Battery

collection of one or more electrochemical

cells in which stored chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy
 Carbon-Zinc dry cell
Lithium
Primary
Mercury Oxide
Silver Oxide

Chemical
Lead Acid
Secondary (Flooded/Sealed)
Nickel Cadmium
Lithium Secondary

Batteries
Other Fuel Cell

Physical
Energy Solar cell
Thermal
Nuclear Energy
Deep-cycle
Designed for maximum energy storage capacity and high cycle
count (long life), and are rated in Amp/Hours. This is achieved by
installing thick lead plates with limited surface area.

Typical applications are boats, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

Engine Starting
Starter batteries are made for maximum power output, usually
rated in CCA (Cold-Cranking amps). The battery manufacturer
obtains this by adding multiple “lead plates” to obtain larger
surface area for maximum conductivity.

Typical applications are vehicles & motorcycles

Lead-acid batteries are commonly made of five
basic components

 A resilient plastic container

 Positive and negative internal plates made of lead

 Plate separators made of porous synthetic material

 Electrolyte - 35% sulfuric acid and 65% water

 Battery Terminals
Lead-Acid Batteries come in several different configurations

 Flooded Lead-acid – Available in Deep cycle or Engine

starting as sealed or open variety

 Sealed Lead-acid - The liquid electrolyte is gelled into

moistened lead plate-separators, which allow the case to
be sealed. Safety valves allow venting during
charge, discharge and atmospheric pressure changes.

 Absorbed Glass Mat Batteries (AGM) - sealed lead-acid

that uses absorbed glass mats between the plates. It is
sealed, maintenance-free and the plates are rigidly
mounted to withstand extensive shock and vibration
 The definition of Capacity is usually given in
Amp-hours (Ah) or Cold cranking amps
(CCA), cranking amps (CA), and Reserve
Capacity (RC)
(Ah) is specifies the amount of current
(measured in Amperes) it can provide over a
20 Hours period
(CCA) is a measurement of the number of amps
a battery can deliver at 0 F for 30 seconds
and not drop below 7.2 volts
(CA) is measured at 32 degrees F. This rating is
also called marine cranking amps (MCA)
(RC) is a very important rating. This is the
number of minutes a fully charged battery at
80 F will discharge 25 amps until the battery
drops below 10.5 volts
Parameters for Recharging

 Charging Current - All batteries have a “maximum

current” at which they can be safely charged

 Charging Voltage - Applying a voltage across its

positive & negative terminals that is higher than the voltage
it already has across them

 Charging Time - The charge time of a sealed lead-

acid battery is 12-16 hours (up to 36 hours for larger
capacity batteries)
Discharge Chemistry

Negative plate reaction: Pb(s) + HSO4-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e-

Positive plate reaction: PbO2(s) + HSO4-(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e- → PbSO4(s)

+ 2H2O(l)

overall reaction:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2HSO4-(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Charging Chemistry

Negative plate reaction: PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s) + HSO4-(aq)

Positive plate reaction: PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + HSO4-(aq) +

3H+(aq) + 2e-

Overall reaction:
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2HSO4-(aq)
The most
accurate method
is measurement
of specific
gravity and
battery voltage

Load testing is
yet another way
of testing a
battery
Low charge Low Capacity

Mismatched Batteries
Conversion Efficiency

This denotes how well it converts an electrical charge into chemical

energy and back again. The higher this factor, the less energy is converted
into heat and the faster a battery can be charged without overheating. The
lower the internal resistance of a battery, the better its conversion efficiency.

Sulfation

Sulfation of lead-acid batteries starts when the electrolyte’s specific

gravity falls below 1.225. It results in a salt-like substance forming on the
battery plate surface and it can harden on the battery plates if left long
enough, reducing and eventually blocking chemical reaction between the
lead plate and the electrolyte. Equalization is the solution for this
problem.
Gassing
Batteries start to gas when you attempt to charge them faster than
they can absorb the energy. The excess energy is turned into
heat, which then causes the electrolyte to boil and evaporate. is the
suitable method for reduce this is good ventilated area.

