MATH1231 CALCULUS

Chapter 2B
TERM II 2021

Professor Jeya Jeyakumar

Red Center Room 2073

V.Jeyakumar@unsw.edu.au

June 2, 2021
(2.4) Rational functions and partial fractions

A rational function has the form

p(x)
where p(x), q(x) are polynomial functions
q(x)

A rational function is proper if the degree of p(x) is less than

the degree of q(x)

Any rational function can be integrated by systematic

reduction with partial fractions
 2x 3 +7x 2 +3
R
Example I = 2x+3 dx
Partial Fractions

◮ It can be shown using algebra that every proper rational function

f (x) can be written as a unique sum of functions of the form

A Bx + C
and ,
(x − a)k (x 2 + bx + c)k

where the quadratic x 2 + bx + c is irreducible (i.e. b 2 − 4c < 0).

◮ This sum is called the partial fractions decomposition of f .

◮ Any rational function can be integrated by systematic reduction

with partial fractions.
Case 1. q(x) = α(x − a) a single linear factor

r (x)
Z
dx deg r (x) < deg q(x) ⇒ r (x) = r = const
q(x)

r (x)
Z Z
dx
dx = r
q(x) α(x − a)
r
= ln |x − a| + C (x 6= a)
α

12
I = (x 2 + 2x − 3 +
R
Example 2x+3 ) dx
The Partial Fraction Algorithm

◮ Step 1 – SIMPLIFY TO MAKE PROPER

if deg p(x) > deg q(x) use long division

p(x) r (x)
= s(x) + deg r (x) < deg q(x)
q(x) q(x)

◮ Step 2 – FACTORIZE THE DENOMINATOR

factorize q(x) as product of linear factors (x − a)
and irreducible quadratic factors (x 2 + bx + c)
(irreducible if b 2 − 4c < 0).

◮ Step 3 – EXPRESS AS A SUM OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

r (x)
Decompose q(x) as a sum of rational functions whose denominators
contain only one of the factors of q(x) from Step 2.
Case 1. q(x) = α(x − a) a single linear factor

r (x)
Z
dx deg r (x) < deg q(x) ⇒ r (x) = r = const
q(x)

r (x)
Z Z
dx
dx = r
q(x) α(x − a)
r
= ln |x − a| + C (x 6= a)
α

12
I = (x 2 + 2x − 3 +
R
Example 2x+3 ) dx
 Z
dx
Example I =
(x − 2)(x − 3)
Case 2. q(x) = α(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) . . . (x − an ) – distinct linear
factors

r (x) A1 A2 An
Write = + + ··· +
q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an

Then
r (x)
Z Z
X Aj
dx = dx
q(x) x − aj
j

How to find Aj ?
 2x 2 + 2x − 6
Z
Example I = dx
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)
Example, to find A2
r (x) A1 A2 An
multiply both sides of = + + ··· + by x − a2
q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an
then
r (x)(x − a2 ) x − a2 x − a2 x − a2
= A1 +A2 +· · ·+An
α(x − a1 )(x − a2 )(x − a3 ) · · · (x − an ) x − a1 x − a2 x − an

Now consider the limit x = a2 .

 
r (x)✘(x ✘
−✘ 2)
a✘
A2 = lim
x→a2 α(x − a1 )✘
(x ✘
−✘ 2 ) (x − a3 ) · · · (x − an )
a✘

This technique is called the cover up rule. In effect, we find A2 by

covering up the factor (x − a2 ) in the denominator of p(x)
q(x) and
substituting x = a2 .
Case 3. q(x) = α(x − a)k – a power of a linear factor

r (x) A1 A2 Ak
Write = + + ··· +
q(x) (x − a) (x − a)2 (x − a)k

Multiply both sides by (x − a)k then consider the limit x = a to

find Ak

Multiply both sides by (x − a)k then differentiate and consider

the limit x = a to find Ak−1

Multiply both sides by (x − a)k then differentiate twice and

consider the limit x = a to find Ak−2 . . .
Example
3x 2 − 3x + 1
Z
dx
(x − 1)3
Example

