
Production manufacturing of the nozzles helped in reducing weight as each engine contains 19 fuel nozzles and
more than 4,500 engines have been sold to date, so production volume could exceed 100,000 total parts by 2020.
This is claimed to save 1000 lb. of weight out of each engine.
Airbus investigated topology optimization applications in order to develop part designs that were
significantly lighter than those suitable for conventional manufacturing processes. Shown in fig. B is an A320
nacelle hinge bracket that was originally designed as a cast steel part but was redesigned to be fabricated in a
titanium alloy using PBF reportedly, they trimmed 10 kg off the mass of the bracket, saving approximately 40% in
weight.
Many more production applications of additive manufacturing can be expected in the near future as materials
improve and production methods become standardized, repeatable, and certified.

Automotive applications:
In automotive industry additive manufacturing companies pioneered many types of manufacturing
applications in product development. Company accounts for approximately 17 % of all expenditures on additive
manufacturing.
Since production volumes in the automotive industry are often high,additive manufacturing has typically been
evaluated as too expensive for production manufacturing. Till date, most manufacturers have not committed to
additive manufacturing parts of their mass-produced car models
Suppliers to this automotive industry usesadditive manufacturing parts to test assembly operations and tools to
identify potential problems before production starts because production line change-over involves huge investments.
Metal powder based fusion process, CONCEPT LASER, a German company, introduced their x line 1000R
machine recently, which has a build chamber large enough to accommodate a V6 automotive engine block. This
machine was developed in collaboration with DaimlerAg for production manufacture.
Additionally, the machine was designed with two build boxes (powder chambers) on a single turntable so that one
build box could be used for part fabrication, while the other could be undergoing cool-down, part removal, pre-
heating or other non-part-building activities.
For specialty cars or low-volume production, additive manufacturing can be economical for some parts.
Applications include custom parts on luxury cars or replacement parts on antique cars.
Polymer powder based fusion process:
Here fabricationof custom interior components, such as bezels which covered in leather and other materials.
Typically, Bentley Motors Inc. has production volumes of less than 10,000 cars for a model of a car which is a low
production volume.
Local Motors, company that experimented with crowdsourcing and other novel methods of new vehicle
development, participated in the DarpaFang military vehicle development exercise and utilize additive
manufacturing for their applications. They plan to fabricate the body and structural components using a new, large-
frame material extrusion machine from oak ridge national laboratories.
Among the racing organizations, Formula-1 has been a leader in adopting additive manufacturing, teams started
putting additive manufacturing parts on their race cars in the early to mid-2000s. These were typically nonstructural
polymer powder based fusion parts.
Formula 1 teams utilized additive manufacturing models for wind tunnel testing of scale models, as well as parts for
full-size car models.