Self-Discharge
The self-discharge rate is a measure of how much batteries
discharge on their own. The self-discharge rate is governed by the
construction of the battery and the properties of the components
used inside the cell (alloy of the lead, sulfuric concentrations of the
electrolyte, etc.).
The optimum operating temperature for the lead-acid battery is 25 C
(77 F).

As a guideline, every 8 C (15 F) rise in temperature will cut the

battery life in half.

A VRLA, which would last for 10 years at 25 C (77 F), will only be
good for 5 years if operated at 33 C (95 F).

Theoretically the same battery would last a little more than one year
at a desert temperature of 42 C (107 F)
positive reacts
Ni(OH)2 - e + OH- -> NiOOH + H2O

Negative reaction
Cd(OH)2 + 2e -> Cd + 2OH-

whole reaction
2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2-> 2NiOOH+ Cd+ 2H2O

When discharged
NiOOH + H2O + e Cd + 2OH- + 2e ->
Ni(OH)2 + OH- Cd(OH)2

Main applications are two-way radios, biomedical equipment and power tools
Positive reaction
LiCoO2 -> Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe-

Negative reaction
C + xLi+ + xe- -> Clix

whole reaction
LiCoO2 + C -> Li1-xCoO2 + CLix

Applications include notebook computers portable power tools, medical devices

and cell phones.
 Ensure proper maintenance of engine starting batteries due to the
extreme importance of getting a ship under way in any
circumstances

 Attention should be paid to the electrolyte level and specific

gravity for vented batteries

 A boost charge shall be given if the specific gravity of the

battery cells meet the conditions stipulated by manufacturer

 Ensure that the battery is not being overcharged

 Keep engine starting batteries clean, dry and free of seawater

 Period of inactivity for the ship of a week or more, give the

battery a normal charge
 Inspected for height of electrolyte once each week

 The electrolyte level shall never be allowed to fall below the top
of the separators

 Add pure distilled water at any time to replace that which has
evaporated

 Add water just before the battery is placed on charge, as the

water remains on top of the electrolyte until mixed with it by
charging

 After adding water, replace and tighten the vent plugs

 Remove all water or electrolyte spilled during watering and

make sure that the tops and sides of the cells are clean and dry
 Ensure that distilled water that is to be used for watering
batteries and mixing electrolyte does not contain impurities

 Use only premixed electrolyte when replacing spilled electrolyte

 Fully charged specific gravity between the limits of 1.220 and

1.210 specific gravity at 27 C (80 F)

 The specific gravity of a cell that has fallen below 1.210 shall
not be increased by the addition of acid untill it has been definitely
ascertained by test that the low-gravity condition is not due to
sulfation

 The addition of acid to increase the specific gravity of a

sulfated cell will aggravate the existing condition
 The specific gravity of cells which exceed 1.220 shall be
cut by the removal of an appropriate amount of electrolyte
and the addition of distilled water

 Sulfuric acid of a specific gravity greater than 1.350 shall

not be added to a battery
 Personnel handling or mixing electrolyte shall wear proper
protective items
 If concentrated acid or electrolyte come in contact with the
skin, immediately wash the affected with freshwater
 As soon as possible get the medical assistance
 During electrolyte mixing the acid must be poured into the water
and not the water poured into the acid
 The acid must be added slowly and cautiously to the water to
prevent excessive heating and splashing
 The solution should be continually stirred by a glass rod while
the acid is being poured into the water to prevent the heavier acid
from flowing to the bottom of the vessel
 To prepare electrolyte, lead or rubber vessels and stirring rods
are necessary

 Only pure distilled water shall be used

 Every effort must be made to keep impurities from the

electrolyte while mixing, since they shorten battery life

 Extreme care must be taken to ensure that acid container

(carboys) are absolutely airtight

 The addition of even a small quantity of water to a carboy of

strong sulfuric acid may cause an explosion due to the sudden
evolution of heat