1
Z
dx
x(x + 1)3
Sample Class Test Problem
Example
x +3
Z
I = dx
(x + 1)(x + 2)2
Case 4. q(x) = α(x − a1 )k1 (x − a2 )k2 . . . (x − an )kn
– powers of distinct linear factors

r (x) A11 A12 A1k1

Write = + + ··· + +
q(x) (x − a1 ) (x − a1 )2 (x − a1 )k1
A21 A2k2
+ + ··· + + ···
(x − a2 ) (x − a2 )k2
An1 Ankn
··· + + ··· +
(x − an ) (x − an )kn
The constants Ajk can be found by multiplying both sides by the
denominator and considering special choices for x. This usually involves
solving simultaneous equations
Irreducible Quadratic Factors
Example
x + 22
Z
I = dx
x 2 + 2x + 5
Case 5. q(x) = α(x 2 + bx + c)
– irreducible quadratic if b 2 − 4c < 0

r (x)
Z
dx deg. r (x) < deg q(x)
q(x)

w.l.o.g. write r (x) = L(2x + b) + M

r (x) 2x + b
Z Z Z
L M dx
dx = 2
dx +
q(x) α x + bx + c α x2 + bx + c

L M x + b2

= ln |x 2 + bx + c| + q tan−1 q +C
α α c− b2
c − b4
2
4
Past November Exam Question
Example: Find
3x + 2
Z
I = dx
(x − 1)(x 2 + 2x + 2)
Case 6. q(x) = α(x 2 + bx + c)k , b 2 − 4c < 0
– irreducible quadratic powers
r (x) B1 x + C1 B2 x + C2 Bk x + Ck
= 2 + +···+ 2
q(x) x + bx + c (x 2 + bx + c)2 (x + bx + c)k
to find constants Bj , Cj multiply by (x 2 + bx + c)k , equate coefs of
equal powers of x, solve simultaneous equations.
This yields a sum of integrals Bj x + Cj = L(2x + b) + M

Bj x + Cj 2x + b
Z Z Z
dx
dx = L dx+M
(x 2 + bx + c)j (x 2 + bx + c)j (x 2 + bx + c)j

the first integral is easy with the substitution u = x 2 + bx + c.

 1
Z Z
dx dx
I = 2 j
= 2 j
(x + bx + c) (c − b4 )j
 !2
(x+ b )
 q 2
2
+ 1
c− b4

(x+ b )
substitute tan θ = q 2 then sec2 θ dθ = q 1 dx
2 2
c− b4 c− b4

q q
b2 b2
c− 4
Z
sec2 θ dθ c− 4
Z
I = b2 j
= b2 j
cos2j−2 θ dθ
(c − (tan2 θ + 1)j
4 ) (c − 4 )
General Case.

q(x) = α(x + a1 )k1 · · · (x + am )km (x 2 + b1 x + c1 )ℓ1 · · · (x 2 + bn x + cn )ℓn

r (x) A11 A12 A1k1

= + + ··· + + ···
q(x) x + a1 (x + a1 )2 (x + a1 )k1
Am1 Am2 Amkm
+ + +··· + +
x + am (x + am )2 (x + am )km
B11 x + C11 B12 x + C12 B1ℓ x + C1ℓ1
+ 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 1 + ···
x + b1 x + c1 (x + b1 x + c1 )2 (x + b1 x + c1 )ℓ1
Bn1 x + Cn1 Bn2 x + Cn2 Bnℓ x + Cnℓn
+ 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 n
x + bn x + cn (x + bn x + cn )2 (x + bn x + cn )ℓn

multiply by (x + am )km (x 2 + bn + cn )ln , equate coefs of x, solve

simultaneous equations
(2.5) Further Substitution Techniques

Look for a substitution that will convert the integrand to a rational

function and then use the method of partial fractions.

Example
Z
dt
I =
1 + t 1/4
(2.5) Further Substitution Techniques

Look for a substitution that will convert the integrand to a rational

function and then use the method of partial fractions.

Example
Z
dt
I =
1 + t 1/4

Substitute x = t 1/4 (or x 4 = t) then dt = 4x 3 dx

4x 3
Z
I = dx
1+x
Example ctd.
Z
4x 3
I = dx
1+x
Example Z
dx
I = √ dx
e 2x − 1
(2.6) MAPLE NOTES
MAPLE excels at integration and partial fractions but it isn’t omniscient and it
doesn’t always simplify well

> g:=x->x^3/((x+1)^2*(x^2+1));
x3
g := x 7→ (x+1)2 (x2 +1)
> convert(g(x),parfrac,x);
−1/2 (x + 1) − 1/2 x2 + 1

−1
+ (x + 1)
−2 −1

> h:=x->1/18*(x^2+5)^9;

9
h := x 7→ 1/18 x2 + 5
> f:=diff(h(x),x);

8
f := x2 + 5 x
> int(f,x);
1/18 x18 + 5/2 x16 + 50 x14 + 1750
3 x
12
+ 4375 x10 + 21875 x8 + 218750
3 x6 + 156250 x4 + 390625
2 x2
> simplify(%);

1/18 x18 + 5/2 x16 + 50 x14 + 1750

3 x
12
+ 4375 x10 + 21875 x8 + 218750
3 x6 + 156250 x4 + 390625
2 x2
> factor(%);

1/18 x2 x4 + 15 x2 + 75 x12 + 30 x10 + 375 x8 + 2625 x6 + 11250 x4 + 28125 x2 + 46875

>