Circuit Theorems

Prepared By:
Sabtain Mehdi
Electrical Engineer

Sabtain Mehdi 1
 Circuit Theorems
• Linear Circuits and Superposition
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

Sabtain Mehdi 2
 Linear Circuits
• A linear circuit is one whose output is
directly proportional to its input.
• Linear circuits obey both the properties of
homogeneity (scaling) and additivity.

Sabtain Mehdi 3
 Superposition Principle
Because the circuit is linear we can find the response of the
circuit to each source acting alone, and then add them up to find
the response of the circuit to all sources acting together. This is
known as the superposition principle.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or

the current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.

Sabtain Mehdi 4
 Turning sources off
Current source:
a
i  is We replace it by a current
is source where is  0

b An open-circuit

Voltage source:
+ We replace it by a voltage i
source where vs  0
DC
vs v  vs
-
Sabtain Mehdi
An short-circuit
5
Steps in Applying the Superposition Principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except

one. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to the active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other
independent sources.
3. Find the total output by adding
algebraically all of the results found in
steps 1 & 2 above.
In some cases, but certainly not all, superposition can simplify
the analysis.
Sabtain Mehdi 6
Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

Turn off the two voltage sources

 
(replace by short circuits).
DC
12V

3A

i

 v1 
v2
12V

3A

i1
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1 4  1 3  1 4  1 4   v1   0 
     
 1 4 1 4  1 8   v2   3 


5 1
v1  v2  0
6 4
 v1 
v2
1 3
12V  v1  v2  3
 4 8
3A

i1 10
v2   10 2 
v1 v1     3
3  8 8
i1  1
v1  3
Sabtain Mehdi 8
Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 24V & 3A sources:

DC
12V

3A

i

i1
 

DC
12V
i2 
O.C.

i2
Sabtain Mehdi 9
  

  

DC
O.C.
12V DC
12V
 
O.C.

i2 i2

12  4
3
16


DC
12 12V

i2  2 O.C.
6 i2

Sabtain Mehdi 10
Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 3A & 12V sources:

DC
12V

3A
 24V
i
DC

i2
 

i3 
O.C.

i3
Sabtain Mehdi 11
  4  8  4 4   i2   24 
     
 4 4  3   i3   0 
 24V
16i2  4i3  24
DC

i2
 
4i2  7i3  0

i3 
O.C. 7
i3
i2  i3 i3  28  4   24
4

i3  1
Sabtain Mehdi 12
  24V

DC

 
i  i1  i2  i3  1A  2A  1A  2A
DC
12V

3A

   24V

DC
i1 i2
 v1     
v2
12V DC
 12V

3A i2 i3 
O.C. O.C.
i1 i2 i3

i1  1 i2  2 i3  1
Sabtain Mehdi 13
 Circuit Theorems
• Linear Circuits and Superposition
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

Sabtain Mehdi 14
 Thevenin's Theorem
In many applications we want to find the response to a particular
element which may, at least at the design stage, be variable.

a
Each time the variable element
changes we have to re-analyze the
+
Linear entire circuit. To avoid this we
Circuit Variable
V
R would like to have a technique that
- replaces the linear circuit by
b
something simple that facilitates the
analysis.

A good approach would be to have a simple equivalent circuit to

replace everything in the circuit except for the variable part (the load).
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 Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal resistive
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the
open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are all turned off.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Sabtain Mehdi

Rin 16
 Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that the two circuits given below are
equivalent as seen from the load RL that is the same in both cases.
i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

VTh = Thevenin’s voltage = Vab with RL disconnected (= ) = the

open-circuit voltage = VOC
Sabtain Mehdi 17
 Thevenin's Theorem
i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

RTh = Thevenin’s resistance = the input resistance with all

independent sources turned off (voltage sources replaced by short
circuits and current sources replaced by open circuits). This is the
resistance seen at the terminals ab when all independent sources are
turned off.
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 Example
VTh 5
 
RTh    2
a
iSC 2.5

RTh  2
DC
10V 2
 vOC  10V  5V  VTh a
22

DC
VTh  5V
b
  a

10 2 10
DC
10V iSC    2.5A
 23 4
2 b
3   a

b 2 2
 RTh  1   2
22

Sabtain Mehdi 19
b
 Circuit Theorems
• Linear Circuits and Superposition
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

Sabtain Mehdi 20
 Norton's Theorem
Norton’s equivalent circuit can be found by transforming the
Thevenin equivalent into a current source in parallel with the Thevenin
resistance. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is given below.
i a

VTh RL
IN  RN  RTh
RTh

Formally, Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal

resistive circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals, and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when all independent sources
are all turned off. Sabtain Mehdi 21
 Circuit Theorems
• Linear Circuits and Superposition
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

Sabtain Mehdi 22
 Maximum Power Transfer
In all practical cases, energy sources have non-zero internal
resistance. Thus, there are losses inherent in any real source. Also,
in most cases the aim of an energy source is to provide power to a
load. Given a circuit with a known internal resistance, what is the
resistance of the load that will result in the maximum power being
delivered to the load?

Consider the source to be modeled by its Thevenin equivalent.

i a

RTh
RL
DC
VTh

b
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 i a

RTh
RL
DC
VTh

The power delivered to the load (absorbed by RL) is

 RTh  RL  
2
p  i RL  VTh
2
RL

This power is maximum when p RL  0

p
 VTh  RTh  RL   2 RL  RTh  RL    0
2  2 3

 RL  

Sabtain Mehdi 24
 dp
 VTh  RTh  RL   2 RL  RTh  RL    0
2  2 3

dRL  
RTh  RL  2 RL

RL  RTh

Thus, maximum power transfer takes place when the resistance of

the load equals the Thevenin resistance RTh. Note also that
 RTh  RL 
2
pmax  VTh RL RL  RTh

 2 RTh  
2
pmax  VTh RTh  VTh 2 4 RTh

Thus, at best, one-half of the power is dissipated in the internal

resistance and one-half in the load.
Sabtain Mehdi 25